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 FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
ISLAND SUSTAINABILITY

Islands 2010

CONFERENCE CHAIRMEN

S. Favro
Hydographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia

C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

G. Querini
University of Rome ‘La Sapienza’, Italy

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE

A. Aktas
E. Cohen
L. Dwyer
Z. Grzetic
N. Leder
L. Petric
F. Pineda
A.A. Zorpas

Organised by
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia

Sponsored by
WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment
 WIT Transactions
Transactions Editor

Carlos Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology
Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst
Southampton SO40 7AA, UK
Email: [email protected]

Editorial Board

B Abersek University of Maribor, Slovenia G Belingardi Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Y N Abousleiman University of Oklahoma, R Belmans Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
USA Belgium
P L Aguilar University of Extremadura, Spain C D Bertram The University of New South
K S Al Jabri Sultan Qaboos University, Oman Wales, Australia
E Alarcon Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, D E Beskos University of Patras, Greece
Spain S K Bhattacharyya Indian Institute of
A Aldama IMTA, Mexico Technology, India
C Alessandri Universita di Ferrara, Italy E Blums Latvian Academy of Sciences, Latvia
D Almorza Gomar University of Cadiz, J Boarder Cartref Consulting Systems, UK
Spain B Bobee Institut National de la Recherche
B Alzahabi Kettering University, USA Scientifique, Canada
J A C Ambrosio IDMEC, Portugal H Boileau ESIGEC, France
A M Amer Cairo University, Egypt J J Bommer Imperial College London, UK
S A Anagnostopoulos University of Patras, M Bonnet Ecole Polytechnique, France
Greece C A Borrego University of Aveiro, Portugal
M Andretta Montecatini, Italy A R Bretones University of Granada, Spain
E Angelino A.R.P.A. Lombardia, Italy J A Bryant University of Exeter, UK
H Antes Technische Universitat Braunschweig, F-G Buchholz Universitat Gesanthochschule
Germany Paderborn, Germany
M A Atherton South Bank University, UK M B Bush The University of Western
A G Atkins University of Reading, UK Australia, Australia
D Aubry Ecole Centrale de Paris, France F Butera Politecnico di Milano, Italy
H Azegami Toyohashi University of J Byrne University of Portsmouth, UK
Technology, Japan W Cantwell Liverpool University, UK
A F M Azevedo University of Porto, Portugal D J Cartwright Bucknell University, USA
J Baish Bucknell University, USA P G Carydis National Technical University of
J M Baldasano Universitat Politecnica de Athens, Greece
Catalunya, Spain J J Casares Long Universidad de Santiago de
J G Bartzis Institute of Nuclear Technology, Compostela, Spain
Greece M A Celia Princeton University, USA
A Bejan Duke University, USA A Chakrabarti Indian Institute of Science,
M P Bekakos Democritus University of India
Thrace, Greece A H-D Cheng University of Mississippi, USA
J Chilton University of Lincoln, UK J P du Plessis University of Stellenbosch,
C-L Chiu University of Pittsburgh, USA South Africa
H Choi Kangnung National University, Korea R Duffell University of Hertfordshire, UK
A Cieslak Technical University of Lodz, A Ebel University of Cologne, Germany
Poland E E Edoutos Democritus University of
S Clement Transport System Centre, Australia Thrace, Greece
M W Collins Brunel University, UK G K Egan Monash University, Australia
J J Connor Massachusetts Institute of K M Elawadly Alexandria University, Egypt
Technology, USA K-H Elmer Universitat Hannover, Germany
M C Constantinou State University of New D Elms University of Canterbury, New Zealand
York at Buffalo, USA M E M El-Sayed Kettering University, USA
D E Cormack University of Toronto, Canada D M Elsom Oxford Brookes University, UK
M Costantino Royal Bank of Scotland, UK A El-Zafrany Cranfield University, UK
D F Cutler Royal Botanic Gardens, UK F Erdogan Lehigh University, USA
W Czyczula Krakow University of F P Escrig University of Seville, Spain
Technology, Poland
D J Evans Nottingham Trent University, UK
M da Conceicao Cunha University of
Coimbra, Portugal J W Everett Rowan University, USA
A Davies University of Hertfordshire, UK M Faghri University of Rhode Island, USA
M Davis Temple University, USA R A Falconer Cardiff University, UK
A B de Almeida Instituto Superior Tecnico, M N Fardis University of Patras, Greece
Portugal P Fedelinski Silesian Technical University,
E R de Arantes e Oliveira Instituto Superior Poland
Tecnico, Portugal H J S Fernando Arizona State University,
L De Biase University of Milan, Italy USA
R de Borst Delft University of Technology, S Finger Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Netherlands J I Frankel University of Tennessee, USA
G De Mey University of Ghent, Belgium D M Fraser University of Cape Town, South
A De Montis Universita di Cagliari, Italy Africa
A De Naeyer Universiteit Ghent, Belgium M J Fritzler University of Calgary, Canada
W P De Wilde Vrije Universiteit Brussel, U Gabbert Otto-von-Guericke Universitat
Belgium Magdeburg, Germany
L Debnath University of Texas-Pan American, G Gambolati Universita di Padova, Italy
USA C J Gantes National Technical University of
N J Dedios Mimbela Universidad de Athens, Greece
Cordoba, Spain L Gaul Universitat Stuttgart, Germany
G Degrande Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, A Genco University of Palermo, Italy
Belgium N Georgantzis Universitat Jaume I, Spain
S del Giudice University of Udine, Italy P Giudici Universita di Pavia, Italy
G Deplano Universita di Cagliari, Italy F Gomez Universidad Politecnica de Valencia,
I Doltsinis University of Stuttgart, Germany Spain
M Domaszewski Universite de Technologie R Gomez Martin University of Granada,
de Belfort-Montbeliard, France Spain
J Dominguez University of Seville, Spain D Goulias University of Maryland, USA
K Dorow Pacific Northwest National K G Goulias Pennsylvania State University,
Laboratory, USA USA
W Dover University College London, UK F Grandori Politecnico di Milano, Italy
C Dowlen South Bank University, UK W E Grant Texas A & M University, USA
S Grilli University of Rhode Island, USA
R H J Grimshaw Loughborough University, M Karlsson Linkoping University, Sweden
UK T Katayama Doshisha University, Japan
D Gross Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, K L Katsifarakis Aristotle University of
Germany Thessaloniki, Greece
R Grundmann Technische Universitat J T Katsikadelis National Technical
Dresden, Germany University of Athens, Greece
A Gualtierotti IDHEAP, Switzerland E Kausel Massachusetts Institute of
R C Gupta National University of Singapore, Technology, USA
Singapore H Kawashima The University of Tokyo,
J M Hale University of Newcastle, UK Japan
K Hameyer Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, B A Kazimee Washington State University,
Belgium USA
C Hanke Danish Technical University, S Kim University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Denmark D Kirkland Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners
K Hayami National Institute of Informatics, Ltd, UK
Japan E Kita Nagoya University, Japan
Y Hayashi Nagoya University, Japan A S Kobayashi University of Washington,
L Haydock Newage International Limited, UK USA
A H Hendrickx Free University of Brussels, T Kobayashi University of Tokyo, Japan
Belgium D Koga Saga University, Japan
C Herman John Hopkins University, USA S Kotake University of Tokyo, Japan
S Heslop University of Bristol, UK A N Kounadis National Technical University
I Hideaki Nagoya University, Japan of Athens, Greece
D A Hills University of Oxford, UK W B Kratzig Ruhr Universitat Bochum,
W F Huebner Southwest Research Institute, Germany
USA T Krauthammer Penn State University, USA
J A C Humphrey Bucknell University, USA C-H Lai University of Greenwich, UK
M Y Hussaini Florida State University, USA M Langseth Norwegian University of Science
W Hutchinson Edith Cowan University, and Technology, Norway
Australia B S Larsen Technical University of Denmark,
T H Hyde University of Nottingham, UK Denmark
M Iguchi Science University of Tokyo, Japan F Lattarulo Politecnico di Bari, Italy
D B Ingham University of Leeds, UK A Lebedev Moscow State University, Russia
L Int Panis VITO Expertisecentrum IMS, L J Leon University of Montreal, Canada
Belgium D Lewis Mississippi State University, USA
N Ishikawa National Defence Academy, Japan S lghobashi University of California Irvine,
J Jaafar UiTm, Malaysia USA
W Jager Technical University of Dresden, K-C Lin University of New Brunswick,
Germany Canada
Y Jaluria Rutgers University, USA A A Liolios Democritus University of Thrace,
Greece
C M Jefferson University of the West of
England, UK S Lomov Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium
P R Johnston Griffith University, Australia
J W S Longhurst University of the West of
D R H Jones University of Cambridge, UK England, UK
N Jones University of Liverpool, UK G Loo The University of Auckland, New
D Kaliampakos National Technical Zealand
University of Athens, Greece D Lóránt Károly Róbert College, Hungary
N Kamiya Nagoya University, Japan J Lourenco Universidade do Minho, Portugal
D L Karabalis University of Patras, Greece
J E Luco University of California at San F Neumann University of Vienna, Austria
Diego, USA S-I Nishida Saga University, Japan
H Lui State Seismological Bureau Harbin, H Nisitani Kyushu Sangyo University, Japan
China
B Notaros University of Massachusetts, USA
C J Lumsden University of Toronto, Canada
P O’Donoghue University College Dublin,
L Lundqvist Division of Transport and Ireland
Location Analysis, Sweden
R O O’Neill Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
T Lyons Murdoch University, Australia USA
Y-W Mai University of Sydney, Australia M Ohkusu Kyushu University, Japan
M Majowiecki University of Bologna, Italy G Oliveto Universitá di Catania, Italy
D Malerba Università degli Studi di Bari, Italy R Olsen Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., USA
G Manara University of Pisa, Italy E Oñate Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya,
B N Mandal Indian Statistical Institute, India Spain
Ü Mander University of Tartu, Estonia K Onishi Ibaraki University, Japan
H A Mang Technische Universitat Wien, P H Oosthuizen Queens University, Canada
Austria E L Ortiz Imperial College London, UK
G D Manolis Aristotle University of E Outa Waseda University, Japan
Thessaloniki, Greece
A S Papageorgiou Rensselaer Polytechnic
W J Mansur COPPE/UFRJ, Brazil Institute, USA
N Marchettini University of Siena, Italy J Park Seoul National University, Korea
J D M Marsh Griffith University, Australia G Passerini Universita delle Marche, Italy
J F Martin-Duque Universidad Complutense, B C Patten University of Georgia, USA
Spain
G Pelosi University of Florence, Italy
T Matsui Nagoya University, Japan
G G Penelis Aristotle University of
G Mattrisch DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany Thessaloniki, Greece
F M Mazzolani University of Naples W Perrie Bedford Institute of Oceanography,
“Federico II”, Italy Canada
K McManis University of New Orleans, USA R Pietrabissa Politecnico di Milano, Italy
A C Mendes Universidade de Beira Interior, H Pina Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal
Portugal
M F Platzer Naval Postgraduate School, USA
R A Meric Research Institute for Basic
Sciences, Turkey D Poljak University of Split, Croatia
J Mikielewicz Polish Academy of Sciences, V Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
Poland H Power University of Nottingham, UK
N Milic-Frayling Microsoft Research Ltd, D Prandle Proudman Oceanographic
UK Laboratory, UK
R A W Mines University of Liverpool, UK M Predeleanu University Paris VI, France
C A Mitchell University of Sydney, Australia M R I Purvis University of Portsmouth, UK
K Miura Kajima Corporation, Japan I S Putra Institute of Technology Bandung,
A Miyamoto Yamaguchi University, Japan Indonesia
T Miyoshi Kobe University, Japan Y A Pykh Russian Academy of Sciences,
Russia
G Molinari University of Genoa, Italy
F Rachidi EMC Group, Switzerland
T B Moodie University of Alberta, Canada
M Rahman Dalhousie University, Canada
D B Murray Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
K R Rajagopal Texas A & M University, USA
G Nakhaeizadeh DaimlerChrysler AG,
Germany T Rang Tallinn Technical University, Estonia
M B Neace Mercer University, USA J Rao Case Western Reserve University, USA
D Necsulescu University of Ottawa, Canada A M Reinhorn State University of New York
at Buffalo, USA
A D Rey McGill University, Canada L C Simoes University of Coimbra, Portugal
D N Riahi University of Illinois at Urbana- A C Singhal Arizona State University, USA
Champaign, USA P Skerget University of Maribor, Slovenia
B Ribas Spanish National Centre for J Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Environmental Health, Spain Slovakia
K Richter Graz University of Technology, V Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences,
Austria Slovakia
S Rinaldi Politecnico di Milano, Italy A C M Sousa University of New Brunswick,
F Robuste Universitat Politecnica de Canada
Catalunya, Spain H Sozer Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
J Roddick Flinders University, Australia D B Spalding CHAM, UK
A C Rodrigues Universidade Nova de Lisboa, P D Spanos Rice University, USA
Portugal
T Speck Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg,
F Rodrigues Poly Institute of Porto, Portugal Germany
C W Roeder University of Washington, USA C C Spyrakos National Technical University
J M Roesset Texas A & M University, USA of Athens, Greece
W Roetzel Universitaet der Bundeswehr I V Stangeeva St Petersburg University,
Hamburg, Germany Russia
V Roje University of Split, Croatia J Stasiek Technical University of Gdansk,
R Rosset Laboratoire d’Aerologie, France Poland
J L Rubio Centro de Investigaciones sobre G E Swaters University of Alberta, Canada
Desertificacion, Spain S Syngellakis University of Southampton, UK
T J Rudolphi Iowa State University, USA J Szmyd University of Mining and Metallurgy,
S Russenchuck Magnet Group, Switzerland Poland
H Ryssel Fraunhofer Institut Integrierte S T Tadano Hokkaido University, Japan
Schaltungen, Germany H Takemiya Okayama University, Japan
S G Saad American University in Cairo, Egypt I Takewaki Kyoto University, Japan
M Saiidi University of Nevada-Reno, USA C-L Tan Carleton University, Canada
R San Jose Technical University of Madrid, M Tanaka Shinshu University, Japan
Spain E Taniguchi Kyoto University, Japan
F J Sanchez-Sesma Instituto Mexicano del S Tanimura Aichi University of Technology,
Petroleo, Mexico Japan
B Sarler Nova Gorica Polytechnic, Slovenia J L Tassoulas University of Texas at Austin,
S A Savidis Technische Universitat Berlin, USA
Germany M A P Taylor University of South Australia,
A Savini Universita de Pavia, Italy Australia
G Schmid Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Germany A Terranova Politecnico di Milano, Italy
R Schmidt RWTH Aachen, Germany E Tiezzi University of Siena, Italy
B Scholtes Universitaet of Kassel, Germany A G Tijhuis Technische Universiteit
W Schreiber University of Alabama, USA Eindhoven, Netherlands
A P S Selvadurai McGill University, Canada T Tirabassi Institute FISBAT-CNR, Italy
J J Sendra University of Seville, Spain S Tkachenko Otto-von-Guericke-University,
Germany
J J Sharp Memorial University of
Newfoundland, Canada N Tosaka Nihon University, Japan
Q Shen Massachusetts Institute of Technology, T Tran-Cong University of Southern
USA Queensland, Australia
X Shixiong Fudan University, China R Tremblay Ecole Polytechnique, Canada
G C Sih Lehigh University, USA I Tsukrov University of New Hampshire, USA
R Turra CINECA Interuniversity Computing H Westphal University of Magdeburg,
Centre, Italy Germany
S G Tushinski Moscow State University, J R Whiteman Brunel University, UK
Russia Z-Y Yan Peking University, China
J-L Uso Universitat Jaume I, Spain S Yanniotis Agricultural University of Athens,
E Van den Bulck Katholieke Universiteit Greece
Leuven, Belgium A Yeh University of Hong Kong, China
D Van den Poel Ghent University, Belgium J Yoon Old Dominion University, USA
R van der Heijden Radboud University, K Yoshizato Hiroshima University, Japan
Netherlands
T X Yu Hong Kong University of Science &
R van Duin Delft University of Technology, Technology, Hong Kong
Netherlands
M Zador Technical University of Budapest,
P Vas University of Aberdeen, UK Hungary
W S Venturini University of Sao Paulo, Brazil K Zakrzewski Politechnika Lodzka, Poland
R Verhoeven Ghent University, Belgium M Zamir University of Western Ontario,
A Viguri Universitat Jaume I, Spain Canada
Y Villacampa Esteve Universidad de R Zarnic University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Alicante, Spain G Zharkova Institute of Theoretical and
F F V Vincent University of Bath, UK Applied Mechanics, Russia
S Walker Imperial College, UK N Zhong Maebashi Institute of Technology,
G Walters University of Exeter, UK Japan
B Weiss University of Vienna, Austria H G Zimmermann Siemens AG, Germany
 Island Sustainability

Editors

S. Favro
Hydographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia

&

C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
S. Favro
Hydographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia
C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Published by
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A Catalogue record for this book is available

from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-84564-434-5
ISSN: 1746-448X (print)
ISSN: 1743-3541 (online)

The texts of the papers in this volume were set

individually by the authors or under their supervision.
Only minor corrections to the text may have been carried
out by the publisher.

