5.

Nano Devices and

Quantum Computing

Introduction - quantum confinement - quantum

structures: quantum wells, wires and dots - band gap of
nanomaterials. Tunneling - Single electron phenomena:
Coulomb blockade - resonant-tunneling diode - single
electron transistor - quantum cellular automata -
Quantum system for information processing - quantum
states - classical bits - quantum bits or qubits - CNOT
gate - multiple qubits - Bloch sphere - quantum gates -
advantage of quantum computing over classical
computing.

INTRODUCTION

 1 
A nanometre (nm) is one billionth  9  of a metre. For
 10 
comparison, thickness of a single human hair is about 80,000
nm 80 m, a red blood cell is approximately 7,000 nm
7 m wide and a water molecule is almost 0.3 nm across.

Scientists and engineers are nowadays interested in

nanoscale which is from 1 nm to 100 nm. At nanoscale, the
properties of materials are very different from those at larger
scale. Therefore, the nano-world is in between quantum world
and macro world.

Nanoscience

It is concerned with the study of phenomena and

manipulation of materials at nanometre scale.
5.2 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Nanotechnology
It is the design, characterization, production and
application of structures, devices and systems by
controlling shape and size at the nanometre scale.

Nanotechnology means making use of the unique physical

properties of atoms, molecules and other materials measuring
roughly 1 to 100 nanometre.

The word “nano” comes from nanos, a Greek word meaning

dwarf.

Presently, we are using many devices made of nanoelectronic

devices. The microelectronics industry was born out of the invention
of the bi-polar transistor in 1947 and by the invention of the
integrated circuit (IC) in 1958.

Gordon Moore (co-founder of INTEL Corporation)

observed that the number of transistors per square inch on IC
chip roughly doubled by every 18 to 24 months. This general
rule of thumb is now called as “Moore’s law”.

By 1960, the minimum feature size of a transistor was

approximately 100 m. At present, manufacturing technology is
at transistor size of 22 nm.

Because of the diminishing feature size of transistors and

other components, we can say that the electronics industry is
already “doing” nanotechnology.

Nanomaterials

Definition
Nanophase materials are newly developed materials
9
with grain size at the nanometre range 10 m, i.e., in
the order of 1 - 100 nm. The particle size in a nano
material is 1 - 100 nm. They are simply called
nanomaterials.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.3

Different forms of Nanomaterials

Nano-structured material
The structures whose characteristic variations in design
length is at the nanoscale.

Nano particles
9
The particles size in the order of 10 m are called
nanoparticles.
Nano dots
Nanoparticles which consist of homogeneous material,
especially those that are almost spherical or cubical in shape.
Nanorods
Nanostructures which are shaped like long sticks or rods
with diameter in nanoscale and a length very much longer.
Nanotubes
Nanotubes are nanoscale materials that has a tube like
(hollow cylinder) structure.
Nanowires
Nanowires are solid rod-like material with diameter of few
nanometres or less.
Fullerenes
A form of carbon having a large molecule consisting of an
empty cage of 60 or more carbon atoms.
Nanocomposites
Composite structures whose characteristic dimensions are
found at nanoscale.
Cluster
A collection of units (atoms or reactive molecules) upto few
tens of units.
Colloids
A stable liquid phase containing particles in the 1-1000
nm range.
5.4 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Nano electronics
Nanoelectronics refers to the use of nanotechnology
in electronic components, especially transistors.
It often refers to transistor devices that are so small that
inter-atomic interactions and quantum mechanical properties
need to be studied extensively.

Besides, being small and allowing more transistors to be

packed into a single chip, the uniform and symmetrical structure
of nanotubes allows a higher electron mobility, a symmetrical
electron/hole characteristic.

Need for Nanotechnology in Electronics

Today microelectronics are used to solve most of the
problems.

The two exceptional disadvantages of micro electronics are:

 Physical size

 Increasing cost of fabrication of integrated circuits.

To overcome these disadvantages, nanotechnology is used.

Advantages of Using Nanotechnology in Electronics

 Increasing the density of memory chips.

 Decreasing the weight and thickness of the screens.

 Nanolithography is used for fabrication of chips.

 Reducing the size of transistors used in integrated

circuits.

 Improving display screens on electronic devices.

 Reducing power consumption.

Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.5

5.1 QUANTUM CONFINEMENT

Definition
It is a process of reduction of the size of the solid
such that the energy levels inside become discrete.

In this case, small “droplets” of isolated electrons are

created. Thus, the energy of a small volume of such materials
are quantized just like in an atom. This type of artificial or
fake atoms have tunable electrical properties.

The quantum confinement effect is observed when the size

of the particle is too small to be comparable to the wavelength
(de-Broglie wavelength) of the electron.

It is to be noted that only a small percentage of electrons

that are free to move during confinement and majority of
electrons still tightly bound within inner orbitals.

Usually in order to reduce the dimensions of a given volume,

either bottom-up approach or top-down approach is followed.

In bottom-up approach, low-volume structures are built atom

by atom. In the top-down approach, material is removed from one
or more of three dimensions (length, width, height) of a larger solid.

In both cases, a structure small enough for quantum

behavior to manifest can be produced.

5.2 QUANTUM STRUCTURES :

Quantum wells, wires and dots

Definition
When a bulk material is reduced in its size, atleast
one of its dimension, in the order of few nanometres, then
the structure is known as quantum structure.
5.6 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Explanation
The volume of a box can be reduced by shortening its
length, width or, and height. The same is true for the region
occupied by the electrons in a solid.

There are three dimensions to confine the bulk material. The

quantum confinement needs confining at least one of these dimensions
to less than 100 nanometers or even just a few nanometers.

The more the dimensions are confined, the more the

density of states function looks like that of an atom. This
progressive discretization gives new ways to understand real
atoms, behavior of electrons and developing quantum confined
electronic devices.
A structure in which the motion of the electrons or holes
are confined in one or more directions by potential barriers is
called quantum confined structure.

The quantum confined structure is classified into three

types based on the confinement directions. They are
(i) quantum well
(ii) quantum wire
(iii) quantum dot

(i) Quantum well (2 - dimension)

Definition
When the electrons are confined
inside a region of minimal width, ie.,
confinement in one dimension
“quantum-well” is created.
In other words, if one dimension
is reduced to the nanometre range
while the other two dimensions
remain large, then we get a structure
HGY PO
known as quantum well.
Fig. 5.1 shows a quantum well Fig. 5.1 quantum Well (2D)
or 2-D structure
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.7

Construction
Quantum wells are made from alternative layers of different
semiconductors or by deposition of very thin metal films.

Explanation
The quantum well is a larger structure in which the carrier
particles are free to move in two dimensions. The particles are
confined in one dimension hence, they are considered to be
quantum confinement.

Due to the confinement of carriers, the quantum well

structure has important applications in making useful devices.

Use
Quantum wells are now widely used to make semiconductor
lasers and other important devices.

(ii) Quantum wire (1 dimension)

Definition
When the electrons are
confined in two mutually
perpendicular directions, then the
structure is known as quantum wire.

In other words, if two

dimensions are reduced and one Fig. 5.2 Quantum wire (1D)
remains large, the resulting
structure is quantum wire.

Fig. 5.2 shows a quantum wire or 1-D structure

Explanation
The carriers trapped in such structures are considered to
be in 1-D quantum confinement. In this case, a carrier is only
free to move its trajectory along the wire.
5.8 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Example
Examples of quantum wire structures are nanowires,
nanorod and nanotube.

(iii) Quantum Dots (0 - dimension)

Definition
When all the three dimensions are
minimized the resulting structure is known HGY PO

as quantum dot.

The dot can be particle located inside

a larger structure or on its surface. It can
Fig. 5.3 Quantum dot
also be a place where electrons have been
trapped using electrical fields.

Fig. 5.3 shows a quantum dot or 0-D structure

Explanation
In quantum dot, the carriers has only confined states i.e.,
there are no freely moving carriers. Though a quantum dot has
many thousands of atoms, carriers it is considered more like a
single atom due to its peculiar properties.

Use
Quantum dot can be used in a quantum computer and
lasers etc.

Fig. 5.4 and Fig. 5.5 explains the processes of diminishing

the size in the case of rectilinear geometry and curvilinear
geometry, respectively.

Fig. 5.6 shows a comparison of three quantum confined

structures with bulk material.

As quantum wells and quantum wires each have at least

one dimension in which the electrons are free to move and these
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.9

Fig. 5.4 Progressive generation of rectangular nanostructures

Fig. 5.5 Progressive generation of curvilinear nanostructures

Fig. 5.6 Three quantum structures

structures exhibit “partial confinement”. However, quantum

dots exhibit “total confinement”.