No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher, the Editors and Authors for any injury and/or
damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the
material herein. The Publisher does not necessarily endorse the ideas held, or views expressed
by the Editors or Authors of the material contained in its publications.

© WIT Press 2010

Printed in Great Britain by MPG Books Group, Bodmin and King’s Lynn.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.
 Preface

This book contains papers presented at the 1st International Conference on Island
Sustainability organised on the Island of Brac by both the Wessex Institute of
Technology of the UK and the Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia.

Croatia, having a rich sea area with over a thousand islands was an ideal location
for the event which attracted delegates from many different countries. The Croatian
Hydrographic Institute, host of the meeting, is in charge of the most significant
projects related to the development of those islands.

Current global socio-economic trends call attention to the endangered conditions

of relatively confined environments all over the world. Many of these regions face
problems of depopulation and lack of adequate infrastructures. The problems are
aggravated for the case of islands which have limited resources and few possibilities
of developing different types of supporting infrastructures.

Many islands depend on tourism for their economic survival. Most of them however,
cannot provide all the resources required to maintain a large seasonal population
and in many cases basic requirements such as water and energy, as well as
agricultural produce, need to be imported.

The impact of large seasonal population increases in the community and the resulting
socio-economic factors need to be carefully evaluated, as well as issues related to
transportation and communication, all of which should be part of an overall strategy.

Of primary importance in many cases is to ensure all year round economic activities
in order to achieve a permanent and completely sustainable use of the islands’
potential.

This book contains papers dealing with projects, initiatives and experiences related
to different island issues. By using the experience of well developed island
environments, it is possible to learn how to ensure the development of other island
communities, not only to prevent depopulation but to encourage new settlement.
Those projects will serve as guidelines for other initiatives in less developed islands,
adapting those experiences to specific regional, cultural and socio-economic
characteristics.

The objective is to encourage the sustainable development of islands taking into

consideration all their specific qualities, aiming to sustain life, to encourage
demographic revival through economic development, in a manner harmonious with
their natural environment and their cultural and historic traditions.

Different islands present a variety of diverse problems but much can be learned by
sharing their experiences. This book demonstrates how this can be done.

The Editors are grateful to all authors for their contributions and to the members of
the International Scientific Advisory Committee who by reviewing the papers were
able to ensure the high quality of the book.

The Editors
Brac, Croatia, 2010
 Contents

Section 1: Tourism impact and strategies

Possibilities and limitations in the development of selective forms

of tourism in the Croatian archipelago: case study of the Istrian islands
Z. Gržetić, M. Kovačić & S. Favro ...................................................................... 3

Selection, design and dissemination of Fuerteventura’s projected

tourism image (Canary Isles)
A. J. Rodríguez, P. Díaz, D. Ruiz-Labourdette, F. D. Pineda,
M. F. Schmitz & A. Santana .............................................................................. 13

How far does tourism stress coral reef environment in island states:
case studies of Indian Ocean and Caribbean islands
V. Duvat............................................................................................................. 25

Tourism valorisation of lighthouses on Croatian islands

and along the coast
V. T. Opačić, S. Favro & M. Perišić.................................................................. 37

Section 2: Community issues

Scales and scenarios of change in the anthropology-landscape

relationship: models of cultural tourism in Fuerteventura
(Canary Isles)
D. Ruiz-Labourdette, P. Díaz, A. J. Rodríguez, A. Santana,
M. F. Schmitz & F. D. Pineda ........................................................................... 51

Development of sustainability indices for the wider area of

Troodos in Cyprus
A. Zorpas, S. Malamis, G. Lambrou, E. Katsou, M. Loizidou
& I. Voukkali...................................................................................................... 65
The attitudes of the island local community towards sustainable
tourism development – the case of Stari Grad, island Hvar
L. Petrić & L. Pranić ......................................................................................... 77

The socio-cultural impacts of visiting friends and relatives on hosts:

a Samoan study
R. G. Taufatofua & S. Craig-Smith.................................................................... 89

Traditional medicinal knowledge in Cuba

I. M. Madaleno ................................................................................................ 101

Section 3: Changing climate and environment

Is it really happening here? A study of climate change perception

in the Azores
R. T. Cunha, B. Rangel, O. Vieira & I. E. Rego .............................................. 113

Future sea level rise implications on development of Lazarus Island,

Singapore Southern Islands
T. S. Teh, D. K. Raju, K. Santosh & J. Chandrasekar ..................................... 121

Rising sea level and long term sustainability of near-shore islands

of the United Arab Emirates: an approach to establishing setback lines
for Abu Dhabi
G. G. Garland.................................................................................................. 135

Coastal erosion in the archaeological area of Selinunte

V. Liguori & A. Porcaro .................................................................................. 147

Coastal monitoring with high resolution synthetic aperture radar

P. Trivero, W. Biamino, M. Borasi & M. Cavagnero ...................................... 161

3-D process modelling of ancient storm-dominated deposits by an

event-based approach
L. Laigle, P. Joseph, G. de Marsily & S. Violette ............................................ 171

Section 4: Infrastructures

Infrastructure maintenance and disaster prevention measures on

isolated Islands: the case of the Izu Islands near Tokyo
H. Gotoh, Y. Maeno, M. Takezawa, T. Murata & N. Takahashi..........................185

Responsive demand in isolated energy systems

D. Livengood, F. C. Sim-Sim, C. S. Ioakimidis & R. Larson ........................... 197
Innovative shore protection for island communities
S. J. Boc & E. C. Burg ..................................................................................... 209

Designing of protective seaside wall composite elements for

protection of roads along the seashore
A. E. Ushakov, Y. G. Klenin, A. V. Pankov & S. N. Ozerov............................. 221

Application of composite materials for the protection of sea shores

and engineering structures against the impact of waves
E. S. Ashpiz, A. O. Egorov & A. E. Ushakov ................................................... 231

A new approach to estimate armourstone abrasion:

modified slake durability test
Ö. Acır & R. Kılıç ............................................................................................ 239

Section 5: Transport issues

Travelling towards and from minor islands through non-conventional

air transport: demand and cost analysis
L. La Franca, M. Catalano, F. Castelluccio & F. Montano............................ 251

Development of nautical tourism: islands development motivator

N. Jolić, N. Perko & Z. Kavran ....................................................................... 267

Fast charging stations for electric vehicles infrastructure

J. Borges, C. S. Ioakimidis & P. Ferrão .......................................................... 275

Author Index .................................................................................................. 285

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 Section 1
Tourism impact and strategies
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 Island Sustainability 3

Possibilities and limitations in the development

of selective forms of tourism in the Croatian
archipelago: case study of the Istrian islands
Z. Gržetić1, M. Kovačić2 & S. Favro1
1
Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia, Croatia
2
Primorsko-goranska County, Department of Maritime Affairs,
Transportation and Communication, Croatia

Abstract
In this paper, the authors point to the importance of the research and analysis for
the purpose of development and valorisation of islands. The directions of the
future development have been defined as the main support to planning and
decision-making. The analytical approach is of particular importance for the
long-term development of Istrian tourism.
The approach and methodology applied in the research are based on the
analysis of data from primary and secondary sources. Such data indicate the
current situation in the unique and distinct area of special importance. Primary
sources data have been collected and processed in the Programme of sustainable
development of the islands in the Istrian County. The authors have observed the
data through their causal connection in the space, especially among selective
forms of tourism and preservation of the environment, and socio-economic
processes caused by the development of tourism. The secondary sources of data
are various data obtained from the Croatian Bureau of Statistics (demographic
and economic), marine and topographic charts, and results of multi-criteria site
researches of the Croatian archipelago.
The methodological approach to the processing of various data (geographic,
economic, ecological and sociological), through which the main characteristics
of the effects of tourism in the area of the Croatian littoral are observed, is based
on multi-criteria analysis.
The aim of the research was to identify possibilities and limitations of further
development and improvement of selective forms of tourism in the Istrian
archipelago.

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4 Island Sustainability

On the basis of the researches and analyses and by applying theoretical

knowledge, the authors have defined measures for qualitative development of
selective forms of tourism.
Keywords: Croatian islands, Istrian archipelago, selective forms of tourism,
sustainable development.

1 Introduction
Any multi-criteria problem includes several different, usually conflicting criteria,
which may be of different importance to the decision maker. Most methods for
choosing the best alternative, or generally the methods for multi-criteria decision
making, require information on the relative importance of each criterion
(Roubens [3]). There are a number of methods for assessing the level of
importance of a criterion, completely dependent on the human judgement.
Techniques in that category may apply to an individual or to a group. In that
process, the importance of criteria may be assessed by the decision maker
himself or the relevant opinion is sought from a group of experts (judges). A
systematic approach in solving such multi-criteria problems requires a multi-
criteria analysis in order to define recommendations to the local government in
the planning of future development.

2 Defining the problem

The research [8] has revealed that the south-western coast of Istria is surrounded
by 81 islands and rocks, contrary to the conventional perception that Istrian
islands embrace the archipelago of Brijuni, the islands of Sv. Nikola, Katarina
and Crveni Otok (hotels), the island of Veruda (campsite) as well as a few minor
islands, neglected by users. It comes to an estimated number of 30 islands at the
most, which is approximately one third of the real number of islands.

2.1 Description of the area

As for their geographic position, the Istrian islands belong to the Croatian part of
the Adriatic Sea, specifically its northernmost portion. Such geographic position
is responsible for some specific characteristics unique in the Adriatic. The most
northern part of the Adriatic Sea is a shallow area with maximum average depths
of about 30-35 metres. The Istrian littoral is distinguished not only by a large
number of islets, but also by many rocks and different types of seabed sediments.
Morphological diversity of the seabed provides for many different living
conditions and a great variety of habitats. Therefore, in this relatively small area
one can find almost all original elements of the marine ecosystems in the
Adriatic. In the southern part of Istria around Cape Kamenjak, the island area
borders on the deep open sea, so that constant and strong current flow allows the
exchange of water masses and continuous inflow of the sea water. Like other
enclosed and shallow areas worldwide, this sea area is subject to a significant

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 Island Sustainability 5

hydrological and meteorological variability. It is the coldest part of the Adriatic,

its ecological factors being highly variable [7].
These generally small islands are in fact isolated unities with specific
endemic communities of flora and fauna, much influenced by the sea.
Scarce resources of arable land surrounded by the sea and traditionally unsafe
position of small island settlements by the sea, as compared to substantial
resources of arable land and vicinity of the position of mainland settlements with
safe hinterland, are the main reason why Istrian islands are traditionally
uninhabited.
Coastal area is the area of islands much defined by the influence of the sea
(about 3 km), and with Istrian islands, because of their size, it embraces the
whole surface area of islands.
Sensitivity of ecosystems on both coasts of an island is even greater with an
archipelago - a group of islands lying relatively close to one another. In this case,
the belts of direct ecological exchange in the seabed join together in a shallow
coastal belt of the internal coastal waters. The system of local ports and small
harbours and marinas (nautical tourism ports and small harbours) on the Istrian
coast, together with waterways in the internal coastal waters, make these islands
easily accessible. In 300 m area off the most prominent parts of the coast, special
regime of navigation is established to ensure safe conditions for leisure activities
in this sea area.

2.2 Defining the problem

As to their size and lack of population, the islands in the Istrian County are quite
untypical of average Croatian islands which set the standards for special
regulations on islands. According to such criteria, these islands, with some
exceptions in national parks, are economically insignificant, which should be
redefined in Istria.
However, it is a potential unique and particular area of special significance.
This could be very important for a long-term development of Istrian tourism,
even if it is just a promotion. As a rule, Istrian islands are usually presented and
analysed within a formal administrative-territorial division, as belonging to a city
or district (Poreč, Vrsar, Rovinj, Bale, Pula, Medulin, and Ližnjan), which take
little or no interest in them.
Their analytical division should be based on a functional classification of
their attractiveness as tourist destinations, as a result of their present status and
use (national park, wild islands, specific agricultural production, islands with
lighthouses, organised day-trip tourism, hotel complexes, and urban purpose).
Being uninhabited, and having no other alternative, except two islands off
Pula, intended for urban purposes, Istrian islands are appropriate for day-trip
tourism. However, due to their particular characteristics and position, they need
to be further investigated, taking into account evaluation methods and
presentation of current situation, especially of their present use.

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3 Assessment of the current situation

Istrian islands are constitutive parts of the Istrian tourism basis, the basis for
creating an optimal Istrian tourist product, but they are also parts of tourism
bases of particular tourist destinations for creating their respective tourist
products.

3.1 Economic and social use

The islands with hotel complexes (Sv. Nikola, Katarina, and Crveni Otok) and an
organised campsite (Veruda) have reduced possibilities for day-trip tourism. The
island of Veliki Brijun, with hotels, is in the same position, as it represents a
joint attraction together with other islands of the Brijuni archipelago (within the
Brijuni National Park), which should be evaluated separately.
Each island has its area of the seabed, attractive for tourism. In some places,
Istrian islands are grouped into archipelagos incorporating parts of sea areas into
a visually attractive whole, protected from winds and waves, and therefore
suitable for sports and recreation. Besides the Brijuni islands, there are three
more such groups of islands, near Poreč and Vrsar, near Rovinj, and near
Medulin and Premantura.
Most of Istrian islands and their surrounding areas are protected by
environmental protection regulations on different levels:
 national park,
 protected landscape or
 ornithological reserve, and
 special marine reserve.
Those that remained unprotected by any such regulations are the islands of
Sv. Andrija, Katarina, Uljanik, and Veruda in the port of Pula, as well as
Premanturski Školjić and Pomerski Školjić in the port of Medulin. In this way,
most of Istrian islands have been protected from any construction, even of tourist
facilities, requiring an integral approach to their use for tourism purposes.
It should be emphasized that the marketing name of Crveni Otok (Red island)
in fact includes two connected islands: Sv. Andrija and Maškin.
Each island and particular groups of Istrian islands, have an authentic or
transformed organic connection with some places on shore. These islands were
originally used by local inhabitants living on shore for agriculture and cattle
breeding, which later has become neglected. In the meantime, an uncontrolled
tourism conversion occurs in the relation between islands and mainland.