The classification of quantum confined structures is shown

in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1

Quantum Number of
Structure confinement unconfined
directions dimensions
Bulk 0 3
Quantum well 1 2
Quantum wire 2 1
Quantum dot 3 0
5.10 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

5.3 BANDGAP OF NANOMATERIALS

The electronic properties of metals and semiconductors are
determined by their electronic band structure. The band
structure changes with particle size. Molecular orbitals get
converted into delocalized band states as shown in fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7 Electronic state transition with a change in size

The band structure of nanocrystals lies between the

discrete density of states as in atoms and molecules and
continuous band as in crystals.

As the size of the material decreases, the energy separation

between the adjacent levels increases. This size quantization
effect is responsible for the transition of electronic states from
a bulk metal or semiconductor to nanoparticles.

The particles that show this size quantization effect

are called Q - particles or quantum dots.
In case of the particle size being less than the de Broglie
wavelength, charge carriers can be quantum-mechanically
understood as particles in a box and the size of the box can
provide the dimensions of the particle.

With a decrease in particle size of metals, the

quasi-continuous density of states splits into discrete electronic
levels with an increase in the spacing between these levels.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.11

Quantum size effect is most significant for semiconductor

nanoparticles. In semiconductor, a bandgap already exists in the
bulk state. It also increases and the energy bands gradually
convert into discrete molecular electronic levels with a decrease
in particle size.

As the size of metal nanoparticles decreases, they tend to

lose their metallic character and become semiconductors.

In metals, the quantum size effect exists but it can be seen

only in particles smaller than 2 nm where localization of energy
levels can be observed when the spacing between the levels
exceeds thermal energy (about 26 meV).

Quantum Size Effect

When the size of a nanocrystal becomes smaller than the
de Broglie wavelength, electrons and holes get spatially confined,
electrical dipoles get generated, the discrete energy levels are
formed.

As the size of the material decreases, the energy separation

between adjacent levels increases. The density of states of
nanocrystals is positioned in between discrete (as that of atoms
and molecules) and continuous (as in crystals).

Quantum size effect is most significant for semiconductor

nanoparticles. In semiconductors, the bandgap energy is of the
order of a few electron volts. It increases with a decrease in
particle size.

When photons of light fall on a semiconductor, the photons

are absorbed. A sudden rise in absorption is observed when the
photon energy is equal to the bandgap.

As the size of the particle decreases, absorption shifts

towards the shorter wavelength (blue shifts). This indicates an
increase in the bandgap energy (Fig.5.8). A change in absorption
causes a change in the colour of the semiconductor nanoparticle.
5.12 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

For example, bulk cadmium sulfide is orange in colour and

has a bandgap of 2.42 eV. It becomes yellow and then ultimately
white as its particle size decreases and the bandgap increases.

Fig. 5.8 Increases in bandgap with a decrease in particle

size (blue shift)

5.4 TUNNELING - SINGLE ELECTRON PHENOMENA

The phenomenon of penetration of charge carriers

directly through the potential barrier, instead of climbing
over it, is called tunneling.

In electronics, transistor is the most important device.

Transistors are what computers use to compute-tiny switches
turning ON and OFF making logic decisions.

Today, microchips have over a billion transistors, each one

turning ON and OFF a billion times every second.

These chips require manufacturing processes with roughly sub

100-nanometer resolution. Every year, this technology resolution
drops enabling even smaller transistors. Thus, more transistors are
squeezed into the same amount of semiconductor space.

Interestingly, when each transistor is reducing to a few atoms,

or a single molecule, quantum effects will play a significant role.

In 1970, to switch ON a silicon transistor required about

10 million electrons. Present day, transistors require closer to
10,000 electrons. Rather than moving many electrons through
transistors, it may very well be practical and necessary to move
electrons one at a time.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.13

The single electron devices are sensitive to the transfer of

even single electron change. Single electron devices provide a
potential application of ultra large scale integrated circuits with
device size in the order of nanometres. They exhibit high speed
operation with lower power dissipation.

5.5 COULOMB – BLOCKADE EFFECTS

As the size of the quantum dot decreases, the charging

energy Wc of a single excess charge on the dot increases.

If the quantum-dot size is sufficiently small and the

charging energy Wc is much greater than thermal energy k T,
there is no electron tunnels to and from the quantum dot.

Thus, the electron number in the dot takes a fixed value,

say zero, when both the electrodes are grounded.

Definition
The charging effect which blocks the injection or
rejection of a single charge into or from a quantum dot
is called Coulomb blockade effect.

Condition for coulomb blockade

If two or more charges near one another, they exert
coulomb forces upon each other. If two charges are the same
kind, the force is repulsive. Therefore, the condition for observing
coulomb blockade effect is expressed as

2
e
WC  kT
2C

where C – capacitance of the quantum dot

T – temperature of the system.
WC – charging energy and this is the energy needed
to add one negatively charged electron to the dot.
5.14 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Single Electron Tunneling

Tunneling is the way the electrons cross both the
physical barriers and the energy barriers separating a
quantum dot from the bulk material that surrounds it.

If any number of electrons on one side of the barrier could

just tunnel across it, there would not be any isolation.

So it is necessary to control the addition and removal of

electrons in a quantum dot.

When the size gets reduced, the capacitance also reduces

to a small value.

At small sizes, the energy required to store an additional

2
Q
electron on it, W  , may become larger than the thermal
2C
energy k T.

As a consequence, the quantization of charge can dominate

and tunneling of single electrons across leaky capacitors carries
the current. This is called single electron tunneling
(Fig. 5.9).

It is used to design new types of devices, for example

single-electron transistor using quantum dots.

Fig. 5.9 Schematic representation of an electron

tunneling through a barrier
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.15

So single-electron devices are devices that can

control the motion of even a single electron and consist
of quantum dots which have tunnel junctions.

5.6 SINGLE ELECTRON TRANSISTOR (SET)

Although a single-electron box can control the number of

electrons in the quantum dot, it does not have the properties
of a switching device.

Single switching devices are essential elements in Ultra

large scale integrated circuits (ULSIs). The single-electron
switching devices are required to utilize single electron devices
in logic circuits.

Definition
SET is three-terminal switching device which can
transfer electrons from source to drain one by one.

That is the purpose of the SET is to individually control

the tunneling of electrons into and out of the quantum dot.

Construction & working

The structure of SET is shown in fig.5.10. It has the
similar structure of a conventional Field Effect Transistor (FET).

It has tunneling junctions in place of pn-junctions and

quantum dot in place of the channel region of the FET.

To control tunneling, a voltage bias to the gate electrode

is applied. A separate voltage bias is applied between source
and drain electrodes for the current direction.

For current to flow, gate bias voltage must be large enough

to overcome the Coulomb blockade energy.
5.16 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Fig. 5.10 A single-electron transistor (SET)

(a) SET in “OFF” mode.
(b) SET in “ON” mode.

The energy E needed to move a charge Q, across a potential

difference V is given by

E  VQ.

Presently, the charge of an electron Q  e. So, the voltage

that will move an electron onto or off the quantum dot is given by

E Wc
 V 
e e

Since E  Wc,

where, Wc  charging energy

2
e . . e2 
 . Wc  
2C e  2C 
V  ...(1)
e 2C
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.17

With this voltage applied to the quantum dot, an electron

can tunnel through Coulomb blockade of the quantum dot. The
gate voltage as given in eqn.(1) can be used to tune the number
of electrons on the dot at a time.

At the lowest setting, electrons tunnel one at a time, from

source to drain through the dot. At the proper gate voltage,
e
V  the potential energy of the dot is low enough to allow
2C
an electron to tunnel through Coulomb blockade energy barrier
to the quantum dot.

Once the quantum dot gets an electron, its potential energy

rises. Then, the electron tunnels through the Coulomb blockade
on the other side reach the lower potential energy at the drain.
Since, the dot is empty and potential is lower again, the process
repeats.

Thus, when the gate voltage Vg is zero, no current flows.

The first gate voltage which is large enough to move an electron
through the Coulomb blockade is called VCoulomb.

For single-electron tunneling, Vg  VCoulomb.

e
If the gate voltage equals VCoulomb , then two electrons
2C
can be moved on the quantum dot at a time. If the gate voltage
equals
e e e
VCoulomb    VCoulomb  ,
2C 2C C

then three electrons can be moved on the quantum dot at a

time and so on.

Thus, number of electrons in the quantum dot is controlled

using the gate voltage.

These ON and OFF states can be utilized to make an

effective switch out of a SET.
5.18 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

The gate voltages for a SET are a few millivolts and

source-to-drain currents are in the pico ampere range.

Advantages
 The fast information transfer speed between cells (almost
near light speed) is carried out via electrostatic
interactions only.
 No wire is needed between arrays. The size of each cell
can be as small as 2.5 nm. This made them very suitable
for high density memory.
 This can be used for the next generation quantum computer.

Limitations
 In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the
size of the quantum dot should be smaller than 10 nm.

 It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical

lithography and semiconductor process.

 The methods must be developed for connecting the

individual structures into logic circuits and these circuits
must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.

Applications
 The main fields of application of the single electron
transistor is used in sensor technology and digital
electronic circuits.

 A variety of digital logic functions, including AND or

NOR gates, is obtained based on SET operating at room
temperature.
 It is used for mass data storage.
 It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.

 SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly

in the range of very low temperatures.
 SET is a suitable measurement set-up for single electron
spectroscopy.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.19

 It is used for the fabrication of a homo-dyn receiver

operating at frequencies between 10 and 300 MHz.

Concept of Resonant Tunneling

An interesting phenomena occurs when two barriers of width
a separated by a potential well of small distance L as shown in
fig. 5.11. This leads to the concept of resonant tunneling.

Fig. 5.11 Double barrier junction with no applied bias. E is the

energy of the incident electron and E1, E2 are the energy level
in quasi band states in the well.

For example, assume that incident electrons have energy

E and that all the energy states En lie above E, as shown in
fig. 5.11.
The barriers are sufficiently thin to allow tunneling and the
well region between the two barriers is also sufficiently narrow to
form discrete (quasi-bound) energy levels, as shown in fig. 5.11.
The transmission coefficient of the double symmetric
barrier becomes unity (ie., T  1), when the energy of the
incoming electron wave E coincides with the energy of one of
the discrete states formed by the well.

2 2
nh
ie., E  En  2
8mL

where n  1, 2, 3 
5.20 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Thus, transmission probability of the double

symmetric barrier is maximum and hence, the tunneling
current reaches peak value when the energy of electron
wave is equal to quantised energy state of the well.
This phenomenon is known as resonance tunneling.
 The double barrier junction has important applications
to a device known as Resonant Tunneling Diode (RTD)

5.7 RESONANT TUNNELING DIODE

 It is a device that has two tunneling junctions. Its
I-V characteristic shows negative differential
resistance characteristic.
Definition
A resonant tunneling diode (RTD) is a diode with
resonant tunneling structure. The electrons can tunnel
through some resonant states at certain energy levels.

Principle
When electron (wave) incident with energy equal to energy
level of a potential well of thin barrier, then the tunneling reaches
its maximum value. This is known as resonant tunneling.

Structure of RTD
A typical resonant tunneling diode structure is made by
using n-type GaAs for the regions to the left and right of both
barriers (regions 1 and 5) (Fig. 5.12).

Fig. 5.12 Structure of Resonant Tunnel Diode (RTD)

Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.21

The intrinsic GaAs is for the well region (region 3) and

Al Ga As or Al As for the barrier material (regions 2 and 4).

Working

Tunneling control
Tunneling is controlled by applying a bias voltage across
the device.

Without applied bias

For the case of no applied bias, the energy band diagram
is shown in fig. 5.13(a).

Practically it is very difficult to control the barrier height

as well as the width of the potential well to match with the
energy of the electron. This energy matching and hence resonant
tunneling could be achieved by biasing the potential barriers.

Fig. 5.13 (b) Resonant tunneling by proper biasing of the

potential barriers Double barrier function under the action
of an applied bias

With applied bias

When voltage is applied, the band diagram shifts and if
the voltage is varied until the quantized discrete energy level
corresponding to the potential well matches with the energy of
5.22 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

the electron wave, resonant tunneling occurs. Such behavior is

shown in fig. 5.13(b).

Current - Energy characteristic for a resonant

tunneling diode
When the incident electron energy E is very different from
the energy of a discrete state En, transmission is low. As E
tends to En, transmission will increase, becoming a maximum
when E  En.

As E increases, tunneling will increase, reaching a peak

when E  E1. After that point, a further increase in E will result
in a decreasing current, as shown in fig. 5.14.

Fig. 5.14 Current - energy characteristic for a resonant

tunneling junction, where E is the energy of the incident
electron and E1 is the energy of the first quasi - bound state
in the well

This decrease of current with an increase of bias is called

negative resistance. Further peaks and valleys will occur as
E approaches, and then moves across other discrete energy states.

Application and uses of Resonant Tunneling Diodes (RTD)

1. One area or active application is building oscillators

and switching devices that operate at tera hertz
frequencies.
2. RTDs are very good rectifiers.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.23

3. They are used in digital logic circuits.

4. They are also used in inverters, memory cells and
transistors (Resonant Tunneling Transistors (RTTs)

Advantages
 Resonant Tunneling diodes are very compact.

They are capable of ultra-high-speed operations because the

quantum tunneling effect through the very thin layers is a very
fast process.

Cellular Automata
 Traditionally, microelectronics is based on scaling
towards smaller structures. When the dimensions of
these structures reach the nanometric scale,
microelectronics transformed to nanoelectronics.

 Future systems that are composed of these nano

structures require both novel architectures and modern
switching devices. The behavior of these new devices can
only be explained with quantum-mechanical models.

 A cellular automaton is a d-dimensional lattice of

bits (or a more general finite set of variables) that
updates over discrete timesteps. The update rule is
the same everywhere. It updates a bit based only on its
state and those of its neighbours.

 An important example of a cellular automaton is known

as the rule 110 CA. In this case, there is
one-dimensional array of bits. The updated state of each
bit after one time step depends on its previous state and
that of its two nearest neighbours. The update rule is
explained below.
5.24 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Initial state of a bit and 111 110 101 100 011 010 001 000
its neighbours
New state of middle bit 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

The name comes from the result of the update rule.

Treating 01101110, which is the bottom row of the table above
specifying the update rule gives 110.

The CAs have many practical applications, which include

traffic models, fluid flows, biological pattern formation and
reaction-diffusion systems

5.8 QUANTUM CELLULAR AUTOMATA (QCA)

It is an emerging nanotechnology. CMOS (Complementary

Metal Oxide Semiconductor) technology has a lot of limitations
while scaling into a nano-level.

In order to improve the performance of a system, new

nano-technology approach should be taken into account. The
QCA technology is a perfect replacement of CMOS technology
without any limitations.

The basic building block of every QCA circuit is a majority

gate. It can be built using Majority and inverter gates. The
majority logic can be designed in a different manner from that
of Boolean logic.

The Boolean logic operators ( like AND, OR and their

complements ) and other digital functions can be implemented
using Majority logics. The majority logic can be termed as more
powerful for implementing digital functions because of very small
number of logic gates. (Fig 5.15)
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.25

Explanation and Analysis

This technology is built up in cells. Each cell has 2
electrons trapped on it and 4 as explained in fig. 5.15(a). The
electrons can be on any island and can tunnel between the
islands. However, due to Coulomb repulsion, they will always
settle to one of the two stable states.

One configuration of charge represents a binary “1, “the

other a “0,” but no current flows into or out of the cell. The
field from the charge configuration of one cell alters the charge
configuration of the next cell.

(a) Basic QCA cell and binary encoding

(b) QCA majority gate

(c) QCA inverter

Fig. 5.15
5.26 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Remarkably, this basic device can be coupled with a

clocking scheme. It modulates the effective barrier between
states. It supports general-purpose computing with very low
power dissipation.

Binary wire can be assembled where all cells in the chain

have the same value.

The fundamental logic gate is the Majority Gate. The

majority gate takes three inputs. Its output is equal to whichever
two inputs agree as explained in fig 5.15(b).

Assuming three inputs labeled A, B and C, the logic

function of majority gate is

M A, B, C  AB  BC  AC

Logical AND and OR functions can be implemented from

majority input by presetting one input immutably to binary
values 0 and 1 respectively. A signal is complimented by the
not gate as shown in fig 5.15 (c).

QCA Clocking
The clocking of QCA can be made by controlling the
potential barriers between adjacent quantum dots. When the
potential is low, the electron wave functions become delocalized
resulting in no definite cell polarization.

Raising the potential barrier decreases the tunneling rate,

and thus, the electrons begin to localize.

As the electrons localize, the cell gains a definite

polarization. When the potential barrier has reached its highest
point, the cell is said to be latched. The latched cells act as
virtual inputs and as a result, the actual inputs can start to
feed in new values. This enables easy way of making QCA
circuits.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.27

Advantages of QCA

This technology has many advantages.

 It is “edge driven,” meaning an input is brought to an

edge of a QCA block. (ie it is evaluated and output at
another edge). This also means that no power lines need
be routed internally.