3.2 Assessment of the current situation

In the first stage of the research, assessment of island situation in the Istrian
County required a complete identification and functional classification of all
Istrian islands, especially in order to be perceived as a unity in respect of
tourism. This unity is evaluated in terms of a total number of islands and rocks,
their size, and their use according to tourist standards [8].

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Although being relatively small as compared to other Croatian islands, except

Veliki Brijun, Istrian islands differ as follows:
 Big islands
 Medium islands
 Small islands
 Very small islands and rocks.
On the basis of the current tourism situation and tourism potentials on these
islands, seven modalities were defined for their tourist use or counter reasons for
such use:
 National park
 Wild islands
 Specific agriculture
 Islands with lighthouses
 Organised day-trip tourism
 Hotel complexes
Among eighty-one Istrian islands, just one can be regarded to be relatively
big (Veliki Brijun), two of relatively medium size (Mali Brijun and Veruda),
seventeen small ones, and even sixty-one very small ones.
Fourteen islands have been designated as national park, forty-eight as wild
islands, one of them with specific agriculture, five islands with lighthouses,
seven islands with organised day-trip tourism, four islands with tourist
complexes, not including Veliki Brijun which is mainly regarded as national
park, while two islands are intended for urban purposes.
In terms of tourism, Istrian islands should be evaluated from the following
points of view:
 as island unities, and
 within their manner of use.

3.2.1 Istrian islands as a whole (“Istrian island necklace”)

In the valid plans of Istrian County (regional plans, development plans, and
marketing tourism plans), Istrian islands are not singled out as essential
component of Istria [7].
Representation of Istrian islands entitled the Istrian island necklace, reveals a
specific tourist area, to be evaluated in functional, development and marketing
terms both as a whole and individually.
Brijuni National Park
In spite of the fact that Brijuni National Park has a specific inner structure, due to
its legal status, it is the most valuable pearl on the Istrian necklace. Its inner
structure is not in contrast with the overall structure of Istrian islands. Veliki
Brijun offers accommodation (456 beds in 238 facilities), sightseeing attractions,
and day-trip facilities. Some facilities untypical of tourism are also situated there
(military ones), as well as some exceptional facilities (government protocol).
Mali Brijun has an attractive but inactive fortification system, Vanga memorial
objects, while other islands can be regarded as wild.
Many studies and plans have been made to define the purpose of the area of
National Park, especially regarding its accommodation facilities, implying

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permanent facilities and marinas. Analyses of accommodation facilities on the

Brijuni islands, within the national park standards, show that if the hotel tradition
is continued, accommodation for 800 guests at the most can be provided, while
marinas are not recommended.
Wild islands
Wild islands include all islands and rocks covered with underbrush or stone
rocks, without a landing for vessels. As an ecological outpost, they contribute to
the island landscape, and attract tourists who take interest in sailing around and
sightseeing from the vessel, swimming ashore, and staying there on an ecotourist
day basis. On some of these islands there are valuable archaeological and
paleontological finds.
Specific agriculture
To the present day, specific agriculture has been preserved just on the island of
Fenera, where herds are a special attraction for tourists.
Islands with lighthouses
When sailing around, special visual attractions for tourists are lighthouses on
some of the islands, belonging to a specific building heritage. There is a
possibility of visiting them, taking care not to obstruct their basic function.

3.2.2 Manner of use of Istrian islands

Certain islands offer organised day-trip tourism of different types: from the
vaguely differentiated campsite of stationary-visiting type, through excursion
facilities with all modern comforts, to modest landings for vessels. These islands
are intensively visited.
Hotel complexes
Some islands have hotel complexes which by their size (Sv. Nikola – 460 beds,
Katarina - 320 beds in 120 accommodation facilities, and Crveni Otok
/connected islands of Sv. Andrija and Maškin/ 969 beds in 411 accommodation
facilities) absorb entire accommodation of these islands on mass tourism level,
leaving little space for recreational day-trip tourism.
Urban purpose
Two islands in the port of Pula are intended for special economic purposes, and
could be just theoretically used for tourist purposes, for leisured education on the
modern production (living and working culture).
Maritime traffic
Maritime traffic in the Istrian County, as to its strategic position, the number of
urban settlements on shore, and morphological features of the coastal area, does
not meet the criteria for a more intensive development. This is particularly true
of the public, international, and regional traffic of passengers and goods, and in
some degree of leisure sailing.

4 Development possibilities and limitations – tourism

Indented coastline with a number of islands, islets, and rocks, crystal clear sea,
and preserved cultivated landscape, and a large part of the natural seaside, are

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considered to be special values not only of Istria, but of Croatia as well [6].
Development plans include particularly the following elements [9, 10]:
 tourist component of the area as a major strategic development guideline,
 criteria for the use of coastal area, and
 measures to improve the quality of the environment.
Management of Istrian islands, and of the Croatian Adriatic as a whole,
should be based on the integral management of the coastal area [4]. Such area
includes the coast, the continental shelf – national territorial waters, and the
maritime border of Croatia, involving the plan for the purpose of the sea (surface
and seabed) with important economic function of fisheries and mariculture.
Possibilities which are under consideration for future development of Istrian
islands are mostly aesthetic-ecological, and just for some islets tourist-
recreational, or economic. Special issues are related to the islands of Brijuni,
managed by the Brijuni National Park, under the Ministry of Culture, Directorate
for Nature Protection. The islands have many development needs, whose
realisation is slow. The islands of Brijuni are also used for the government
protocol, hence the presence of the Croatian Army. These islands attract different
development-investment interests some of which may be characterized even as
outward threats to sustainable and ecological development.
In the context of regional development of Croatia, coasts and marinas have
been designated as areas of special concern because of increased interest and
value, or areas of rising interest in investments. For this reason, nautical centres
should be distributed regularly throughout the area. In other words, it is
necessary to have few large marinas and a large number of smaller ones, to meet
an increased need for berths and other services provided to leisure mariners
during the season.
Special emphasis within regional development and planning orientation of
tourism is placed upon the development of tourism according to possibilities
(capacities) and limitations of a particular area.
Regional plan of the Istrian County specifies the following limitations and
standards for the ports of nautical tourism:
Dry marinas
 available area in the costal part should meet the need for storage of at least
500 vessels on land,
 berths in the sea area should be constructed as transit berths only,
 dry marina may include a shipyard for the construction or repair of vessels
less than 25 m in length, and preferably of larger vessels,
 dry marina should be directly connected with the surrounding area by an
urban road at least.
Marinas
 if the area for storage of vessels on land is insufficient, in terms of special
regulations, it shall be provided on other suitable locations in the
construction area of that city within 5 km of the harbour, provided that all
approach roads to the harbour are urban roads at least, and that they are
permitted for the transport of special cargo,

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 as a rule, marinas are constructed in the close vicinity of areas with major
tourist accommodation or recreational facilities, or within port areas near
major urban centres,
 marinas should have possibilities of expanding into the surrounding area, but
not to the disadvantage of swimming and bathing and other recreational
facilities, nor threatening the protected parts of the environment,
 number of vessels per hectare of the sea area is not recommended less than
50 and greater than 120.
When determining the coverage of particular ports, in order to set the
standard, berth is understood to be the berth for a vessel of about 12 m in length,
where such vessel is taken as equivalent to an accommodation unit of apartment
type, or 3 beds.
Maximum volume of ports of nautical tourism, covering the construction area
plus the sea area, is given as:
number of berths x equivalent number of beds x unit-surface per bed
All ports of nautical tourism, defined by the Plan as new ports (except dry
marinas), can be initially built as landing places or yacht harbours, and for such
purposes concessions can be granted at county level. Categorization of marinas
sets high standards, especially to the existing ones. Therefore, when they have
fulfilled minimum categorization conditions, they must invest in services to
obtain the required quality level.

5 Recommendations for protection of the sea and coastal area

To protect efficiently the sea and coastal area, the local government must take
the following actions:
 define the limits of maritime domain for each local government unit through
regional plans,
 establish and develop a register of sea polluters, identify the methods to
eliminate pollution, and the points of permanent quality control of the sea
water – especially for internal waters and the territorial sea,
 designate organisations and companies to conduct the sea monitoring
according to international standards,
 cities and municipalities, both coastal and insular ones, alongside with the
existing or planned sewage systems, should fit mechanical or biological
purification systems, before discharging the waste water into the sea,
 set standards for the equipment of ports of nautical tourism, especially for
technological systems, and fit out the existing and planned ports to be
capable of collecting wastewater from any vessel [2],
 through intensified control and fitting out of ports, prevent the discharge into
the sea (fuel, oil, bilge, solid waste, human waste), in the internal waters and
the territorial sea in order to protect the maritime domain and maintain the
quality of the sea,
 through the development of small tourist harbours, provide adequate
accommodation to leisure mariners, who presently use available bays and
unorganised small local harbours. The concession holder shall be

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responsible for ecological maintenance of the maritime domain, i.e. for

collecting garbage and other waste. Concession provider shall be responsible
for the control of adherence to environmental protection regulations, for an
appropriate charge, providing funds for job vacancies, especially on islands.

6 Conclusion
Istrian archipelago with almost 80 islands and islets is a very valuable area in
ecological and environmental terms. As far as management system is concerned,
Brijuni islands deserve special attention.
The concern about islands becomes prominent when they are in the limelight
for investments or other purposes. This leads to deliberations on their efficient
protection, improvement and development. Local government and inhabitants of
Istria have not recognized yet the possibilities and importance of their islands.
Responsible institutions are usually passive or even unconcerned about the
development of islands and islets on its territory. The exception is Brijuni
archipelago, consisting of three islands with tourist facilities in the area of Rovinj
and Poreč, three islands port for economic purposes in the port of Pula, bringing
revenue for local government, and two or three islets with an improvised catering
activity in the sea area of Medulin.
Insufficient involvement is the main weakness of the above mentioned
institutions. Strength of these islands is their ecological and environmental value.
They render Istrian coast richer and more beautiful. Yet, the information on
strengths and weaknesses of island communities and their social activities is not
available. Intentions and investments, especially from abroad, bring along threats
and opportunities for the development of these islands. Local institutions
responsible for development projects should become involved this process.
It is a logical conclusion that the islands in the Istrian County, both separately
and as a whole, are a major potential tourist attraction, to be evaluated
accordingly and protected from devastation and unreasonable use. This is
possible through the promotion of selective forms of tourism, especially
ecological, medical, and nautical tourism.

References
[1] Domagoj Đ. et al., Ekološki leksikon, Ministarstvo zaštite okoliša i
prostornog uređenja RH, Zagreb, 2001.
[2] Kovačić, M., Gržetić, Z., Dundović, Č., Planning and Selection of Location
for the Nautical Tourism Port for Sustainable Development, Naše More
53(3-4), Dubrovnik, 118-124, 2006.
[3] Roubens, M., Preference relations on actions and criteria in multi-criteria
decision making, European Journal of Operational Research, 10, 1982. pp.
51-55.
[4] Favro, S., Kovačić, M., Physical Plans in Managing Sea and Coastal Area,
25th International Conference on Organizational science development:
“Change management”, Portorož, p. 1049-1058, 2005.

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12 Island Sustainability

[5] Državna uprava za zaštitu prirode i okoliša, Upravljanje hrvatskim obalnim

područjem, Split, 1998.
[6] Institut za turizam, Turizam i razvoj Hrvatske – Strategija razvoja Hrvatske
u 21st, Zagreb, 2001.
[7] Istarska županija, Prostorni plan i smjernice razvoja Istarske županije,
Službene novine br. 2/2002.
[8] Ministarstvo mora, turizma, prometa i razvitka RH, Program održivog
razvitka otoka na području istarske županije, 2004.
[9] PAP/RAC, Smjernice za integralno upravljanje obalnim i morskim
područjima s posebnim osvrtom na Mediteranski bazen, Izvještaji i studije
UNEP-ova Programa za regionalna mora No. 161, Split, 1995.
[10] PAP/RAC, Smjernice za procjenu prihvatnog kapaciteta sredozemnih
obalnih područja za turizam, Program prioritetnih akcija, Centar
regionalnih aktivnosti, Split, 1997.

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 Island Sustainability 13

Selection, design and dissemination of

Fuerteventura’s projected tourism image
(Canary Isles)
A. J. Rodríguez1, P. Díaz2, D. Ruiz-Labourdette2, F. D. Pineda2,
M. F. Schmitz2 & A. Santana1
1
La Laguna University, Spain
2
Complutense University of Madrid, Spain

Abstract
Tourism constitutes an important factor among those influencing sociocultural
change in populations, particularly when these inhabit tourist destinations.
Among the multiple components of the tourism system, the processes of
selection, design and implementation of the ‘constructed image’ are highly
valuable with regard to studying the significance and resignificance of the
territory. The present study analyses these processes through images presented in
brochures and websites relating to the tourism offer of the island of
Fuerteventura (Canary Isles). It can currently be observed that the local
administrations of this island are attempting to project Fuerteventura’s image
through its re-adaptation and differentiation as a tourist destination. The process
gives rise to contradictions in the selection strategies and significance of the
tourism resources between the different administrations and the other actors
responsible for ‘generating an image’.
Keywords: brochures, projected image, symbolic transfiguration, tourism,
tourist destinations, websites.

1 Introduction
Tourism clearly constitutes a leading activity in international, national and
domestic economies. Consensus exists regarding the importance of the tourism
image as a motor thereof. Only one other topic, the impacts of tourism, competes
with this activity with regard to analysis by researchers.

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14 Island Sustainability

Baloglu and McCleary [1] have developed numerous studies on the impact of
visits, familiarity of the image, the relationship between the geographic location
of the tourist and the perceived image, measurement of the image of the
destination, components and factors influencing this, difference between the
tourist’s image (impression) and the image projected by the destination, or
variations in the image depending on the purpose of the visit, among other
objects studied. Gallarza et al. [2] or Frías et al. [3] have reviewed this theme.
Through the creation and dissemination of images, the tourism system fulfils
its role as an agent of significance and resignificance of a determined territory,
and this system therefore becomes an active agent in the reconstruction of the
image of the landscape. Generation of a high percentage of tourist destinations
depends more upon images than on the ‘real characteristics’ of the space visited,
the tourism industry thus creating a reinvented landscape, both for investors and
for tourists.
On the occasion of the Fuerteventura natural resources management plan for
the creation of a National Park on the island, the present paper shows a part of
the processes of territorial resignificance being studied by our team. The task
focuses on the projected image of Fuerteventura as a tourist destination,
appraising the strategies by enterprises and administrations in the creation of
brochures and websites.