 The QCA systems should be very low power system

because there is no current flowing. Only enough energy
needs to add to lift the electrons from their ground states
to higher states.

 The QCA cells are very small.

5.9 QUANTUM SYSTEM FOR INFORMATION

PROCESSING

The quantum phenomena can be applied to quantum

computing, quantum information science, quantum
communication, and quantum metrology.

The progresses of all these technologies are mutually

dependent on each other. They share the same laws of physics,
common hardware and related methods.

Quantum Information Science deal with the methods of

encoding the information in a quantum system. It includes
statistics of quantum mechanics along with their limitations. It
provides a core for all other applications such as quantum
computing, communications, networking, sensing and metrology.

Quantum Communication and networking explains the

exchange of information by encoding it into a quantum
cryptography. It is the subset of quantum communication in
which quantum properties help to design the secure
communication system.
5.28 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Quantum sensing and metrology is the quantum systems

which are used to measure important physical properties (e.g.
electric and magnetic fields, temperature, etc.).

The system has more accuracy than classical systems.

Quantum sensors are based on qubits. They are carried out
using the experimental quantum systems.
Quantum computing deals with the quantum mechanical
properties of superposition, entanglement and interference to
enact computations.

In common, a quantum computer consists a collection of

quantum bits (qubits). The qubits are isolated from the
environment for their quantum state to perform the computation.
These qubits are organized and manipulated to set an
algorithm and to get a result. The high probability from the
measurement of its final state produces the result.

Working of traditional computers

All information is processed and understood by a computer

using binary language composed of bits (0 or 1). A high voltage
represents on state of the switch logic gates equivalent to 1 and
a low off state equivalent to 0. The data (text, music, audio,
video or software) are encoded and stored by the computer as
binary in the computer’s memory.
Several ways such as nuclear magnetic resonance, optical
and solid-state techniques and ion traps are used to build
quantum computers. The fundamental concept that has been
used to construct the quantum computers using the above ways
are given in the following:

(a) Harmonic oscillator quantum computer:

In this system, discrete eigen states are represented as
|n , where n  0, 1, 2, , ; these represent qubits. The
lifetimes of qubits depend on the quality factor of the cavity.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.29

n
A single quantum harmonic oscillator will have 2 energy
states in Hilbert space. But, a classical harmonic oscillator has
n energy states in the same Hilbert space.

(b) Optical photon quantum computer

In these computers, photon can represent a quantum bit.

Photons can be made to interact with each other using
non-linear optical media. Mirrors, phase shifters and beam
splitters are the accessible devices for manipulating the photon
states.
The required single photons can be created using
attenuated lasers. These photons are detected with photo
detectors. Thus, a quantum computer can be made using these
optical components.

(c) Optical cavity quantum electrodynamic computer

In this, coupling of single atom to a few optical modes takes
place. It is done by placing single atom in optical cavities of
very high Q.

The cavity electrodynamic system consists a Fabry-Perot

cavity containing a few atoms to which the optical field is
coupled. The photons in the cavity have an opportunity to
interact many times with the atoms before escaping.
The single photon can be good carriers of quantum
information. They are created by attenuated lasers and they are
measured at the output using photo multiplier.

(d) Ion trap quantum computer

In electromagnetic traps, a number of charged atoms are
isolated and trapped. Then the atoms are cooled so that their
kinetic energy is much less than their spin energy.

After this, the incident monochromatic light can selectively

cause transitions between energy states of lowest level
vibrational modes of ions. These transitions can be made to
perform quantum computation.
5.30 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

The main components of the ion trap quantum computers

are the electromagnetic trap with lasers, photo detectors, and
ions.

(e) Nuclear magnetic resonance computer

These computers are based on the spins of atomic nucleus.
This will be nearly ideal for quantum computation if only
spin-spin coupling can be large and controllable. Magnetic field
pulses are applied to spins in a strong magnetic field.

The coupling between spins of atoms can be provided by

chemical bonds between the neighbouring atoms. The processing
magnetic moment induces the output. These proposals show that
the quantum systems are more suitable for information
processing.

Classical computing and Quantum computing

The present day computer is the best example of classical
computing. Classical computing methods work on chips that
process all the data using just a bit with two possible states 0
and 1.

Even the most complex problems or algorithms in classical

computing is understood by the computer by breaking it down
into 0 and 1.

However, there are some problems that are so huge or

complex that it is impossible to solve them with even the most
powerful classical computers on Earth.

That’s where Quantum Computing comes in. Universal

Quantum Computers use the unit qubits (quantum bits)
instead of bits. A qubit can be an electron in which the 2
different states are the upward spin or downward spin of
an electron. The qubit can also be a photon, in which the 2
different states are the vertical polarization and the horizontal
polarization.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.31

Characteristics of Quantum Computers

Superposition
In classical computing, a bit has to be in a single state,
either 0 or 1.

But in quantum computing a qubit can be in both states

(0 and 1) simultaneously. This property is called Superposition.

Only when the qubit is actually measured, it has to decide

whether it is 0 or 1. This can be understood as a flipped coin,
that can head and tail simultaneously. Only when it lands then
it is clearly head or tail.

For example: If there are 4 bits, then these bits together

4
can represent 2  16 values in total but they can only hold 1
of these 16 values at a time.

But if there are 4 qubits, then these qubits together can

hold of these 16 values simultaneously That’s the magic of
Quantum Computing.

Entanglement
Another important property of Quantum Computing
is Entanglement. Qubits that have interacted at some point
are entangled in pairs. So if the state of one qubit in this pair
is known then that of other can be determined.

Suppose one qubit is upward spin state, then the state of

the other qubit is automatically and simultaneously in the
downward spin state.

Entanglement among 2 qubits is valid no matter the

distance between them, as long as they are in isolated
conditions. This amazing phenomenon does not have an
explanation yet. It was called “spooky action at a
distance” by Einstein.
5.32 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Working of quantum computers

Logically, the quantum system uses quantum bits or
qubits as the smallest discrete units to represent
information. It may be electrons with spins, photons with
polarization, trapped ions with different states, semiconducting
circuits etc act as qubits.
The property of quantum mechanics comes into play in
qubit. It can exist not only, in two discrete energy states (low
and high). But it can also exist in a superposition state (exists
in both states at once).
When measured however, the superposition is removed and
one of the two distinct states is returned based on the
probabilities of each state.
When using two qubits instead of a single qubit 4 discrete
energy states exist (2 discrete states for each qubit). A qubit
can even exist in a superposition of these states.
n
Similarly using n qubits, 2 states are achieved which exist
as combinations of 0s and 1s in parallel. So this gives a way
to represent information.
The next step is to process information, which requires
manipulation of these qubits. This is brought about by the use
of special quantum logic gates and quantum algorithms.
For examples, Shor’s algorithm and Grover’s algorithm
function using the principles of quantum mechanics of
superposition, entanglement and measurement.
The state of the qubits is identified by application of precise
electromagnetic waves, microwaves and amplification functions
as defined by the algorithms.

Architecture of quantum computer

Architecture can be seen as a blueprint. The architecture
of the quantum computer is a combination of classical and
quantum parts. It can be divided into 5 layers where each layer
is represented as the functional part of the computer (Fig. 5.16).
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.33

Application Layer
It is not a part of a quantum computer. It is used for
representing a user interface, the operating system for a
quantum computer, coding environment, etc. These needed for
formulating suitable quantum algorithms. It is hardware-
independent.

Classical Layer
It optimizes and compiles the quantum algorithm into
microinstructions. It also processes quantum-state measurement
returned back from hardware from the below layers.

Fig. 5.16 Architecture of a practical quantum computer. It

can be divided into five layers, each performing different
types of processing
5.34 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Digital Layer
It interprets microinstructions into signals (pulses) needed
by qubit which act as quantum logic gates. It is the digital
description of the required analog pulses in the below layers.

It also gives quantum measurement as feedback to the

above classical layer for merging the quantum outcomes to the
final result.

Analog Layer
It creates voltage signals which are having a phase and
amplitude modulations like in wave, for sending it to the below
layer so that qubit operations can be executed.

Quantum Layer
It is integrated with the digital and the analog processing
layer onto the same chip. It is used for holding qubits and it
is kept at room temperature (absolute). Error correction is
handled here.

This layer determines how well the computer performs.

Quantum Processing Unit (QPU) is made up of three

layers including the digital processing layer, analog processing
layer, and quantum processing layer. QPU and classical layer
together constitute the Quantum Computer. Digital and Analog
layers operate at room temperature.

5.10 QUANTUM STATES

Let us begin with the fundamental law of quantum
mechanics which gives the idea of wave-particle duality. The
quantum state of a system is described by a complex function
, which depends on the coordinate x and time t.

quantum state ~  x, t ... (1)

Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.35

The wave function encodes all the information about the

system in a probabilistic sense. The theory can only predict
the probability of the outcome of an experiment. This probability
can be computed from the wave function.

2
| x, t| dx is the probability that a measurement of
the position of the particle yields a result in the
interval x  x  dx.

2
Thus | x, t| is a probability per unit length or
probability density. The total probability of finding the particle
somewhere along the real axis must be unity, thus:

2 2
||   | x, t| dx  1 ... (2)

Any function such that its integral along the real axis is
finite can be normalized by multiplying by an appropriate
constant. In practice two wave functions that differ by an
arbitrary factor c  C describe the same physical system.

Mathematical aside
Let us discuss an example of a normalizable function. The
2
 x /2
function  x  e is clearly normalizable. Its norm is

2
2 x
||||   e dx  
 , ... (3)

and there the normalized wave function is:

2
1 x /2
 x  1/4
e ... (4)


2
x /2
On the other hand, the function e is non-normalizable,
and therefore does not represent a physical state.
5.36 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

2
In general, if  | x| dx  c, then the normalized wave
1
function is  x
c


In quantum mechanics, a state is represented by a vector

of length equal to 1 in the Hilbert space.
Hilbert space is defined as an infinite-dimensional
vector space with an inner product and its associated
norm.
The state is represented as |n given by

|a  0|0  1|1    , |i    n  1|n  1

The product of the bra vector a| and the ket vector
|a is assumed to be normalized, i.e., a|a  1.

Therefore,
2 2 2
0  1   n  1  1

n1


2
i.e., |i|  1
i0

The ker vector or the bra vector characterizing a state is

defined only as direction, and their length is determined up to
a factor. This is similar to a ray in Hilbert space.
i
For a normalized vector, we have | and e |, where
i
|e |  1 and  represents relative phase. For two states |a
and |b, we can form another state based on superposition
principle as 0|a  1|b.

In n-dimensional state vector space, the set of unit vectors

{ |0, |1,  |i,  |n  1 } forms a normalized unitary basis. In
Hilbert space H4 can be represented by the vector

|a  0|0  1|1   2|2  3|3

Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.37

where

1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0
|0    , |1    , |2    , |3   
0
 
0
 
1
 
0
 
0
  0
  0
  1
In the Hilbert space H2, we have two different bases
{ |0, |1 }. Its superposition state is represented as
|  0|0  1|1.

1 0
|0    and |1   
0
  1

5.11 CLASSICAL BITS AND QUANTUM BITS (QUBITS)

Classical bits
Classical bit is an abstraction of a physical system,
in anyone of two states, either ’0’ or ’1’. Hence it can take
the value 0 or 1. The bit is a smaller and simpler physical
system. It requires less energy to speedily process information
and to store it. The physical system of bit is at atomic or
subatomic level.

Classical bit is the fundamental building block of a classical

computer. The bits are stored on a silicon chip or on a metal
hard drive platter or on a magnetic tape. A bit can store one
piece of information. Large amounts of information can be stored
in a list of bits. The single elementary particle of some sort is
used to store a bit.

1
For example, a particle with spin  is encoded as the
2
1
bit 1 and the spin  of the particle is encoded as the bit 0.
2
This particle can store one bit of information.

This particle acts as a classical bit, which is always in 1

or 0 state.
5.38 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

This spin particle has quantum character; hence this could

also be the fundamental building block of a quantum computer.

Quantum Bits (Qubits)

In quantum computing, a qubit or quantum bit is
the basic unit of quantum information. The qubit is the
quantum version of classical binary bit physically realized
with a two-state device. It is a two-state quantum-
mechanical system, showing the peculiarity of quantum
mechanics.

The quantum bit (qubit) is a two-level quantum system,

described by a two-dimensional complex Hilbert space. In this
space, one may choose a pair of normalized and mutually
orthogonal quantum states,

1 0 ... (1)

|0   , |1    ,
0 1
to represent the values 0 and 1 of a classical bit. These two
states form a computational basis.

From the superposition principle, any state of the qubit

may be written as
|   |0   |1, ... (2)

where the amplitudes  and  are complex numbers, constrained

by the normalization condition

2 2
||  ||  1 ... (3)

A qubit can also exist in a continuum of states between

|0 and |1. Probabilistically, a qubit can be in the state
1 1
|0  |1. This shows that the particle will be in the state
2
 2

2
 1 
for 50% of time with probability   and will be in the state
 2 
2
 1 
|1 for 50% of time with probability  .
2 

Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.39

Moreover, the qubit is a continuum of states between

|0 and |1.

1 3
For example, a qubit can be in a state of |0  |1.
2 2
1
Here, the probability of state |0 is and that of |1 state is
4
3
.
4

Since state vectors are defined only up to a global phase

of no physical significance, one may choose  real and positive
(except for the basis state |1, in which   0, and one may
take   1 real). Thus, the generic state of a qubit may be
written as

 i  ... (4)
|  cos |0  e sin |1
2 2

  
 cos 
2
  

 ei  sin   0    , 0    2
 2 
 
(Refer Bloch Sphere page 5.49)

Therefore, unlike the classical bit, which can only be sets

equal to 0 or 1, the qubit resides in a vector space, parametrized
by the continuous variables  and  (or  and ).

Thus, a continuum of states is allowed.

This contradicts our “classical” way of thinking. In general,

quantum mechanics provide infinitely many bits to specify the
complex numbers  and .

However, there is a catch: to extract this information we

must perform a measurement and quantum mechanics tells us
that from the measurement of the polarization state n of a
qubit along any axis n, There is only a single bit of information
n   1 or n   1).
5.40 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Infinitely many measurements on identically prepared

single-qubit states are required to obtain  and .

2 2
As the probability ||  ||  1

A different set of vector’s are also used as an orthonormal

basis

For example, Let us consider state vector as

|0  |1
|
2


and

|0  |1
|  
2


Hence, a qubit can be represented as

|   |  |   | 
|   
2
 2


 
or |  |   | 
2
 2


Note:

|   |0   |1

If state vector is

|0  |1 |0  |1

|   and |  
2
 2


2 |0 .. 2 
then, |   |    .   2 
2
  
2 

2 |0

|   | 
or |0 
2

Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.41

Similarly,

|0  |1  |0  |1 

|   |    

2  2
 

2 |1
 
2 |1
2


|   1  
or |1 
2


|   |  |   | 
Therefore, |   
2
 2

Also,

 |   |   |   | 
|    
2
 2
 2 2

 
|  |   | 
2
 2


A qubit is a mathematical model of microscopic

physical system such as the spin of electron or the
polarization of a photon. It also exists in a continuum of
intermediate states or superposition states.

In a complex two-dimensional vector space, a qubit can be

represented as unit vector. The different basis states are chosen
to represent intermediate or superposition states of a single
qubit. The polarization of a photon can be represented as the
|0  |1
basis vectors |0 and |1 or its superposition states
2

|0  |1
and .
2

5.42 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

In general, the superposition state |   |0   |1. This

2
behaves as |0 state with probability || and |1 state with
2
probability || . The system may change from the initial state
2
| to the state |0 with probability || or to the state |1
2
with probability || .

5.12 MULTIPLE QUBITS

Consider a system of two qubits in a four dimensional

vector space. In this Hilbert space, four computational basis
states represented as |00, |01, |10, |11.

The superposition of these states gives a state vector

| given as a linear combination of the basis vectors

|  00 |00  01 |01  10 |10  11 |11 ... (1)

where 00, 01, 10 and 11 are complex coefficients. The
2 2 2
probabilities of the four states are |00| , |01| , |10| ,
2
|11| .

The normalization condition shows that the norm of a

vector | is one. Hence, the sum of the probabilities of the
states is

2 2 2 2
|00|  |01|  |10|  |11|  1 ... (2)

Before the measurement, the state of the two qubits is

uncertain. After the measurement, the state is certain ie.,
|00, |01, |10, |11. If only the first bit is observed,

The probability for the first qbit to 0

2 2
P0  |00|  |01| ... (3)
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.43

Similerly, probability for 1 is

2 2
P1  |10|  |11| ... (2)

The sum of the two probabilities is unity (ie 1).

 P0  P1  1 ... (3)

Let |0 and |1 be the states after the measurement

when the first qubits are 0 and 1, respectively. These state are
given by

00 |00  01 |01

|0  ... (4)

|00|  |01|
2 2

and

10 |10  11 |11

|1  ... (5)

|10|  |11|
2 2

Similarly, for the measurement of second qbit only.

The probability for second qbit to 0 and 1.