2 Theoretical framework
Tourist destinations require strategies for communicating their ‘values’ as
elements of tourist attraction. These values are incorporated into a projectable
image and are subjected to a symbolic and aesthetic transfiguration. It is highly
likely that an image can condition the decision to travel to one destination or
another. Not to mention the possible effects of these actions on resident
populations, the process of design and communication of an image is an
extremely delicate task.
Study of these circumstances has been addressed by means of static and
dynamic approaches, depending on how one examines the relationships between
image and tourist behaviour or whether one is dealing specifically with the
character of the territory and its inhabitants, respectively. Um and Crompton [4],
Gartner [5] and Gallarza et al. [2] consider image as a complex and subjective
conceptual construction (Bigne et al. [6]) that combines the consumer’s emotions
and reasoning with his experience and knowledge of the destination; that is, a
‘cognitive component’ deriving from mental representations and beliefs
regarding the physical attributes of the destination combined with the appraisals
and feelings this arouses (‘emotional component’; Baloglu and Brinberg [7]).
This way of studying tourism is based upon a changing conception of image,
focussing on the above mentioned attributes of the destination and on the
perception of the consumer-tourist, who is considered to create from all of this a
photogram charged with sensibilities, emotions and evaluations (San Martín
Gutiérrez et al. [8]). This is, then, an individualised image (Hunt [9]), determined

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by the activeness-passiveness of all tourists (Mercille [10]). In practice, the

dynamics generated by the consumer-tourist are used in marketing strategies.
Analysis of the image can also adopt a perspective that includes the actors
involved in the design, shaping and transmission of the destination’s imaginary –
such as the local and resident population, institutions, politicians, entrepreneurs
and investors, tour operators and retailers– who project a unique image of their
area in the construction of the destination’s identity. Thus, some elements
participating in the tourism system are culture, the personality and character of
the territory, traditions, history, beliefs, language, etc., all of which characterise
the destination as something unique (‘uniqueness’), or making it stand out above
others. Indeed, in the tourism system, this image is what culturally shapes the
destination and determines to a great extent the visitor’s degree of satisfaction
and his memory of the visit. Furthermore, the sociocultural effects on local
populations of images that are alien to themselves appear in the medium term,
modifying patterns, behavioural features and values and reconstructing local
identities (Franklin and Crang [11]; Rodríguez Darias [12]).
The systemic approach requires global consideration of the image, and
differentiation between the conception, design and implementation of an image
constructed for commercial purposes, and the processes of perception an
interiorisation. The former deals with the habitual marketing campaigns in areas
of demand and destination –actions aimed at promoting coincidence between
what has been advertised and what is available, improvement of the profiles
presented for each consumer typology, etc. The latter corresponds to individual
‘creation’ and comparison.
Development of tourism currently calls for outlines and models of research in
the double aspect of processes subjected to feedback and interconnected ones,
albeit operatively divisible with regard to analysis and implementation. These
processes differentiate the ‘people´s own image’ –ways in which the local
population perceives itself and its environment–, the ‘projected’ one –
constructed, promoted and recreated by tour operators–, the ‘perceived’ one and
the ‘remembered’ one (Santana Talavera [13]).
Focused on real image and on the projected one, the above mentioned image
reconfiguration processes aimed at commercialisation are usually determined by
the interests of the institutions and entrepreneurs of the area and, to a certain
degree, of the residents. One can usually find three strategies, limited in varying
degrees, for construction of this image: i) a joint policy, participatory and
collaborative, involving all or some of those involved in the design of the image
(direct actors at the destination) and in the selection of attributes and conjunction
of products and their physical and emotional references to the destination’s
identity; ii) a more or less interested selection, created around products and
activities available in the area, grouped according to thematic blocks or sub-
territorial areas and iii) a conglomerate of more or less compatible initiatives that
tend to value attributes of the destination as resources, imagining the demand.
Based upon the people´s own (‘real’) image, in the present paper we refer to
two elements of the projected image of Fuerteventura: attracting the client and
providing information by means of brochures and websites. By analysing these,

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we attempt to establish which of the aforementioned strategies is most relevant

on this island, considering the possible problems involved in their
implementation.

3 Method
i) We conducted 341 questionnaires in Fuerteventura airport (July to October,
2008); among other themes, they contained items on the reasons for visiting the
island and on the use and importance of the technology available in the places of
accommodation. The data were completed with information from ISTAC 2000-
2006, 2008 [14]. ii) We systematically reviewed 38 websites on tourism selected
according to their public Google rank. Among those mentioning ‘Fuerteventura
tourism’, in April 2009 we selected those with a rank equal to or higher than 2
over a maximum rank of 10 (a total of 31 links); the seven remaining ones
corresponded to web pages of the municipalities and Council of the island, very
much involved in the image creating processes. iii) We randomly collected
(Glasser and Strauss [15]) 146 commercial brochures relating to Fuerteventura.
We compiled all those existing in November 2008 and February 2009 into
different spaces selected for their representativeness as information zones and
due to the amount of users. The Fuerteventura tourism fair stand (FITUR’S
2009) along with the tourism nuclei of Costa Calma and Caleta de Fuste on this
island, provided a great deal of information.
Data analysis involved coding of the brochures and websites by means of
contents analysis files. The data were standardised with criteria of repeatability,
measurability and comparativeness and were tabulated (Díaz et al. [16]; SPSS 17
software). Moreover, together with participant observation as a basic technique
we also conducted (June and November, 2008) 21 detailed interviews with
whom we considered to be key informing subjects (locals, residents and visitors),
who subsequently helped us to understand and interpret data and results.

4 Results and discussion

The item of the questionnaire ‘how did you get to know Fuerteventura as a
tourist destination?’ shows that the brochures still work (22.87% of the
interviewees were thus informed), although Internet (45.16%), recommendations
by family and friends and travel agencies scored far higher.
The reasons of the tourists for their visit (1,029,502 visitors in 2008, ISTAC
2000-2006, 2008 [14]) highlight the most noteworthy items as ‘climate’ and ‘the
beach’, ‘nature and landscape’, ‘price’ and ‘local culture’ (folklore and
traditions; Table 1) falling far behind. The interviews also showed a high degree
of coincidence in the importance given to sun and the natural quality (not of
services) of the beaches, and we found that residents, as opposed to nationals or
people from the peninsula, show greater appreciation of tranquility and
landscape than the locals, rather than customs and traditions, with the exception
of some folklore. Locals and residents from other islands particularly value local

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Table 1: Reasons expressed by the visitors in the survey for visiting the
island of Fuerteventura.

Reason for the visit N (341) %

Climate 325 95.3
Beaches 296 86.8
Nature and landscape 111 32.6
Folklore and traditions 6 1.8
Price 99 29
Business 9 2.6
Visiting family or friends 23 6.7
Safety 24 7
Cultural offer 4 1.2
Nightlife 4 1.2
Shopping 14 4.1
Other 31 9.1

cultural elements associated with practices considered to be ‘ancestral’ and

which are beginning to represent serious environmental impacts (camping by the
seaside, seafood collection, fishing, etc.); but they reject the idea of regulating
these activities linked to natural services.
The data presented in Table 1 contrast with those from the 2000-2006 series
of ISTAC 2000-2006, 2008 [14] in its section on ‘reasons for the visit’.
Furthermore, a gradual increase has been noted in tourist’s interest for cultural
heritage and landscapes. With regard to the websites and brochures analysed, the
communication provided by Internet appears to be modifying the contact
between people interested in travelling (pre-tourists) and the offer made from the
destinations. Figure 1 presents the percentage of websites analysed presenting

Figure 1: Percentage of websites analysed presenting materials and utilities,

which are indicated. 1. contact; 2. links; 3. suggestions; 4. useful
tips; 5. search engine; 6. climatology; 7. maps, 8. downloadable
catalogues; 9. interactivity; 10. design a la carte; 11. travel log; 12.
virtual graphic materials; 13. online-video/audio; 14. downloadable
video/audio.

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determined materials and utilities. The graph shows that Fuerteventura’s

websites do not respond to the ‘2.0 tourism’ tendency. Aspects such as
interactivity, design a la carte, online travel log and downloadable materials are
as yet beyond their possibilities. The 2.0 tourism model is a novel form of
interaction based upon information technologies facilitating relationships in
virtual social networks and interactivity among pre-tourists, tourists and ex
tourists, and among entrepreneurs, destinations, populations and other creators of
contents. Circumstance can constitute a new conditioning factor of the projected
image as, on one hand, it can be adapted to each consumer profile (according to
characteristics and demands) and, on the other, it can force the destination as a
whole (and the entrepreneurs competing therein) to renovate their techniques
more rapidly that they have done to date.
Molina and Agueda [17] have shown that the visitor perceives how the image
informing him of the destination’s potential values or products presents a high
level of heterogeneity, as well as errors in the design of brochures (promoters
tend to pay more attention to the amount of brochures printed and distributed
than to the quality of their design and contents). On the contrary, in the case of
images projected over the web, the demand for quality is greater: what is valued
here are access times, design and ease of interaction, capacity to combine
contents, intervals of updates of the website, etc., as well as the software the user
avails of. The general perception of this format is very favourable and users
demand not only information but also downloads of the product or destination
(graphic material, videos, screensavers, sound, etc.) that are unavailable in
brochure format.
Table 2 shows that one single support of the projected image, whether this be
website or brochure, can simultaneously communicate several references, that
each support offers many different multiproduct possibilities and collaborative
actions among enterprises that are directly or indirectly involved in tourism, and

Table 2: Contents of the analysed set of brochures and websites aimed at

tourism on the island of Fuerteventura (N is the number of elements
analysed. It does not represent the sum of values in each column, as
one same brochure or website can simultaneously present several
contents; moreover, a brochure and a website can both refer to the
same content).

Brochures Websites
References
N (146) % N (38) %
Administration 27 18.49 9 23.68
Accommodation 29 19.86 26 68.42
Restaurants 31 21.23 12 31.58
Complementary activities 23 15.75 27 71.05
Vehicle rental 3 2.05 15 39.47
Other types of businesses 30 20.55 2 5.26
Real estate 3 2.05 5 13.16

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Table 3: Classification of data provided by brochures and websites on

Fuerteventura according to the type of tourism classification based
upon the image projected by the Administration and other
promoters (N represents in an undifferentiated manner the total of
websites or brochures falling in the categories indicated according
to their promoter; see Table 2).

Type Administration Others

N (32) % N (152) %
Sun and sand 3 9.38 86 56.58
Cultural 21 65.63 20 13.16
Nature 5 15.63 12 7.89
Sports 4 12.50 21 13.82
Health 1 3.13 12 7.89
Rural 2 6.25 8 5.26
Gastronomy 2 6.25 5 3.29
Undifferentiated T. S. 1 3.13 33 21.71

that those working in accommodation, the restaurant business or complementary

activities constitute recurring and similar references in both supports (brochures:
56.84%; websites: 67.7%). There is a more noteworthy difference in the
reference to the Administration in both formats (23.68% on the web and 18.49%
in brochures) and a high percentage of brochures (20.55%) related to other types
of tourism businesses that hardly appear on the Internet (5.26%).
Without a basic established typology apparently guided by the interests of the
promoters, the brochures and websites studied can be framed within a wide range
of tourism macro-products (Table 3): sun and sand tourism (climatic), cultural,
nature, sports, health, rural, gastronomy and a broad range of tourism services,
The data obtained show a clear difference between the brochures and websites
produced by the administrations and the other entities generating image. It seems
that the administrations show a different kind of social compromise, on
promoting cultural tourism, whereas the remaining actors exhibit a more
pragmatic consumerism, dealing with sun and sand tourism (sports tourism has
been considered separately from cultural tourism). Also standing out is the item
‘undifferentiated tourism services’, which is mostly associated with what is
termed ‘other types of tourism business’. Many brochures referring to this type
of business fall within this category. This appears to indicate the importance of
small and large business initiatives arising in relation to destinations and which
cover determined basic needs of visitors (health clinics, shopping centres,
gymnasiums, laundries, etc.), filling the gaps sometimes left by the
administrations in the planning and management of destinations.
With regard to the objective market, there is clearly little differentiation
between the brochures and websites generated by the administrations and by the
other promoters. No notable percentage refers to one specific segment (Table 4).

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Table 4: Classification of data provided by brochures and websites on

Fuerteventura according to the segment of potential users to whom
the image is directed by the Administration and other promoters (N
represents in an undifferentiated manner the total of websites or
brochures falling in the categories indicated according to their
promoter; see the previous tables).

Administration Others
N* (32) % N (152) %
Families 5 15.63 33 21.71
Young people 5 15.63 31 20.39
The elderly 0 0.00 5 3.29
Resident families 0 0.00 4 2.63
Elderly residents 0 0.00 1 0.66
Undifferentiated 22 68.75 81 53.29

The brochures relating to ‘other types of businesses’ are the ones that mostly
present this characteristic (68.75% of the materials produced by this type of
promoters does not refer to a specific segment).
Establishing a generic model of the public, real or symbolic, appears to seen
as very difficult in the design of these materials, as it is considered that there will
be different perception of the messages issued according to the interests and
capacities of each group. Furthermore, this would define the type of
iconography, the text contained in the messages referring to the image and their
correlation with the slogan chosen. A total of 47.26% of the brochures and
81.58% of the website refer specifically in their contents (texts or photographs
and illustrations) to elements of heritage, reaching 100% in the specific case of
the images the administrations attempt to project.
The type of heritage referred to by the different promoters are notoriously
different (Table 5). Local administrations present the image of this island as a
space defined by its culture –handicrafts, museums, rural heritage such as mills,
terraces (gavias), etc.–, its natural spaces presenting a wild appearance and its
beaches, whereas the others pay attention mainly to the latter, which are adapted
for tourism, and the attractive landscape of the natural spaces.
From the results commented upon, we can deduce three converging strategies
in one destination image: i) joint and participatory policy. ii) economically
interested selection and iii) a conglomerate of initiatives. Tourism policies based
upon sustainability and which attempt to meet the needs of present-day tourists
without compromising the future, are increasingly and insistently recommending
the first of these options. This one is more likely to provide the destination area
with tools for responding to changes on the market without seriously altering the
social and economic structures. Furthermore, it effectively prevents day-do-day
goods and spaces from being changed into representation products, and attempts
to adjust the attraction of an area’s attributes and resources (decision-making
effect) while avoiding cultural losses (Santana Talavera [13]). We found no valid
references of this strategy in Fuerteventura in the creation of the image.

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Table 5: Elements of Fuerteventura’s heritage employed by the

Administration and other promoters to project the island’s tourism
image (N represents in an undifferentiated manner the total of
brochures or websites falling in the categories indicated according
to the promoter (see previous tables).

Elements Administration Rest

N (32) % N (152) %
Mills, agric. traditional 11 34.38 12 7.89
Handicrafts 9 28.13 4 2.63
Gastronomy 7 21.88 12 7.89
Festivities 3 9.38 2 1.32
Livestock 4 12.50 7 4.61
Fishing 1 3.13 5 3.29
Natural spaces 19 59.38 29 19.08
Unique structures 7 21.88 13 8.55
Tourist beaches 10 31.25 42 27.63
Sculptures 6 18.75 0 0.00
Archaeological localities 3 9.38 0 0.00
None 0 0.00 7 4.61

In the interviews conducted, local officials do comment on the need for the
local population to participate in these and other aspects, but this is not backed
by the attitude of these populations. This may contribute to giving rise to a non-
neutral selection of products related with the natural environment or culture
(beaches, landscapes in unique arid areas on the island, museums, mills, etc.).
This involves extracting them from their sociocultural context and presenting
them as ‘authentic’, in an anachronic manner (very few mills are still used),
attempting to instil the idea of an unforgettable and unique experience (Markwell
[18]) for the consumer while promoting its repeatable and standardized use for
all tourists.
The second strategy for constructing image directly involves the business
world. This is more evident in the case analysed. It is normally determined by
specialists and applied to destinations in an intermediate phase of its life cycle
(Agarwal [19]; Baum [20]; Butler [21]). The island of Fuerteventura is in this
situation at present. It is not a case of important innovations, but rather
alterations and additions to previous campaigns. In general terms, an attempt is
made to maintain competitive advantages while modifying the attributes of
resources and products, combining activities and introducing specific services
and structures. It is a continuist attitude, that attempts to avoid risks and drastic
changes in the destination’s image and which is very coherent with the main
motivation of the current tourists (Table 1, Figures 2 and 3). It corresponds to the
expectations of potential visitors because determined essential desires and
fantasies in their motivations tend to be symbolized (Markwich [22]). Schouten
[23] states that a good interpretation is based on connections made with ideas

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22 Island Sustainability

and experiences that are already familiar, and on visitors’ increased curiosity.
This form of diversification of the constructed image can easily be redirected
towards participatory strategies when applied to small destinations or territorially
coherent tourist areas, but it meets with serious operative problems and conflicts
of interests when large, heterogeneous consolidated areas are involved.
The third strategy lies in the adaptation of the projected image to the
‘territorial realities’ according to their target groups (residents and tourists),
offering an aesthetic ‘acquisition’ and an emotional experience in an extremely
short space of time. This, combined or not with participation, occurs with the
attempt to strategically redirect the island as a destination by the island’s
Administration (Cabildo) and some town councils. This type of constructed
image allows the entry of multiple individualized products with or without cover
of the brand or identity of the destination and, furthermore, responds to national
and international compromises by the Administration to preserve and
disseminate nature and cultural heritage.
This strategy, however, might suffer from the so-called ‘indifference factor’
or disinterest that a potential client could show in relation to the ‘quality’
attributed to nature and culture as opposed to determined products considered to
be basic to the offer. Thus, although planners at the destination trust in their own
series of amenities, the potential of these as a resource and their capacity to
differentiate the destination, the client might clearly be pre-directed towards
consumption of other products or resources and not appreciate any of this at all.
The image of Fuerteventura has been stereotyped through insistence on climate
and beaches, supported both by the promotional campaigns of the 90s and the
start of the new century, and by indirect marketing (non-tourist documentaries,
sports news, intentional weather reports, word of mouth among tourists, etc.)
Consequently, the directionality of the offer by the administrations and the
interest by some conservationists in the sought-after cultural tourism (Pineda et
al. [24]), based on efforts to give priority to the ethnographic-ethnic values
present (‘living culture’), relevant monumental or archaeological natural spaces,
may prove to be unfruitful.

5 Conclusion
The island of Fuerteventura's tourism image is seen to be made up of a set of
initiatives that are more or less compatible and which tend to values the
destination's attributes as resources, imagining the demand for them. The
decision by Fuerteventura's local administrations to opt for an image adapted to
cultural and nature tourism stereotypes can be seen as a strategy aimed at
restructuring and differentiating the destination. This i) obviates current demand
as this is considered to be guaranteed or even undesirable. ii) it is aimed at
hypothesised market segments and iii) it has not been preceded by collaborative
processes with other agents entrusted with promoting image, who focus their
projection on a classical demand for the destination.
In practice, the above mentioned circumstances can constitute serious
confusion. At present on the international tourism market, a destination

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accommodating tourists motivated mainly by climate, beaches and price, as in

Fuerteventura, can run into problems relating to competition. Other emerging
destinations are in better conditions to provide excellent beaches and a good
climate at competitive prices. Lin order to address this reality, there is a need to
renovate the image, working to differentiate it, focusing on specific segments of
demand.
A joint strategy and a wide and range of combined resources-products would
compensate for the indifference of some visitors. Tourists would be attracted
towards the destination by any of these resources-products and might end up
consuming the same goods and services, although they present differences in
their motivation and understanding of meanings. This diversification, presenting
the heritage-culture-territory promoted as authentic and distinctive and
facilitating rediscovery of the imagination, should make possible the medium-
term differentiation of the destination on the tourism market. This process
involves maintaining the projected image of Fuerteventura by means of a
specific stereotype and brand. The possibilities provided by Internet 2.0 –until
recently merely an added value– can constitute a principal tool and the
destination can be placed within this space. Production of contents presenting
real references, a well-informed and lucid presentation of the environmental and
cultural values of the island, as well as actual tourism services, can easily be
provided to the pre-tourists (before the trip) and the tourists (at the destination).

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 Island Sustainability 25

How far does tourism stress coral reef

environment in island states: case studies of
Indian Ocean and Caribbean islands
V. Duvat
Department of Geography, Institute of Littoral and Environment,
La Rochelle University, France

Abstract
This contribution will expose and discuss the environmental impacts of tourism
on the coral reef environment through the analysis of case studies of Indian
Ocean and Caribbean Island Developing States. The objective is to demonstrate
that the situation of islands and archipelagos is complex and diverse as numerous
factors influence both the nature and extent of tourism environmental impacts
and as tourism development produces contradictory impacts on the coastal
environment. As a consequence, diagnosis must be moderate and gross
generalization avoided. The first part of this paper will expose the major physical
constraints that such countries have to face in order to achieve economic growth,
as the reduction of these constraints largely determines the adverse
environmental impacts of coastal development. Secondly, we will present the
most common negative impacts of tourism-related projects and tourism activities
on the coral reef environment. Then, we will demonstrate that tourism
development has often played a major role in the setting up of coastal planning and
environment preservation in various ways. Finally, we will sum up the main
drivers of tourism environmental impacts.
Keywords: tourism environmental impacts, coral reef environment, Small Island
Developing States, environmental degradation.

1 Introduction
The sustainability of tourist island states both depends, on the one hand, on their
physical and human development capacities, and on the other hand, on the ability
of human societies to maintain the viability of development projects through a

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doi:10.2495/ISLANDS100031
26 Island Sustainability

subtle equilibrium between economic development and environment

preservation. In Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the intertropical zone,
the negative impacts of tourism on the coral reef environment are generally
significant, due to low national capacities and high ecosystem vulnerability. The
question of tourism environmental impacts is important for comprehending the
sustainability of such countries because tourism, which is the main economic
sector, highly depends on environmental assets that are threatened by the impacts
of coastal development projects and by those of climate change, like coral
bleaching and beach erosion. Among all ecosystems, the coral reef environment
is at the same time the most attractive and the most vulnerable to all kinds of
pressures. As it also provides food to human communities, it plays a central role
in SIDS sustainability and in island viability.
In this paper, we will firstly present the specific constraints that island states
have to face for achieving economic development as we argue that the
environmental impacts of tourism are largely determined by island states’
capacities. The second part of this contribution will expose and discuss the
common adverse environmental impacts of tourism development. The objectives
will be to draw up a review of these impacts and to analyse whether they are
specifically due to tourism development or not. Then, we will demonstrate that
tourism development and tourism-related projects can support environmental
preservation in various ways. Thus, regarding tourism environmental impacts,
diagnosis must be moderate as positive effects of tourism development can
counterbalance its negative impacts, and even, in certain circumstances, support
the implementation of sustainable development policies. As a conclusion, we will
emphasize the drivers of tourism environmental impacts in SIDS.

2 Development constraints in Small Island Developing States

SIDS have to face diverse physical and human constraints which constitute
limiting factors for economic growth and produce specific difficulties for
controlling the impacts of both coastal engineering works and tourism-related
projects. As island states present a high diversity of situations, the level of
constraints varies a lot. Here, we will expose the major constraints and their
variations from one island type to another.

2.1 Physical constraints

The physical constraints that SIDS have to address have already been listed in
previous works 1–4. They are mainly due to the remoteness of such territories,
to limited flat land or island area, to the scarcity of terrestrial resources and to the
dissemination of islands in the case of archipelagos.
2.1.1 Remoteness
In remote oceanic areas, islands have become more accessible since runways and
international airports were built, which occurred either during World War II
when foreign countries exploited their strategic location as for Saint-Marteen
and Saint-Thomas in the Lesser Antilles, or at the time of their political

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 Island Sustainability 27

independence for those that were colonies of northern countries like Mauritius,
Maldives and Seychelles.
Moreover, most island states of the intertropical zone are distant from the
most developed areas of the world. Their peripheral location limits economic
opportunities. On the contrary, island states that are under the influence of the
most developed countries do benefit both financial and commercial opportunities
that support their economic growth. This situation is that of many Caribbean
islands, favoured by their location between America and Western Europe.

2.1.2 Territorial fragmentation of archipelagos

Archipelagos are generally composed of scattered islands separated by hundreds
of kilometres of ocean surface. As a consequence, they have to face, on the one
hand, the “outer” distance separating them from neighbouring countries, and on
the other hand, the “inner” distance between islands. For example, the 25
Maldivian atolls and patch reefs stretch out on 820 km from North to South and
130 km from East to West. This physical distance is reinforced by the fact that
strong currents circulate in the deep channels separating reef structures.

2.1.3 Limited land area

The smallest countries (covering less than 300 square kilometres) are all the
most constrained by limited land area as it is scattered between many islands. In
Maldives (1169 islands), the average island size is only 0,2 square kilometres. So
small surface areas question the viability of development projects. Moreover,
many islands can hardly be reached by sea as they have formed in the inner part
of extended reef flats. As a consequence, each island is difficult to reach and
connections between islands are uneasy. In addition, some islands are not
suitable for human settlement because of their morphological instability due to
sediment movement and severe impacts of storms.
Mountainous islands, such as those of Seychelles, British and US Virgin
Islands, have limited flat land areas, which is a serious limit to infrastructure
building and economic development. In most cases, the flat land area is scattered
between numerous small coastal plains, which reduces even more development
opportunities.

2.1.4 Limited resources

The diversity and amount of natural resources is proportional with the land area
and higher in mountainous islands than in coral ones. Whereas marine resources
are quite abundant in small island states, terrestrial resources are very limited, in
particular in low-lying islands where fresh water, wood for construction and
cooking, and building material are scarce. Underground aquifers are small and
exposed to salinity and pollution. Building material is limited to coral and sand that
can only be exploited where they are easily accessible to human communities.

2.2 Limited human capacities

Various human factors limit the capacities of SIDS and threaten their
sustainability.

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28 Island Sustainability

2.2.1 Weakness of legislation

As a result of various colonial heritages and of economic backwardness, many
island states still have a limited and inconsistent legislative framework regarding
environmental protection. Moreover, the enforcement of the law is often limited
by the lack of human capacities. In addition, as the national priority is given to
economic growth, which is generally based upon foreign investments,
international tourism companies are very powerful, which limits national
initiatives aiming at strengthening environment protection and enforcing law and
regulations. For example, setback distances are generally much lower than in
developed countries (5 metres in Maldives, 15 m in Seychelles and Mauritius
until their recent increase) and environmental impact assessment procedures are
both recent and still badly implemented. In some cases, corruption also reduces
the enforcement of the law 5.

2.2.2 Issues concerning land property

The question of land property is important as it determines the applicability and
therefore the level of enforcement of the law. Over the past decades, whereas
public actors of developed countries have strengthened their control on coastal
development through land acquisition (see actions of Conservatoire du Littoral
in France and of National Trust in United Kingdom), coastal land is still widely
controlled by private actors in SIDS. Long-term leases and private property do
limit the enforcement of law and regulations as well as the implementation of
environmental policies. In Mauritius, for instance, speculation is important to a point
that the Government can hardly determine who are the tenants of coastal leases.

2.2.3 Limited scientific and technical capacities

Scientific capacities and more globally national skills in environment
management are generally limited by the absence of universities and training
centres. Where universities exist, like in Mauritius and US Virgin Islands, they
were recently created and they still don’t offer training in all fields.
On another hand, technical capacities of many SIDS are limited as a result of
reduced financial means and remoteness that limits the benefits of regional
cooperation. As a consequence, external dependence is high in financial,
technical and scientific terms. So, progress is generally chaotic.

3 Adverse impacts of tourism development on

the coral reef environment
The main objective of this section is to distinguish the impacts that are directly
due to the tourism sector from those that are more globally due to the
development process and to the reduction of physical constraints.

3.1 Impacts of reclamation works

In many mountainous islands, shallow reef flats were reclaimed for increasing
flat land area 6, 7. Thus, over the past four decades, on the north-eastern coast

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of Mahe (Seychelles), more than 700 hectares of fringing reefs were reclaimed
for the needs of infrastructure development (international airport of Pointe Larue,
four-lane road, rubbish dump), industry and housing 8. In some places, massive
reclamation works destroyed swamps and lagoons, like at Saint-Martin in the
Lesser Antilles where the international airports of Juliana and Grand Case were
built on ponds 9. Such works are very destructive for coral reefs both in
dredged and reclaimed areas that are directly affected by mechanical destruction
and in peripheral areas that are degraded by high turbidity and fine particles
deposition. As a result, coral mortality affects large areas.
In low-lying islands, dredging and reclamation works are operated so as to
increase island size and accessibility 4, 10. Dredging of reef flats is generally
operated on the leeward side of islands so as to create sheltered harbours.
Dredging material is also used for nourishing artificial sand beaches. In addition,
navigation channels are dug into reef flats. These works modify current patterns
and, as a consequence, they disrupt sediment transport and have an influence on
shoreline evolution. Coastal erosion issues are often due to or aggravated by such
morphological changes and hydrological disturbances.
Massive reclamation works are necessary for extending flat areas and they are
neither specifically due to tourism development, nor limited to tourist areas.
Indeed, many islands where equipped with runways during WWII or the cold
war, and airports were also built for national needs in islands states that are not
economically oriented towards tourism. In Maldives, reef reclamation was
operated both in the inhabited islands, as a result of population growth, and in
the resort islands. It can be estimated that about 40% of the 87 island resorts
were extended by reef reclamation 4. In both cases, such works have reduced
wave refraction and thus aggravated both marine submersion and coastal erosion.
In the Caribbean, the development of cruise ship and boating tourism has led
to the construction of harbours and marinas in many bays, such as in the Virgin
Islands. Such dredging works have affected marine fauna and current patterns,
and fragile ecosystems such as mangrove swamps and coral reefs were partly
destroyed. But on the whole, harbour construction is mainly due to the fact that
islands have to import most goods because of their limited resources and reduced
production capacity. Tourism has generally led to the increase of imports as a
result of high tourist consumption, agriculture recession, increase of life
standards and generalization of the northern hemisphere’s consumption
model 11.

3.2 Impacts of hotel construction

The main impacts of tourism development on coastal ecosystems are due to the
construction of tourism facilities.
The coastal topography has been significantly modified where hotels and
tourist residences were built. The increase of building material needs resulting
from population growth, upgrading of local habitat and tourism development,
often led to sand and/or coral mining. Some dunes and beaches have been
severely affected by sand extraction, as in Mauritius and Seychelles 8, 12. But

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30 Island Sustainability

such practices are not limited to tourist islands. In Comoros, many beaches have
disappeared as a result of sand extraction for local habitat construction. Thus,
tourism development has to be considered not as a cause, but as an aggravating
factor of sand and coral mining. In the Maldives, it was estimated in the 1980’s
that about one third of extraction was due to tourism development 13. Sand and
coral mining operated in coastal dunes and shallow waters modify coastal
topography and bathymetry. Sand dune extraction has lowered coastal areas and
therefore aggravated the risk of marine submersion. In foreshore areas, coral
extraction has augmented the depth of coastal waters and reduced wave
refraction, which has aggravated both marine submersion and erosion risks.
As setback distances are low, coastal dunes and berms have often been
planned off for hotel construction and ponds filled in. Consequently, inundation
risks were aggravated. In some places, reef flats were dredged in front of hotels
for creating bathing areas, such as at Bel Ombre on the southern coast of
Mauritius.
Because they have affected current patterns, sediment transport and
deposition, and thus aggravated beach erosion and coastal plain submersion, the
modifications of topography and bathymetry have often led to coastal protection
works. Engineering structures such as seawalls, groins, concrete revetments,
breakwaters and ripraps were built for protecting both land and buildings.
Massive coastal defences have often destabilized sediment cells, accelerated
beach loss and spoilt the landscape. Some hotels were built on eroding and high-
energy coasts, which were rapidly affected by shoreline receding after their
construction.
In Maldives, massive environmental degradation has led to the closing of
some resort islands that were no longer attractive for tourists, which shows that
non-sustainable development projects can finally be counterproductive.

3.3 Aggravation of pollution

Pollution is one of the main environmental problems of developing island states.