2 2
P0  |00|  |10| ... (6)

2 2
P1  |01|  |11| ... (7)

and the sum of the probabilities is unity (1)

 P0  P1  1

The corresponding states after measurements are.

00 |00  10 |10

|0 

|00|  |10|
2 2

and
5.44 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

01 |01  11 |11

|1 

 |01|  |11|
2 2

Now, let us consider a special state of two qbits system

with

1
00  11  and 01  10  0
2


This state is called Bell state and this pair of qbits

is called EPR (Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen) pair.

When the tw o qbit system is in the Bell state, the

1 1
pro bability o f first qbit as 0 is and that of 1 is .
2 2

Therefore, after measurement, states are

|0|  |00

00 |00  01 |10

... |  
0

|00|  |01|
2 2

1
00  and 10  0
2


1 1
|00  0|10 |00
2
 2
|0  
1



2
 1  2
   0 2

 2 

0  |00

and

|1  |11
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.45

Similarly for second qbit

|0  |00

1
00  and 10  0
2

1 1
|00  0|10 |00
2 2
|0  
1



2
 1  2

   0 2

 2 

0  |00

and

|1  |11

There are four special states called Bell states. These form
an orthonormal basis as

|00  |11
|00 
2


|01  |10
|01 
2


|00  |11
|10 
2


and

|01  |10
|11 
2


|00  |11
where the first one is invo lved in many quantum
2

c o mputatio n and quantum info rmatio n. The quantum state o f
n
‘n’ qubit system is specified by 2 amplitudes. So far, a
seven-qubit quantum computer has been built.
5.46 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Difference between Bits and Qubits

S.No Bits Qubits

1. The device computes by The device computes by
manipulating those bits manipulating those bits
with the help of logical with the help of quantum
gates (AND, OR, NOT). logic gates.
2. A classical computer has a A qubits (quantum bits)
memory made up of bits can hold a one, a zero or
where each bit hold either crucially a superposition of
a one or zero. these.
3. Bits are used in classical Qubits(Quantum bits) are
computers. use in quantum computer
4. Information is stored in Information is stored in
bits which take the quantum bits, or qubits. A
discrete values 0 and 1. qubit can be in states
labelled |0 and |1, but it
can also be in a
superposition of these
states, a |0  b |1,
where a and b are complex
numbers. If we think of the
state of a qbit as a vector,,
then superposition of states
is just vector addition.
5. Processing of Bits are slow. Processing of Qubits are
faster.
6. Its circuit behaviour is Its circuit behaviour is
based on classical physics. based on quantum
mechanics.

5.13 BLOCH SPHERE

The Bloch sphere representation is useful in

understanding the qubits. It provides a geometric picture
of the qubit and of the transformations takes on the state
of a qubit.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.47

The normalization condition of states results that the

qubit’s state can be represented by a point on a sphere of unit
radius, called the Bloch sphere.

The basis quantum states and the superposition

states of the basis states are represented on Bloch sphere.
The superposition state of a qubit is represented as

i   i  
|  e  cos 2 |0  e sin 2 |1  ... (1)
 

Here, the state of a qubit is expressed in terms of three

real numbers ,  and .

i  i 
or |  e cos |0  e sin |1
2 2

 0 |0  1 |1 ... (2)

i  i i 
where 0  e cos and 1  e e sin
2 2

i
The value of e is an overall phase factor. Since it is not
observable it can be neglected. Therefore, equation (1) becomes

 i  ... (3)
|  c o s |0  e sin |1
2 2

The values  and  represent a point on the unit

three-dimensional sphere as shown in fig. 5.17. This sphere is
called Bloch sphere. This point represents a single qubit. The

state of a qubit is represented by a vector r from the origin to
a point on the Bloch sphere.


The angle between r and Z-axis is . As shown in fig. 5.17,
the point p represents a qubit for the superposition state
|0 |1 1
|   . Here 0  1 
2 2 2

5.48 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Fig. 5.17 Bloch sphere

Therefore, for this quantum state,

 1 
0  cos  ,  45 or   90 and
2 2 2

i  1 i
1  e sin   e  1.
2 2

Therefore,   0.
The continuum of quantum states is represented as points
on Bloch sphere. A qubit can be in a basis state |0 or |1 or
in a superposition state as indicated by equation (2) with
2 2
|0|  |1|  1.

In quantum mechanics, the Bloch sphere is a geometrical

representation of the pure state space of a two-level quantum
mechanical system. It is geometrically a sphere.
The antipodal points on the Bloch sphere correspond to a
mutually exclusive pair of states of the particle, namely the spin
up and spin down. Any state | can be represented in terms
of the ket vectors |0 and |1 as
 i 
|  c o s   |0  e sin   |1
2 2
with 0     and 0    2

The parameters  and  uniquely specify a point on the

unit sphere.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.49

Note:
The state vector is given by

 i 
|  cos |0  e sin |1
2 2

 1 i 0 (using matrix

 cos    e sin  
2 0 21 multiplied
by constant)
    0 
 cos   
 2   ei sin   (matrix addition)
 0   2 
   
  
 cos 
2
|   

 e sin 
i  
 2 
 

5.14 ONE-QUBIT QUANTUM GATES

A one-qubit gate transforms an input qubit

|  0 |0  1 |1 into an output qubit

|  0 |0  1 |1.

Mathematically, a gate G is represented by a 2  2 transfer

matrix with complex entries

 g11 g12 
G
g g22 
 21 
2 2
The normalization conditions are |0|  |1|  1 and
2 2
|0|  |1|  1. Therefore, to meet these conditions, G must
be a unitary matrix.
5.50 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Note:
† †
If G is unitary G G  I. Here G is the adjoint of G.

Transpose of G is

T  g11 g21 
G 
g g22 
 12 

Then, adjoint of G is given by

 g 
g21 
†  11
G    
 g12 g22 
 

For example, g11 is complex conjugate of g11 (* on the
matrix element represents its complex conjugate)

The condition for G to be unitary is:

 g g  g g g g  g g 
†  11 11 21 12 11 21 21 22 
G G     I
 g12 g11  g22 g12 g12 g21  g22 g22 
 
1 0
where I denotes the 2  2 identity matrix. i.e., I  
0 1 


Thus, G is invertible and its inverse, G , is also unitary.
This implies that a quantum gate with a unitary transfer matrix
can always be inverted. This is extremely important since it
shows that quantum gates are reversible, as opposed to classical
gates which are irreversible.

The transfer matrix of a quantum gate is G. The input

and output qubits represented as column vectors are | and
| respectively. The transformation performed by the gate is
given by
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.51

For a single-qubit gate, the equation can be written as

 g11 g12   0   0 

g g22   1   1 
 21    

Thus,
0  g11 0  g12 1 and 1  g21 0  g22 1

A few important one-qubit gates and their transfer matrices

are given as
1 0
1. I   the I identity gate  it leaves a qubit unchanged.
0 1 

0 1
2. X  x    is the X or NOT gate  it transpose the
1 0
components of a qubit

0 i
3. Y  x    the Y gate  it multiplies the input qubit
i 0 
by i and flips the two components.

1 0 
4. Z  z    the Z gate  it changes the phase (flips
0 1
the sign) of a qubit

1 1 1 
5. H  the Hadamard gate H  it creates a super
2  1  1 

position state from pure input states.

where, I is identity matrix

X  x, Y  y and Z  z are Pauli matrices

The output vectors of these gates, |, for a given input

|  0 |0 are given below:

1 0   0   0 
I |  ||   
0 1   1   1 
   

or
5.52 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

|  0|0  1|1

0 1   0   1 
|  x |   
1 0   1   0 
   
or |  1 |0  0 |1

0  i   0    1 
| y |       i 
i 0   1  
0

or ||   i 1 |0  i 0 |1

1    0   0 
|  z |     
0  1  1  1
   
or |  0 |0  1 |1

1 1 1   0 
|  H |   
2  1
  1  1
 
0 1
or |  |0  |1  |0  |1
2 
   2  
The Hadamard gate H, when applied to a purse state,
|0 or |1, creates a superposition state,
1
H |0   |0  |1 
2 
 

and
1
H |1   |0  |1 
2

In general, the transformation of a qubit |x, with x  0
or x  1, carried out by a Hadamard gate can be expressed as
1 x
|x  |0   1 |1
2

Note:
1 1 1   0 
H |   
2  1
  1  1
 
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.53

1  0  1  .. 1 0 1

  
2  0  1 
  . 0  1  1
      
matrix addition
1   0    1  
   
2   0    1  
 1
... |0   
0
1  1  1
   1  0
2  0  1 
 
1 and |1   
1
0   1   0   1 0
        1       
2   0   1  
 0 1

0 1
H |  |0  |1  |0  |1

2 2

5.15 TWO - QUBIT QUANTUM GATES – CNOT GATE

A gate with two inputs and two outputs is called

CNOT. The controlled-NOT gate is shown figure 5.18. One
input is called the control input and the other is the
target input. The first output is called the control and
the second is called the target.

The classical equivalent of a quantum CNOT gate is the

XOR gate. For a classical CNOT gate the target output is equal
to the target input if the control input is 0 and flipped
(complemented) if the control input is 1.

A quantum CNOT gate has two inputs. The control input

is a qubit in state | and the target input is a qubit in state
|. The control input is transferred directly to the control
output of the gate.

The target output is equal to the targe input, if the control

input is |0 and it is flipped (complemented) if the control input
is |1.
5.54 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

The input and the output qubits of a quantum CNOT gate

can be represented as vectors in a four dimensional Hilbert space
+4. The two qubits applied to the input of the CNOT gate in
figure 5.18 are a control qubit | and a target qubit |

|  0 |0  1 |1, |  0 |0  11 |1

The input vector of the quantum CNOT gate is:

 0 0 
 
 0   0   0 1 
|VCNOT  |  ||      
    
 1  1  1 0
  
 1 1

Fig. 5.18 A classical CNOT gate.

The components of the input vector are transformed by the

CNOT quantum gate is follows

|00  |00 |01  |01 |10  |11 |11  |10

Here, first qubit is control input and second qubit is target

input.

The transfer matrix GCNOT of the CNOT quantum gate can

be given as a sum of the outer products of the components of
the output and input vectors

ie GCNOT  |00 00|  |01 01|  |11 10|  |10  11|

Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.55

Note

The basis vectors |00, |01, |10 and |11 in the

four-dimensional Hilbert space is given by

1
1 1 0 .. 1
|00  |0  |0          ,  . |0   0  
0 0 0   
0
 0
 |1   1  
0   
1 0 1
|01  |0  |1          ,
0 1 0
0

0
0 1 0
|10  |1  |0          ,
1 0 1
0

0
0 0 0
|11  |1  |1          ,
1 1 0
1

 0 0 
 
 . .  0   0   0   0 1 
 .     
     
  1  1  1  1 0
  
 1 1

The outer products of the basis vectors |00 and |01 with
themselves as well as the outer products of |10 with |11 and
|11 and |10 are:

1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
|00 00|    1 0 0 0  
0 0 0 0 0
   
0
  0 0 0 0
5.56 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
|01 01|    0 1 0 0  
0 0 0 0 0
   
0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
|10 11|    0 0 0 1  
1 0 0 0 1
   
0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
|11 10|    0 0 1 0  
0 0 0 0 0
   
1
  0 0 1 0

Therefore, the transition matrix of the circuit is

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
GCNOT  
1
0 0 0

0 0 1 0

It is easy to determine the output state vector |WCNOT

given the input state vector |VCNOT and the transfer matrix of
a CNOT gate:
|WCNOT  GCNOT |VCNOT

     
1 0 0 0 0 0  0 0
0 1 0 0   0 1   0 1 
|WCNOT   
0 0 0 1   1 0   1 1 
 
0 0 1 0     
 1 1  1 0
This result can be written as
|WCNOT  0 0 |00  0 1 |01  1 1 |10  1 0 |11
Thus, CNOT gate keeps the control qubit unaltered the
first and the second component of the input vector are replicated
in the output vector. But it changes (flips) the target qubit: the
third and fourth component of the input vector |VCNOT become
the fourth and the third component of the output vector.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.57

The output can also be written as

|WCNOT  0 |0 [0 |0  1 |1]

 1 |1 [1 |0  0 |1]

The CNOT gate is reversible. Indeed, the product

GCNOT GCNOT  I :

1 0 0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 00 1 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 10 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
    
0 0 1 00 0 1 0 0 0 0 1

The CNOT quantum gate can be used to realize a universal

gate. Further, any multiple qubit gate can be constructed from
single qubit and CNOT gates.

5.16 ADVANTAGES OF QUANTUM COMPUTING

OVER CLASSICAL COMPUTING

1. The quantum computers can solve the complex

mathematical problems. Traditional computers find
impossible to solve in a practical time frame.

2. The computing power is sufficient to process excessively

large amounts of data (2.5 Exabyte daily i.e. equal to
5 million laptops)

3. Due to the teleportation phenomenon known as

‘quantum tunneling,’ it can work in parallel. It uses
less amount of electricity, hence, reducing the power
consumption upto 100 to 1000 times.

4. A computer is “thousands of times” faster than any

classical computer.
5.58 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Note:

For example, Google has made a quantum computer that

is 100 million times faster than any classical computer present
in its lab.

5. It can work without being overheated. (since for its

stability it kept cold upto 0.2 Kelvin inside the
quantum system).
6. It can easily solve optimization problems such as
finding the best route and scheduling trains and flights.

Note:

It would also be able to compute 1 trillion moves in chess

per second. Quantum computers will be able to crack the highest
security unbreakable encryption techniques. However, it would
also build hack-proof alternates.

7. The quantum effect is made to reduce the size of

electronic devices.
8. The simulation efficiency is high in quantum computers
than in classical computers.

Disadvantages of quantum computing

1. Due to advancements in quantum computers, the

security of the existing Internet of Things (IoT) would
fall down. Cryptographic techniques, Databases of
government and private large organizations, banks, and
defense systems can be hacked. Considering these facts,
quantum computers can be terrible for our future.
2. The Quantum Computers will work as a different
device and cannot replace classical computers entirely.
Since, classical computers are better at some places
than quantum computers like email, excel, etc.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.59

3. It has not been invented completely yet as only parts

are being implemented and people are still imaging how
it would look.
4. It is very delicate and error-prone. Any kind of
vibrations affects subatomic particles like atoms and
electrons. Due to which noise, faults, and even failures
are possible. It leads to “Decoherence” which is a loss
of coherence in quantum.
5. Quantum processors are very unstable and are very
hard to test even. For the stability of the quantum
computer, it is kept at 0.2 Kelvin (absolute Kelvin)
which is nearly below the inverse temperature.
It is very hard to maintain and regulate such
temperature. The main problem is to really develop it
as a personal computer with the price range in the
budget of consumers. They will be firstly accessible to
large scale industry then come to retail markets.

Difference between classical computing and

Quantum computing

Classical Quantum
Comparison key
computer computer
Basis of computing Large scale High speed
integrated parallel computer
multipurpose based on quantum
computer based on mechanics
classical physics
Information storage Bit based Quantum bit
information (qubit) based
storage using information
voltage/ charge or storage using
magnetisation electron spin
5.60 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Classical Quantum
Comparison key
computer computer
Bit values Bits having a Qubits having a
value of either 0 value of 0, 1 or
or 1 and can have sometimes
a single value at negative and can
any instant have both values
at the same time
Number of The number of The number of
possible states possible states is possible states is
2 which is either infinite since it
0 or 1 can hold
combinations of 0
or 1 along with
some complex
information
Output Deterministic- Probabilistic-
(repetition of (repetition of
computation on computation on
the same input superposed states
gives the same gives probabilistic
output) answers)
Gates used for Logic gates Quantum logic
processing process the gates process the
information information parallel
sequentially, i.e.
AND, OR, NOT,
etc.
Scope of possible Defined and probabilistic and
solutions limited answers multiple answers
due to the are considered due
algorithm’s design to superposition
and entanglement
properties
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.61

Classical Quantum
Comparison key
computer computer
Operations Operations use Operations use
Boolean Algebra linear algebra and
are represented
with unitary
matrices.
Circuit Circuits Circuits
implementation implemented in implemented in
macroscopic microscopic
technologies (e.g. technologies (e.g.
CMOS) that are nuclear magnetic
fast and scalable resonance) that
are slow and
delicate

Fig. 5.19
5.62 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A

1. Define nano materials.

Nanophase materials are newly developed materials with

9
grain size at the nanometre range 10 m, i.e., in the order
of 1 - 100 nm. The particle size in a nano material is 1 - 100 nm.
2. What is a quantum confinement?

It is a process of reduction of the size of the solid such

that the energy levels inside become discrete.
3. What is quantum structure?

When a bulk material is reduced in its size, atleast one

of its dimension, in the order of few nanometres, then the
structure is known as quantum structure.
4. What is quantum size-effect?

When the size of a nanocrystal becomes smaller than the

deBroglie wavelength, electrons and holes get spatially confined,
electrical dipoles get generated, the discrete energy levels are
formed.
As the size of the material decreases, the energy separation
between adjacent levels increases. The density of states of
nanocrystals is positioned in between discrete (as that of atoms
and molecules) and continuous (as in crystals).