As tourism has led to a significant increase of wastewater and waste production,
it contributes significantly to an aggravation of the previous situation. The
frequent accumulation of waste in uncontrolled rubbish dumps aggravates the
pollution and degradation of ponds and coastal waters.
Cruise ship tourism and boating also contribute to ocean and coastal pollution
because wastewater and waste are generally unloaded in the open sea, as in the
US Virgin Islands 14. In some countries like Barbados, beach cleaning has
become an important issue as waves bring waste back on coasts 15.
Desalination plants are often necessary for providing hotels with fresh water.
Such equipments that often use fuel oil are an additional source of pollution.

3.4 Impacts of tourism activities

Various activities have had adverse impacts on coral reef environment. Boat
anchoring has devastated large surfaces of corals on the outer slopes of fringing
reefs and on patch reefs. Diving has also led to the breaking of fragile corals

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 Island Sustainability 31

where divers are numerous, unskilled and unaware of the ecosystem

vulnerability, as in various Caribbean islands as emphasized by marine biologists
in the 1980’s 16, 17. At Vihamanaafushi Island in Maldives, coral destruction
due to diving represents 7% of the total reef value 18.
The collection of living marine organisms such as shells and corals by tourists
has led to a significant rarefaction of some species and to the diminution of
biodiversity in tourist areas. Moreover, the growing demand of tourists from the
northern hemisphere for turtle shells and aquarium fish has considerably
aggravated the state of reefs in the most accessible areas. For instance, in
Maldives fish collection started in 1979 and rapidly developed until the 1990’s.
Although it has decreased with the adoption of conservation measures, it still
affects 120 species and 175 800 fish per year 19.

4 Positive effects of tourism development on

the coral reef environment
Tourism development has also had positive effects on environmental
conservation and even more globally on national development policies through
various ways.

4.1 Land use planning and creation of nature reserves

In SIDS, tourism development has played a major role in the setting up of

national planning and conservation policies 5.
Since their political independence, most small island states have elaborated
development plans defining guidelines for achieving economic growth and social
progress. In most cases, land use plans were set up in a second period as a result
of tourism take off in a renewed context of competition for coastal land. In
parallel, the elaboration of tourism master plans and site development schemes
has completed this operation. Planning has significantly improved coastal
management and ecosystems protection.
On another hand, tourism development has favoured the creation of nature
reserves that have promoted the environmental assets of island states on the
international market, and thus supported the establishment of current
conservation policies. In Seychelles, the conservation policy of the Government
has played a major role in the elaboration and consolidation of the country’s
environment-friendly image 20. The national ordinance on national parks was
adopted in 1969 as the reef flat of Pointe Larue was reclaimed for the
construction of the international airport, which opened in 1971, and Sainte-Anne
national park was created in 1973 in front of this reclaimed area. In the 1980’s,
the designation of the Vallée de Mai in Praslin (1981) and atoll of Aldabra
(1982) as World Heritage Areas (UNESCO) has reinforced the nature image of
the country. Nature reserves and biodiversity are major elements of tourism
promotion policies in island states of the intertropical zone.
The increase of human pressure on coastal environments has often led to the
carrying out of biodiversity inventories and vulnerability assessments. Tourism

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32 Island Sustainability

has played a significant role in the launching of such studies both because its
rapid development has had adverse impacts on coral reefs and beaches, and
because natural assets play a major role in the attractiveness of such tourism
destinations.

4.2 Nature-based tourism

Some tourism projects are based upon the promotion of biodiversity, as those
that are developed on most of peripheral islets in Seychelles and Mauritius.
Whereas some islets offer accommodation facilities, others are only open to
visitors coming within the framework of guided tours organized by tour
operators or conservation NGOs. The main points of interest of these islets are
fauna (seabirds at Aride, Cousin and North islands, Seychelles; tortoises at
Curieuse island, Seychelles), flora (Aigrettes islands, Mauritius) as well as
cultural heritage (old settlements, fortresses, lighthouses...). Fees paid by visitors
often support scientific research programmes contributing to environmental
preservation. Some sand-cays are also destined for high standard ecotourism
based upon marine biodiversity. Here, the main attractions are seabirds, turtles
and coral reefs. As an example, the private coral island of Bird (Seychelles) was
pioneer in ecotourism development in the early 1970’s. Sooty terns (Sterna
fuscata) and turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata and Chelonia mydas) are its main
attractions. The restoration of the sooty terns habitat has supported the
reconstitution of the bird colony which increased from 67 000 couples in 1967 to
more than 700 000 couples in 2004. Here, ecological tours and turtle monitoring
programmes play a major role in the development of environmental awareness.
The sustainability of Bird island tourism is based on a wise balance between
economic goals (limited bed capacity), environmental conservation and
promotion of socio-cultural values 21.

4.3 Ecological islands

Resort islands offering environment-friendly facilities (regarding energy

production, wastewater and solid waste treatment, in particular) and conducting
ecosystem restoration projects with the support of scientific expertise belong to
the category of “ecological” or “green” islands, such as Ihuru in North Male atoll
in Maldives 4. Such islands play a major role in the experimentation of
environment-friendly techniques for solving environmental issues. At Ihuru, an
innovative restoration project aims at strengthening the resilience of corals that
were severely degraded by the increase of ocean surface temperature during the
ENSO event 1997-1998. Moreover, diving is strictly supervised and it
contributes to environmental preservation through education and training
programmes designed for tourists. Over the past years, Ihuru obtained several
awards as a result of its ecological performances.
The high level of fragmentation of archipelagos is favourable to the carrying
out of innovative conservation projects and to field experimentations as resort
managers have an important room to manoeuvre in island management.

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 Island Sustainability 33

4.4 Role of hotel beaches for progress in beach erosion management

Due to limited financial, technical and scientific capacities, islands states often
have significant difficulties for identifying and implementing sustainable
practices for controlling beach erosion. As a consequence, public policies are
largely based on hard engineering structures (breakwaters, groins, ripraps,
seawalls, gabion baskets...) installed for fixing the coastline and protecting
buildings and infrastructures. As exposed in previous works dealing with the
same island states 10, 22, 23, these structures have spoiled the scenery,
aggravated environmental degradation and accelerated beach loss. In such a
context, tourism companies may play a major role in the introduction and
experimentation of soft techniques. The high economic value of hotel beaches
and the high financial capacity of tourism companies support the development of
consultancy firms and of innovative environment-friendly experimentations. As
a consequence, new techniques are, set up locally, or imported from abroad,
experimented on hotel beaches and then replicated on other eroded beaches if
they give good results. Where environment impact assessment procedures are
obligatory for any project developed in the coastal zone (hotel construction,
defence works, building of jetties...) and rigorously conducted by consultants,
both knowledge and technical skills make significant progress. As few scientific
studies are available in most SIDS, the studies that are carried out by consultants
provide basic and valuable data in various fields (marine hydrology, topography,
bathymetry...), as in Mauritius. These data present a main interest for all
institutions and stakeholders as they are produced at the scale of sediment cells.
Thus, site studies made by consultancy firms and experimentations implemented
on hotel beaches strengthen the capacities of institutions and support the
development of wise practices contributing to progress in beach management.

5 Conclusion
The environmental impacts of tourism development projects are highly variable
both at national and local scales due to the high level of physical fragmentation
of archipelagos, to the diversity of stakeholders who are involved in ecosystem
management in a context of backwardness of law passing and enforcement. The
level of physical constraints is a major driver of tourism impacts on coral reef
environment as they make massive coastal works necessary for the development
of tourism projects and for protecting buildings and infrastructures from wave
destruction. The principal constraints are limited flat land area and accessibility
and high exposure to natural hazards. As physical constraints are exacerbated in
low-lying islands, they are much more vulnerable to environmental degradation
than mountainous islands.
The environmental impacts of coastal tourism are also variable according to
the level of economic development as it determines the financial, technical and
scientific capacities of SIDS. Local expertise and technical skills strengthening
and coastal planning and legislation setting up have allowed recent progress in
environment management. Foreign aid and regional cooperation have often

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Another random document with
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know this street better than I do. That’s your place opposite, isn’t it?
What’s behind that window over the shop?”
“A room I use for storing herbs in,” replied Mr. Ludgrove. “As it
happens, I have been in there once or twice this evening.”
“You didn’t see anything of what was happening in here, I
suppose?” asked Whyland quickly.
“No, I did not,” replied Mr. Ludgrove. “I was only in the room for
a moment or two, selecting bundles of herbs to take downstairs. I
did happen to notice about eleven o’clock that there was a light in
here, but that was all.”
“What about the windows to the right and left of your place?”
“I believe that they belong to offices occupied only in the day-
time. I do not think it at all likely that anyone could have overlooked
this room from them at night.”
“No,” agreed Whyland. “We’re not likely to be lucky to find an
actual witness. All right, Mr. Ludgrove, thank you. Now, young man,
do you know if your father possessed a hypodermic syringe?”
Ted Copperdock, thus addressed, shook his head. “I don’t think
so, Inspector,” he replied. “But I shouldn’t know one if I saw it.
There’s a cupboard over there by the washing stand where he kept a
lot of bottles of stuff.”
Whyland strode over to the cupboard and opened it. It contained
about a dozen bottles of various sizes, each half full of some patent
medicine or other. But of a hypodermic syringe, or even any caustic
potash, there was no trace.
“If he did it himself he must have thrown the syringe away,”
muttered Whyland. “Waters ought to find it; there isn’t a lot of traffic
along here at this time of night. Well, doctor, I don’t think we need
keep you out of bed any longer. I’ll have the body taken to the
mortuary, and perhaps you’ll ring me up at the station later in the
morning?”
The doctor nodded, picked up his bag, which contained the
broken needle and the sample of the incrustation, and left the
house. When he had gone, Whyland turned once again to Ted.
“Can you suggest any reason why your father should wish to take
his life?” he enquired.
 “No, Inspector, I can’t,” replied Ted frankly. “The business is
doing very well, and father was only saying the other day that we’d
got a tidy bit put away in the bank. I keep the books myself, and I
know everything’s all right.”
“I see. No money troubles, in fact. You don’t know of any
disappointment which he may have experienced, or anything like
that?”
A faint smile passed across Ted’s face. “I don’t think he had any
disappointment, Inspector,” he replied. “In fact, I should say it was
rather the other way.”
“What do you mean?” said Whyland sharply.
“Why, he always reckoned that nobody knew, but I fancy that we
all guessed sharp enough. He’s hinted to me once or twice lately
that he wasn’t too old to marry again. And——well, from what her
daughter lets drop, Mrs. Tovey wouldn’t mind. He went round there
pretty often, and she always seemed glad to see him.”
Whyland shot a quick glance at Mr. Ludgrove. It was from him
that he had first learnt of this attachment. Ludgrove nodded almost
imperceptibly, and Whyland turned once more to Ted.
“There was nothing preying on his mind, was there?” he asked.
“Well, I’ve thought sometimes that he fair had the wind up about
this black sailor,” replied Ted reluctantly. “I never knew what to make
of that. He told me one day that he’d met him coming out of the
Cambridge Arms, but I never could quite believe it somehow.”
“As it happens, I share your scepticism,” said Whyland. “Mr.
Ludgrove here was in the street at the time, and saw your father
come out of the Cambridge Arms. There was nobody but himself
and your father in sight, he assures me.”
“That is so,” assented Mr. Ludgrove gravely.
“Well, I’m not surprised,” said Ted. “It’s a funny thing, but these
things always happen when he’d been to the Cambridge Arms of an
evening. It was when he came home from there that he found that
counter the other day?”
“Have you ever seen your father definitely under the influence of
liquor?” asked Whyland.
 “Why no, not to say actually squiffy. He’d talk freer than usual,
and imagine all sorts of yarns about things that never happened. I
think he got the black sailor on his brain sometimes. When he first
got the counter he made up his mind that the black sailor was going
to get him. But the last day or two he’s been much more cheerful. Of
course, it’s possible that this evening, when he was alone, it got on
his mind again.”
The conversation was interrupted by the return of Waters, the
detective. “I’ve searched as best I can for that syringe, sir, and I
can’t find it,” he reported. “I’ll have another good look as soon as it
gets light, if you like, sir.”
“Yes, do,” replied Whyland. “Now, you were supposed to be
watching this place all the evening. What time did Mr. Copperdock
come in?”
“Between nine and ten, sir. Two fellows came with him, and the
three stood talking at the door for a minute or two. Then they all
went in, and the door was shut behind them. It was close on eleven
when it opened again, and the two men came out. Mr. Copperdock
came downstairs with them, I saw him just inside the door talking to
them. Then they went away, and the door was shut again. A few
minutes after they had gone I saw a light come on in this room.”
“You can’t see into the room from the opposite pavement, I
suppose?”
“Only a bit of ceiling, sir. I noticed the window was open at the
top, and the curtains not properly drawn, like you see them now, sir.
They’ve never been properly drawn since I’ve been watching the
house. The next thing that happened was that Mr. Copperdock’s son
came along at about a quarter past twelve, and let himself in with a
key.”
Inspector Whyland turned to Ted. “What time did you go out?”
he asked.
“About eight o’clock. Dad was just getting ready to go round to
the Cambridge Arms.”
“Where were you between eight and a quarter past twelve?”
“With Miss Tovey,” replied Ted, readily enough, but with an
awkward blush. “We went to a dance, then we had some supper.
After that I saw her home, and stayed there a few minutes. I walked
home from Lisson Grove, found Dad like this, and ran straight across
to fetch Mr. Ludgrove.”
“Nobody but you and your father had a key to the premises, I
suppose?”
“No. One of us always came down to let the charwoman in in the
morning.”
“You are perfectly certain, Waters, that nobody came to the
house between eleven and a quarter past twelve?” enquired
Whyland.
“Certain, sir. I was in the street outside all the time, and never
took my eyes off the place.”
“Very well. You stay here with the body. I’ll arrange for it to be
taken to the mortuary as soon as I can. As for you, young man, you
had better go to bed and try to get some sleep. We shall want you in
the morning. Mr. Ludgrove, if you’ve nothing better to do, I should
like you to come round the house with me. I want to make certain
that nobody can have broken in.”
Mr. Ludgrove nodded, and the two left the room together.
Whyland examined the sitting-room window. It was shut and
fastened, and bore no traces of violence. Then they went downstairs
and looked over the ground floor, without discovering anything in
any way out of the ordinary.
When they reached the office behind the shop, Whyland closed
the door and sank wearily into a chair. “Well, Mr. Ludgrove, what do
you make of it?” he said.
“I couldn’t help overhearing snatches of your conversation with
the doctor,” replied the herbalist. “I confess that I cannot understand
why, if Mr. Copperdock wished to poison himself with a hypodermic
injection, he should select his back for the purpose, unless he had
some confused idea of a lumbar puncture. Yet, on the other hand,
he is not likely to have let someone else drive a needle into him
without a struggle, and of that there is no trace, so far as I could
see.”
“And how did that person get in?” put in Whyland quickly. “That
is, if both Waters and young Ted are telling the truth. Waters is a
good man, and I haven’t the least reason to suspect him. But it’s
just possible that he was dozing somewhere between eleven and
twelve, and that Ted came home before he said he did. His father
wouldn’t be surprised to see him, and he might have walked up
behind him and jabbed the needle in. Then, when his father found
out what he’d done, he got a bit of caustic potash from somewhere
and clapped it on. I know there are lots of difficulties, but at least it’s
possible. At all events, I can’t think of another alternative to the
suicide theory.”
“The case is extraordinarily puzzling,” said Mr. Ludgrove
sympathetically. “If you feel disposed to discuss it, Inspector, I
suggest that you do so in comfort over at my place. I can make you
a cup of cocoa, or, if you prefer it, I can supply you with something
stronger. I always kept a bottle of whiskey in reserve for poor Mr.
Copperdock.”
“Well, it’s very good of you, Mr. Ludgrove,” replied Whyland
gratefully. “What’s the time? After two? I want to stay about here
until it’s light. I’ll just tell Waters where I’m to be found in case he
wants me. Then I shall be very glad to accept your kind hospitality.”
He left the room and returned after an absence of a couple of
minutes. “I can’t make it out,” he said. “Waters swears he never had
his eyes off the place. Still, it won’t do any harm to make enquiries
into young Ted’s movements and verify his statement. It beats me,
but then everything Copperdock did was a puzzle. His name seemed
to crop up in connection with each of these deaths, somehow. Then
there was that yarn about the black sailor, the counter which he said
he found on his bed, and now his amazing death. Well, I’m ready to
go across if you are, Mr. Ludgrove.”
The two passed through the shop into the road. As they crossed
it, Mr. Ludgrove uttered an exclamation of surprise. “Why, the door
of my shop is open!” he said. “I must have forgotten to shut it in my
haste when Ted Copperdock came over for me.”
“Let’s hope no inquisitive visitor has been in to have a look round
while we’ve been over the way,” replied Whyland.
Mr. Ludgrove smiled. “He will have found very little of value to
reward him if he has,” he said. “No, I’m not afraid of burglars. In any
case, it’s a very old-fashioned lock which anyone could force without
any difficulty.”
They had reached the door by now, and Mr. Ludgrove pushed it
open. “Come along, Inspector, we’ll go into the back room,” he said,
leading the way.
At the door of the inner room he paused, and switched on the
light. At a first glance, the room appeared to be exactly as he had
left it to answer Ted’s urgent summons. Then suddenly he clutched
Whyland’s arm, and pointed straight in front of him with a shaking
finger.
On the mantelpiece, propped conspicuously against the clock so
that it could not fail to attract attention, was a white bone counter,
upon which the figure VII had been carefully traced.
 Part II.
The Criminal
 Chapter XIII.
Enter Dr. Priestley
That eccentric scientist, Dr. Priestley, sat in his study on the
Monday morning following the death of Mr. Copperdock, busily
engaged in sorting out a mass of untidy-looking papers. Most of
them he tore up and placed in the waste-paper basket by his side; a
few he glanced at and put aside. The April sun lit up the room with a
pale radiance, lending an air of Spring even to this dignified but
rather gloomy house in Westbourne Terrace.
Dr. Priestley was thus engaged when the door opened and his
secretary, Harold Merefield, came into the room. There was an air of
heaviness about both men, the old and the young, as though the
Spring had not yet touched them, and Winter held them still in its
grip. One might have guessed that some absorbing work had
monopolized their energies, leaving them no leisure for anything but
the utmost concentration. And one would have guessed right. For
the last six months Dr. Priestley had been engaged upon the writing
of a book which was to enhance his already brilliant reputation. Its
title was Some Aspects of Modern Thought, and in it Dr. Priestley
had, with his usual incontrovertible logic, shattered the majority of
the pet theories of orthodox science. It was, as the reviews were to
say, a brilliant achievement, all the more entertaining from the vein
of biting sarcasm which ran through it.
When Dr. Priestley settled down to writing a book, he
concentrated his whole attention upon it, to the exclusion of
everything else. He allowed nothing whatever to distract his mind,
even for a few minutes. He lived entirely in his subject, refusing
even to read the newspapers, except certain scientific periodicals
which might happen to contain something relevant to the work he
had in hand. As he expected his secretary to follow his example, it
was hardly to be wondered at that both of them looked jaded and
worn out.
“I took the manuscript to the Post Office myself, sir,” said Harold
Merefield listlessly. “Here is the registration receipt.”
“Excellent, my boy, excellent,” replied the Professor, looking up.
“So the work is finished at last, eh? I have been destroying such
notes as we shall not require again. The rest you can file at your
leisure. Dear me, you look as if you needed a change of occupation.”
He stared at his secretary through his spectacles, as though he
had seen him that morning for the first time for many months. “Yes,
I think we both need a change of occupation,” he continued. “I feel
that I should welcome some enticing problem, mathematical or
human. It is time we stepped from our recent absorption back into
the world. Let me see. What is the date?”
“April 28th, sir,” replied Harold with a smile. He knew well enough
that the Professor would have accepted any other day he chose to
mention.
“Dear me! Then the world is six months older than when we
retired from it. No doubt many interesting problems have arisen in
the interval, but I fear that their solutions lie in other hands than
ours. By the way, when does our friend Inspector Hanslet return
from America?”
Harold turned to one of the big presses which lined the walls of
the room, and took from it a folder marked “Inspector Hanslet.” He
consulted this for a moment, then looked up towards his employer.
“At the end of this month, sir. There is no definite date mentioned. I
dare say he is in London already.”
“Perhaps so,” agreed the Professor. “It does not really matter. My
thoughts turned to him naturally, as to one who has in the past
supplied us with some very satisfactory problems. Well, we must be
patient, my boy. I have no doubt that we shall very soon succeed in
finding some congenial work with which to occupy our minds.”
He returned to the business of sorting his papers, while Harold
sat down at the table reserved for his use, thankful to be able to do
absolutely nothing for a few minutes. His idea of a change of
occupation was not to plunge at once into some abstruse
mathematical investigation which would involve him in the writing up
of endless notes. If only Hanslet would come back and divert the
Professor’s thoughts into some other channel! But of Hanslet, since
he had departed for New York during the previous year to co-
operate with the American police in running to earth a gang of
international swindlers, nothing had been heard.
Inspector Hanslet was rapidly becoming the foremost figure at
Scotland Yard. He was a man who, without being brilliant, possessed
more than the usual quickness of perception. He could, in his own
phrase, see as far through a brick wall as most people, and to this
attribute he added an agility of mind remarkable in a man whose
training had been of a stereotyped kind. Early in his career he had
become acquainted with Dr. Priestley, and the Professor, to whom a
problem of any kind was as the breath of his body, had since
encouraged him to come to Westbourne Terrace and discuss his
difficulties. To many of these the Professor’s logical mind had
suggested the solution. Since he refused to allow his name to be
mentioned, the credit for his deductions descended upon Hanslet. As
a matter of fact, the authorities knew very well how matters stood,
and Hanslet was always employed upon those cases which promised
to be complicated, since it was an open secret that he could call
upon the advice and assistance of Dr. Priestley.
It was evident that the sudden reaction of having nothing to do,
after his unremitting labours of the past six months, was having an
unfavourable effect upon Dr. Priestley’s temper. He roamed about the
study, pulling out a file from time to time, and finding fault with
Harold because some item did not come immediately to his hand. It
was not until it was time to dress for dinner that he desisted from
this irritating occupation. And even at dinner he was silent and
morose, obviously seeking in vain for some new interest which
should occupy his restless thoughts. But hardly had he and Harold
finished their coffee, which they always had in the study after dinner,
than Mary the parlourmaid opened the door softly. “Inspector
Hanslet to see you, sir,” she announced.
 The Professor turned so abruptly in his chair as seriously to
endanger the coffee cup he was holding. “Inspector Hanslet!” he
exclaimed. “Why show him in, of course. Good evening, Inspector, it
was only this morning that Harold and I were speaking of you. I
hope that you enjoyed yourself in America.”
“I did indeed, Professor,” replied Hanslet, shaking hands warmly
with Dr. Priestley, and nodding cheerily to Harold. “Not that I’m not
very glad to be home again; one’s own country’s best, after all. I
landed at Southampton last Wednesday.”
“And now you have come back to tell us of your experiences,”
said the Professor. “I am sure we shall be most interested to hear
them. Did you succeed in your object?”
“Oh, yes, we rounded them up all right,” replied Hanslet. “My
word, Professor, you ought to go over to New York and see the
things the fellows do over there. As far as scientific detection goes,
they’ve got us beat to a frazzle. You’d appreciate their methods. And
they’re a cheery crowd, too. They gave me no end of a good time
while I was over there.”
“Well, sit down, and tell us all about it,” said the Professor,
motioning Hanslet towards a comfortable chair. “You will relieve the
tedium I am feeling at having nothing to do.”
Hanslet sat down, and, as he did so, looked enquiringly at the
Professor. “You say you’ve nothing to do, sir? Well, I’m very glad to
hear that. The truth is that I didn’t come here to tell you my
experiences. As a matter of fact, I meant to take a month’s leave
when I got back, but the Chief asked me to wait a bit and take over
a case which has been puzzling the Yard for several months. And I
wanted to ask your advice, if you would be good enough to listen.”
The Professor rubbed his hands together briskly. “Excellent,
excellent!” he exclaimed. “I told you this morning, Harold, that a
problem was bound to turn up before long. By all means tell me your
difficulties, Inspector. But let me beg of you to keep to facts, and not
to digress into conjecture.”
Hanslet smiled. The Professor’s passion for facts was well-known
to him from past experience. “Well, I expect you know as much
about it as I do,” he began. “Ever since Tovey the greengrocer was
killed last November, there’s been a lot in the papers——”
But the Professor interrupted him. “I should perhaps have
explained, Inspector, that since last October I have scarcely opened
a newspaper. My whole mind has been concentrated upon a task
which is now happily finished. The name of Tovey the greengrocer
is, I regret to say, utterly unfamiliar to me. I should be glad if you
would treat me as one who has only lately reached this world from
the planet Mars, and give me the facts without presuming that I
have any previous knowledge of them.”
“Very well, Professor,” replied Hanslet. “You must have heard of a
series of deaths under peculiar circumstances which have occurred
in Praed Street, not half a mile away from here? Why, I read about
them in New York! They caused a great sensation.”
“I am not concerned with popular sensations,” said the Professor
coldly. “I admit that some rumours of such happenings penetrated
the isolation with which I have endeavoured to surround myself, but
I dismissed them from my mind as likely to introduce a disturbing
factor. I repeat that you had better repeat the facts, as briefly as
possible.”
“Very well, Professor, I will tell you the story exactly as it was told
to me at the Yard,” replied Hanslet. “You will be able to see how
much is fact and how much conjecture. As I was not on the spot
myself, I cannot vouch for the details. Will that do?”
The Professor nodded, and turned to Harold. “Make a note of the
names and dates mentioned by Inspector Hanslet,” he said. “Now,
Inspector, you may proceed.”
Hanslet, whose memory for names and facts was rarely at fault,
recounted as briefly as he could the course of events from the
murder of Mr. Tovey in November, to the finding of Martin’s body in
the cellar of Number 407, in January. The Professor interrupted him
now and then to ask a question, but in the main he allowed him to
tell the story in his own way. When he had finished, and the
Professor had expressed himself satisfied, Hanslet continued.
“The man who’s been in charge of the case is a fellow called
Whyland, keen enough on his job, but a bit lacking in imagination. I
had a chat with him yesterday, and he confessed that he was
completely at the end of his tether. Up till last Saturday evening, he
told me, he was pretty sure that he could lay his hand on the
criminal, but that night something happened which entirely upset his
calculations.”
“What was that?” enquired the Professor, who was listening
intently.
“Why, for one thing, the man whom he suspected of the murders
has been killed,” replied Hanslet. “Not that there was anything
amazing in that, for he seems to have been a trifle unbalanced in
any case, and his death may possibly have been due to suicide. No,
what altogether upset Whyland’s apple-cart was that another man
received a counter, some time after the death of the man whom
Whyland suspected of delivering them.”
“It is remarkable how frequently hypotheses founded upon pure
conjecture are upset by one simple fact,” remarked the Professor
acidly. “Now, what was the name of this man whom Whyland
suspected, and who so inconsiderately spoilt the theory by his
premature death?”
“Samuel Copperdock,” replied Hanslet, turning to Harold, who
wrote the name on his pad.
“Copperdock?” repeated the Professor. “An unusual name, and
yet I seem to have heard it before in some connection. Copperdock,
Copperdock! Let me think——”
“You’ve probably seen the name above his shop, Professor,” said
Hanslet. “He was a tobacconist in Praed Street. Or you may have
seen it some months ago in the paper. He was a witness at the
inquest on Tovey, who was the first man murdered.”
But the Professor shook his head. “No, if my memory serves me,
I heard the name many years ago, in some connection which
escapes me for the moment. However, the point would not appear to
have any importance. I must apologize for interrupting you,
Inspector. You were saying that another man received a counter