Quantum size effect is most significant for semiconductor

nanoparticles.

5. What is single electron phenomena?

Present day, transistors require 10,000 electrons. Rather

than moving many electrons through transistors, it may very
well be practical and necessary to move electrons one at a time.
The phenomena in known as single electron phenomena.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.63

6. Define Coulomb - Blockade effect.

The charging effect which blocks the injection or rejection

of a single charge into or from a quantum dot is called Coulomb
blockade effect.

7. What is single electron tunneling?

The quantization of charge can dominate and tunneling of

single electrons across leaky capacitors carries the current. This
is called single electron tunneling.

8. What is a Single Electron Transistor?

SET is three-terminal switching devices which can transfer

electrons from source to drain one by one.

9. What are the advantages of single electron transistor?

 The fast information transfer velocity between cells

(almost near optic velocity) is carried out via electrostatic
interactions only.
 No wire is needed between arrays. The size of each cell
can be as small as 2.5 nm. This made them very suitable
for high density memory.
 This can be used for the next generation quantum
computer.

10. What are the limitations of single electron transistor?

 In order to operate SET circuit at room temperature, the

size of the quantum dot should be smaller than 10 nm.

 It is very hard to fabricate by traditional optical

lithography and semiconductor process.

 The methods must be developed for connecting the

individual structures into logic circuits and these circuits
must be arranged into larger 2D patterns.
5.64 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

11. What are the applications of single electron Transistor?

 A variety of digital logic functions, including AND or

NOR gates, is obtained based on SET operating at room
temperature.
 It is used for mass data storage.
 It is used in highly sensitive electrometer.

 SET can be used as a temperature probe, particularly

in the range of very low temperatures.
 SET is a suitable measurement set-up for single electron
spectroscopy.
 It is used for the fabrication of a homo-dyn receiver
operating at frequencies between 10 and 300 MHz.

12. What is Quantum Cellular Automata?

Quantum Cellular Automata is an emerging

nanotechnology. CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor) technology has a lot of limitations while scaling
into a nano-level.

In order to improve the performance of a system, new

nano-technology approach should be taken into account. The
QCA technology is a perfect replacement of CMOS technology
without any limitations.

13. What are the advantages of QCA?

 It is “edge driven,” meaning an input is brought to an

edge of a QCA block. (ie it is evaluated and output at
another edge). This also means that no power lines need
be routed internally.

 The QCA systems should be very low power system

because there is no current flowing. Only enough energy
needs to add to lift the electrons from their ground states
to higher states.
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.65

 The QCA cells are very small.

14. Define Hilber space.

Hilbert space is defined as an infinite-dimensional vector

space with an inner product and its associated norm.
|a  0|0  1|1    , |i    n  1|n  1

15. Define Clasical Bits.

Classical bit is an abstraction of a physical system, in

anyone of two states, either ’0’ or ’1’. Hence it can take the
value 0 or 1. The bit is a smaller and simpler physical system.
It requires less energy to speedily process information and to
store it. The physical system of bit is at atomic or subatomic
level.

16. What is a qubit?

A qubit is a mathematical model of microscopic physical

system such as the spin of electron or the polarization of a
photon. It also exists in a continuum of intermediate states or
superposition states.

17. What are the difference between bits and qubits?

S.No Bits Qubits

1. The device computes by The device computes by
manipulating those bits manipulating those bits
with the help of logical with the help of quantum
gates (AND, OR, NOT). logic gates.
2. A classical computer has a A qubits (quantum bits)
memory made up of bits can hold a one, a zero or
where each bit hold either crucially a superposition of
a one or zero. these.
3. Bits are used in classical Qubits (Quantum bits) are
computers. use in quantum computer
5.66 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

S.No Bits Qubits

4. Information is stored in Information is stored in
bits which take the quantum bits, or qubits. A
discrete values 0 and 1. qubit can be in states
labelled |0 and |1, but it
can also be in a
superposition of these
states, a |0  b |1,
where a and b are complex
numbers. If we think of the
state of a qbit as a vector,,
then superposition of states
is just vector addition.
5. Processing of Bits are slow. Processing of Qubits are
faster.
6. Its circuit behaviour is Its circuit behaviour is
based on classical physics. based on quantum
mechanics.

18. Define Bloch Sphere.

The Bloch sphere representation is useful in understanding

the qubits. It provides a geometric picture of the qubit and of
the transformations takes on the state of a qubit.

19. Define one-qubit quantum gates.

A one-qubit gate transforms an input qubit

|  0 |0  1 |1 into an output qubit

|  0 |0  1 |1.

Mathematically, a gate G is represented by a 2  2 transfer

matrix with complex entries

 g11 g12 
G
g g22 
 21 
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.67

20. What are advantages of quantum computing over

classical computing?

1. The quantum computers can solve the complex

mathematical problems. Traditional computers find
impossible to solve in a practical time frame.
2. The computing power is sufficient to process excessively
large amounts of data (2.5 Exabyte daily i.e. equal to
5 million laptops)
3. Due to the teleportation phenomenon known as
‘quantum tunneling,’ it can work in parallel. It uses
less amount of electricity, hence, reducing the power
consumption upto 100 to 1000 times.
4. A computer is “thousands of times” faster than any
classical computer.
5. It can work without being overheated. (since for its
stability it kept cold upto 0.2 Kelvin inside the
quantum system).
6. It can easily solve optimization problems such as
finding the best route and scheduling trains and flights.
7. The quantum effect is made to reduce the size of
electronic devices.
8. The simulation efficiency is high in quantum computers
than in classical computers.
21. What are the disadvantages of quantum computing?

1. Due to advancements in quantum computers, the

security of the existing Internet of Things (IoT) would
fall down. Cryptographic techniques, Databases of
government and private large organizations, banks, and
defense systems can be hacked. Considering these facts,
quantum computers can be terrible for our future.
2. The Quantum Computers will work as a different
device and cannot replace classical computers entirely.
Since, classical computers are better at some places
than quantum computers like email, excel, etc.
5.68 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

3. It has not been invented completely yet as only parts

are being implemented and people are still imaging how
it would look.
4. It is very delicate and error-prone. Any kind of
vibrations affects subatomic particles like atoms and
electrons. Due to which noise, faults, and even failures
are possible. It leads to “Decoherence” which is a loss
of coherence in quantum.
5. Quantum processors are very unstable and are very
hard to test even. For the stability of the quantum
computer, it is kept at 0.2 Kelvin (absolute Kelvin)
which is nearly below the inverse temperature.
22. What are difference between Classical computing and
Quantum computing?

Classical Quantum
Comparison key
computer computer
Basis of computing Large scale High speed
integrated parallel computer
multipurpose based on quantum
computer based on mechanics
classical physics
Information storage Bit based Quantum bit
information (qubit) based
storage using information
voltage/ charge or storage using
magnetisation electron spin
Bit values Bits having a Qubits having a
value of either 0 value of 0, 1 or
or 1 and can have sometimes
a single value at negative and can
any instant have both values
at the same time
Nano Devices and Quantum Computing 5.69

Classical Quantum
Comparison key
computer computer
Number of The number of The number of
possible states possible states is possible states is
2 which is either infinite since it
0 or 1 can hold
combinations of 0
or 1 along with
some complex
information
Output Deterministic- Probabilistic-
(repetition of (repetition of
computation on computation on
the same input superposed states
gives the same gives probabilistic
output) answers)
Gates used for Logic gates Quantum logic
processing process the gates process the
information information parallel
sequentially, i.e.
AND, OR, NOT,
etc.
Scope of possible Defined and probabilistic and
solutions limited answers multiple answers
due to the are considered due
algorithm’s design to superposition
and entanglement
properties
Operations Operations use Operations use
Boolean Algebra linear algebra and
are represented
with unitary
matrices.
5.70 Physics for Instrumentation Engineering

Classical Quantum
Comparison key
computer computer
Circuit Circuits Circuits
implementation implemented in implemented in
macroscopic microscopic
technologies (e.g. technologies (e.g.
CMOS) that are nuclear magnetic
fast and scalable resonance) that
are slow and
delicate

PART - B (16 Marks Questions)

1. Explain quantum confinement and quantum structures in

Nano material.
2. Discuss quantum size effect and band structure of nanocrystals.
3. Describe construction and working of single electron transistor.
4. Explain quantum cellular automata.
5. Explain quantum system for information processing
6. Define (a) Classical bits (b) quantum bit (c) CNOT
(d) Multiple qubits
7. Explain Bloch sphere.
8. Explain quantum gates.
9. Describe advantage of quantum computing over classical
computing.