after this man Copperdock’s death, but I do not think you mentioned
his name?”
 “Ludgrove. Elmer Ludgrove,” said Hanslet. “Rather an interesting
personality, from what Whyland tells me. He keeps a herbalist’s
shop, and is a bit of a character in his way. He’s a man of some
education, between fifty and sixty, a very dignified old boy with a
striking white beard, which I expect is a bit of an asset in his trade.
He doesn’t say much about himself, but does a lot of good in his
own quiet way. All the poorer people in the neighbourhood come to
him if they’re in any sort of trouble, and he freely admits he hears a
good many secrets. Whyland thought he would be a useful chap to
get on the right side of, and often used to drop in to see him. He
says he got more than one valuable hint from him. He was also
pretty certain that this chap Ludgrove shared his suspicions of
Copperdock, but he would never say so outright. You see,
Copperdock was a friend of his.”
The Professor nodded. “I see,” he said. “And it was this Mr.
Ludgrove who received the counter you say?”
“Yes, and, what’s more, Whyland was with him when he found it.
The poor old boy was terribly shaken for the moment, Whyland says,
but after a bit he pretended to treat it as a joke. I’ve seen him since,
and he’s pretty plucky about it, knowing as he does that everybody
who has received one of these infernal numbered counters has died
a sudden death. He says that he is an old man, anyhow, alone in the
world and with only a few more years to live in any case, so that his
death will be no great blow to anybody.”
“A most philosophic attitude,” agreed the Professor. “But to return
to Mr. Copperdock, I should like to hear the circumstances under
which he met his death.”
Hanslet related the events of the previous Saturday night in
considerable detail, up to the time when Whyland and Ludgrove
entered the latter’s sanctum. “There’s not much more to add,” he
continued, “except that the doctor’s suspicions were confirmed as to
the poison. The Home Office people examined the fragment of
broken needle, and I heard this afternoon that they found traces of
a remarkable virulent synthetic alkaloid. You’ll know what that is
better than I do, Professor.”
 “Yes, I know,” replied the Professor grimly. “I have reason to. It
was with one of these synthetic alkaloids—there are a number of
them—that Farwell tipped the spines of the hedgehog to which I so
nearly fell a victim.¹ You remember that incident, I dare say?”
“I do, indeed,” said Hanslet warmly. “What’s more, the Home
Office people say that a dose of the stuff would produce almost
immediate paralysis, and death within a few minutes. The
incrustation was potassium carbonate all right, almost certainly the
result of putting caustic potash on the place. But that only makes
the business more puzzling. If Copperdock poisoned himself, how did
he have time to apply the caustic potash before he was paralysed? If
someone else did it, why should they apply the caustic, and how did
they get in and out of the house? Remember, Whyland’s man Waters
had the place under observation all the time.”
“Then you are inclined to favour the theory of suicide?” asked the
Professor.
“On the whole, yes,” replied Hanslet. “Oh, by the way, I forgot to
tell you that soon after daylight Waters found the syringe, with the
other part of the needle still in it, by the side of the road under
Copperdock’s window. There had been a heavy shower of rain about
half past three, and the syringe was covered with mud and filth. The
analysts could not find any traces remaining of the poison, but the
end of the needle proved that it was the one that had been used.
That points to suicide, a murderer wouldn’t chuck away his weapon
like that where anyone could see it.
“Besides, if you come to think of it, suicide fits in best with what
we know. It is a fact that Copperdock’s mind was to some extent
unhinged. He declared that he met the black sailor, when a reliable
witness declares that no such person was about. In fact, the only
person besides Copperdock who seriously claims to have seen this
black sailor is a degenerate youth who is also a convicted pick-
pocket. It is highly probable that the counters were numbered, and
the envelopes containing them typed in Mr. Copperdock’s office.
Whyland assures me that the only link between the victims was
Copperdock, not in any definite form, certainly, but still definite
enough to make the coincidence remarkable. I am inclined to believe
that Copperdock was at the bottom of it all somehow. My difficulty
will be to prove it.”
“You think, I gather, that this Mr. Copperdock suffered from a
peculiar form of homicidal mania, which finally culminated in his
taking his own life?” suggested the Professor. “I admit that such
cases are not unknown, but the theory involves you in many
difficulties. I mention only one of them, the first that occurs to me.
Where did he obtain this synthetic alkaloid? These substances are
not articles of commerce, they are not, so far as I am aware, used in
medicine. They are only produced experimentally in research
laboratories. Farwell had a well-equipped laboratory, as you probably
remember, which accounts for his use of such a poison. But how
could a man in Copperdock’s position procure it?”
Hanslet shrugged his shoulders. “I don’t know, Professor,” he
replied. “I confess that I turn to the theory of Copperdock as the
murderer because it seems to present fewer difficulties than any
other. The whole thing seems to me to involve a mass of
contradictions, whichever way you look at it. It’s for that very reason
I came to see you, Professor. But you must at least admit that
madness in some form must be responsible. What rational motive
could there be for the murder of half a dozen men entirely
unconnected with one another, and whose deaths could be of no
possible benefit to the murderer?”
“I am prepared to admit nothing until I have further examined
the facts,” replied the Professor severely. “Now, Harold, will you read
me your notes upon the first murder? Thank you. I should like all
details relating to Mr. Tovey, please, Inspector.”
It was long past midnight before they reached the end of the
catalogue, and the Professor was satisfied that he knew everything
which Hanslet could tell him.
“You will, of course, let me know if any fresh facts come to light,”
he said, as Hanslet rose to take his leave. “Meanwhile, I will consider
the matter. If I come to any definite conclusions I will let you know.
Good-night, and pray accept my most sincere thanks for presenting
me with a most absorbing problem.”
¹ See The Ellerby Case by John Rhode. ↩︎
 Chapter XIV.
The Morlandson Trial
The Professor came down to breakfast next morning looking
even more weary than on the previous day. Harold, looking at him
anxiously, guessed that he had hardly slept at all during the night.
Some absorbing train of thought, whether started by Hanslet’s story
of the previous evening or not, had taken possession of his brain.
But, in spite of his weariness, there was a queer gleam in the
piercing eyes behind the powerful spectacles, which Harold knew
from past experience to be the light of battle.
“I have some work for you to-day, my boy,” he said, as soon as
the meal was over. “I want you to go to the British Museum and look
up the reports of the trials for murder at the Old Bailey during the
first ten years of the present century. Among them you will find the
trial of a doctor for the murder of one of his patients by giving him
an overdose of morphia. I believe that the doctor’s name began with
an M, and I fancy that his patient had a title. More than this I cannot
tell you, my memory, I regret to say, is not what it used to be. I
want you to make a précis of that trial and of the sentence.”
“Very good, sir,” replied Harold, and forthwith started on his
quest. He could not guess the purpose for which the Professor
required this information, but it could obviously have nothing to do
with these intriguing murders in Praed Street which Hanslet had
described. Unless, perhaps, the Professor had seen some parallel
between the methods of the unknown criminal and those of this
vague doctor whose name began with an M. You never could predict
the direction from which the Professor would approach a problem.
All that you could be certain of was that it would be different from
the one you anticipated.
 Arrived at the Museum, where he was a frequent visitor on
similar errands, he went carefully through the index to the Law
Reports. It was not until he came to the year 1906, that he met with
anything which corresponded to the data which the Professor had
given him. Then he found a reference to the trial of one Doctor
Morlandson for the murder of Lord Whatley. This must be the case
to which his employer had referred. He turned up the records, and
proceeded to make a careful abstract.
It appeared that Lord Whatley had been a man of middle age,
and of some considerable wealth. Dr. Morlandson was his regular
medical attendant, and in 1905 he had been compelled to warn his
patient that he was suffering from cancer, and that though an
operation might be successful, there was grave doubt that it would
permanently remove the source of the trouble. However, Lord
Whatley consented to undergo the operation. He was removed to a
nursing home, and a specialist was called in. The patient went
through the ordeal satisfactorily, and after a while he returned
home.
But, by the beginning of the following year, the symptoms
reasserted themselves, and Dr. Morlandson informed his patient,
who insisted that he should be told the truth, that nothing more
could be done, and that Lord Whatley had nothing to look forward to
but perhaps a year or two of suffering. The relations between the
two men were rather those of close friendship than of doctor and
patient, and, subsequent to Dr. Morlandson’s pronouncement, they
saw a great deal of one another. Morlandson devoted as much time
as he could spare from his practice to sitting with Lord Whatley, who
was a childless widower and did not encourage the visits of his
friends and relations.
By the end of February it appeared that the disease was
progressing even more rapidly than Dr. Morlandson had anticipated.
He administered frequent injections of morphia, and his patient was
rarely conscious. Morlandson continued to spend the greater part of
his time with him, and in Lord Whatley’s brief intervals of
consciousness his doctor, and the nurses who had been called in,
were the only people he spoke to.
 He died early in March, in the presence of Dr. Morlandson and
one of the nurses, without regaining consciousness. A cousin of Lord
Whatley’s, who happened to be his nearest relative, was in the
house, and Morlandson informed him that he would return home
and bring the necessary certificate with him later in the day.
Morlandson, who lived about a mile away, started to walk home.
When he had almost reached his own house, he heard a sound of
confused shouting, and saw a runaway horse attached to a milk-cart,
coming towards him. Without a moment’s hesitation he rushed for
the horse’s head, and had almost succeeded in stopping him, when
he slipped and fell. One of the horse’s hoofs struck him on the head
and he was left unconscious on the road.
The spectators of the accident picked him up, and he was carried
into his own house. A colleague was summoned, and declared that
he was suffering from severe concussion. This diagnosis proved
correct, and Morlandson lay in a state of semi-consciousness for
nearly a week. On his recovery, he found the house in possession of
the police.
Lord Whatley’s cousin, hearing of the accident to Dr. Morlandson,
and learning that he could not possibly attend to his duties for some
time to come, was at a loss for the want of a death certificate. He
therefore sent for another doctor—not the man who was attending
Morlandson—and asked him to sign the certificate. This the doctor
would have done, had not one of the nurses, whom Morlandson had
reprimanded for some breach of duty, made some vague insinuation
that everything was not as it should be. The doctor insisted upon
examining the body, and as a result of this examination he
communicated with the authorities. A post-mortem was held, and
Lord Whatley was proved to have died of an overdose of morphia.
The experts gave it as their opinion that the deceased would not
have died of the disease from which he was suffering for another
year at least. A warrant was immediately issued for Dr. Morlandson’s
arrest.
When Lord Whatley’s will came to be read, it was found that he
had left the sum of ten thousand pounds to Morlandson, conditional
upon his being his medical attendant at the time of his death. This
bequest was contained in a codicil executed early in February.
Morlandson came up for trial at the Old Bailey in July. The
prosecution alleged that the codicil disclosed the motive for the
murder, and submitted that Morlandson, fearing lest Lord Whatley
should change his doctor before he died, had made certain of
securing the legacy by poisoning him. They pointed out that, but for
Morlandson’s accident, he would have been able to certify cancer as
the cause of Lord Whatley’s death, and no suspicion would have
been aroused.
Dr. Morlandson’s counsel put in a very striking defence. In effect,
he pleaded guilty to the act of poisoning, but affirmed that this was
done at Lord Whatley’s express command. He had already suffered
considerably and undergone an ineffectual operation, and refused to
contemplate the further agony to which he was condemned. As soon
as Morlandson had informed him that his case was hopeless, he had
begged him to put a end to his sufferings at once, pointing out that
such a course would cause no grief or inconvenience to anyone.
Morlandson had at first refused, but at last, upon the solemn
assurance of Lord Whatley that he would find some means of
committing suicide unless his wishes were complied with, he
consented to inject morphia in increasing doses. This Lord Whatley
agreed to, and whenever he was conscious Morlandson begged him
to reconsider his determination. Finally, knowing that the disease
was incurable, and that the man he cared for as his friend could only
endure months of suffering under his very eyes, he bade him
farewell and administered the fatal dose. The news of the bequest
came as a complete surprise to him.
Morlandson’s defence raised in an acute form a controversy
which had been going on for many years. Many people held that he
was completely justified in his action, that his offence was purely
technical, and that at the most it merited a short term of
imprisonment. But the jury, in spite of a hint from the judge, found
Morlandson guilty of murder and refused to add a rider
recommending him to mercy. Sentence of death was duly
pronounced, but the Home Secretary, the Court of Criminal Appeal
not being then in existence, ordered a reprieve, and the sentence
was commuted to one of twenty years’ penal servitude. Morlandson’s
wife, to whom he was deeply attached, died before a year of it had
expired.
This was the substance of the notes which Harold Merefield
brought back to Dr. Priestley. The latter read them through carefully,
then gave them back to his secretary. “Yes, I thought that I was not
mistaken,” he said. “The facts of the case come back to me very
clearly now. It made a considerable sensation at the time, owing to
the principle involved. Right or wrong, Morlandson was acting in
accordance with his lights. His evidence, I remember, was given with
an air of passionate conviction. This Lord Whatley was his friend,
and he had saved him from suffering at the expense of twenty years
of his own life. I wonder whether he survived his sentence? It would
be most interesting to learn.”
The Professor relapsed into his favourite attitude of thought, his
eyes fixed upon the ceiling, his hands, with the tips of the fingers
touching, laid upon the table in front of him. He remained like this
for many minutes before he spoke again.
“It would be so interesting that I feel impelled to take steps to
discover the facts,” he said. “After lunch I shall visit the record
department of Scotland Yard. While I am away, you can complete
the filing of those papers I gave you yesterday, relating to the work
which we have just completed.”
Harold received these instructions without any great enthusiasm.
He was not greatly interested in the case of this Dr. Morlandson,
since it had occurred so many years ago and could have no possible
bearing upon any problem of the present day. In his recollection of
this forgotten trial the Professor seemed to be neglecting entirely the
problems presented by the murders in Praed Street. Perhaps he had
decided that they were not worthy of his notice. It was not every
problem submitted to him which appealed to him sufficiently to
induce him to devote his energies to its solution.
He spent the afternoon in the study, working half-heartedly and
awaiting the Professor’s return. But it was not until nearly dinner-
time that his employer came in, and then he could see by his
expression that the result of his search had in some way
disappointed him. Dinner was passed in almost complete silence,
and the two returned once more to the study.
“I have discovered the subsequent history of Dr. Morlandson,”
announced the Professor abruptly, as soon as he had finished his
coffee. “I will recount to you the result of my researches at Scotland
Yard. You can make notes of them, and file them with your précis of
his trial.”
Harold produced pencil and paper, and the Professor proceeded
to give an account of how he had spent the afternoon. After some
delay the authorities at Scotland Yard, who were always anxious to
carry out any of Dr. Priestley’s requests, even though they were
ignorant of the motive behind them, had found the record of
Morlandson’s career after his sentence. He had been sent to
Dartmoor, and had served his time there. He had been released on
licence in 1920, having undergone fourteen years of his sentence.
He had then remained for a short time in London, arranging his
affairs, but had not communicated with anybody but his solicitor, to
whom he had expressed his intention of spending the rest of his life
in the most complete seclusion, and devoting himself to chemical
research, for which he had always had a bent during the period in
which he was in practice.
Before the catastrophe which had overtaken him, Morlandson
had been a tall, spare man, clean-shaven, and with carefully brushed
dark hair. Upon his release he had developed a slight stoop, and
although he was still clean-shaven and smart in his appearance, his
hair had gone nearly white. He told his solicitor that he knew he had
only a few years longer to live, but that he hoped that during that
period his researches would confer some benefit upon suffering
humanity. He proposed to commence them as soon as he could find
a suitable spot for the purpose, where he could live entirely alone.
A few weeks after his release, he found a half-ruined cottage
which answered to his requirements, situated in a peculiarly desolate
part of the Isle of Purbeck, in Dorsetshire. He took up his residence
here, repaired the cottage, and added to it a laboratory, built of
concrete. Under the terms of his licence he was compelled to report
to the police, and they kept an eye upon his movements. They might
have saved themselves the trouble. Once he was established in his
cottage, his furthest excursion was to Corfe Castle, the nearest
town, to obtain supplies. He lived entirely alone, and invariably
walked across the heath to and from his cottage. But, even while
living this hermit existence, he was always carefully dressed and
shaved. He made no attempt to conceal his identity, but called
himself Mr. Morlandson, having dropped the prefix “Doctor.” He had,
of course, been struck off the register, and could not have practised
as a doctor even had he desired to do so.
The local superintendent to whom he reported conceived a liking
for him, and occasionally walked across the heath to visit him. He
invariably found him at work in his laboratory, which was plentifully
stocked with chemicals of various kinds. He would never allow
smoking in the laboratory, for, as he pointed out to the
superintendent, the substances with which he was experimenting
were highly inflammable, and there was consequently grave risk of
fire unless proper precautions were taken.
One night, rather more than a year after Morlandson’s release,
flames were seen from Corfe Castle across the heath in the direction
of his cottage. The superintendent leapt on his bicycle, and dashed
off to the scene. When he arrived, he found the laboratory burning
like a furnace, and quite unapproachable. The flames had caught the
cottage, which was by then past saving, especially as the only
available water supply was from a well fitted with a small bucket.
The superintendent, at considerable risk to himself, managed to
enter the sitting-room of the cottage, but could see no trace of
Morlandson.
By morning the fire had burnt itself out. The cottage had been
completely destroyed, only two or three feet of the outer walls
remaining. The laboratory, being built of concrete, had fared rather
better. The greater part of the walls remained, as did the steel door,
which formed the only entrance. The place had no windows, but had
been lighted from above through sky-lights in the roof. These and
the roof itself had completely disappeared. The iron door was found
to be locked upon the inside.
 When it had been broken down, the interior of the laboratory
showed how fierce the fire had been. Every trace of wood had been
consumed, and solid metal fittings had been melted into
unrecognizable shapes. Among the debris on the floor lay a charred
human skeleton, upon one of the fingers of which was a half-melted
gold ring, of which enough remained for the superintendent to
identify it as having been habitually worn by Morlandson. The
remains of the unfortunate man were huddled up by the door, the
key of which was in the lock. It was clear that Morlandson had tried
to make his way out when the fire broke out, but had been
overcome by the fumes of the burning chemicals before he could
achieve his purpose. He had been in the habit of locking the door in
order to secure himself from interruption.
“You have made notes upon this?” asked the Professor. “Good.
File them away. I confess that there are many things about this man
Morlandson which I do not yet understand. I was able to supplement
your account of the trial by an examination of the original records,
which I was allowed to make. These gave me considerable food for
thought. I believe that, through a pure accident, I have stumbled
upon one of the most curious occurrences of modern times. I can,
as yet, only conjecture, and so far my conjectures are wholly
unsupported by fact. Much research will be necessary before these
facts can be established, and it is possible that I may not be spared
for a sufficient time to carry out this research.”
“Not be spared, sir!” exclaimed Harold, startled by the grave tone
of the Professor’s voice. “Why, you have many years before you yet,
I hope.”
“Death comes to us all, sooner, perhaps, than we expect,” replied
Dr. Priestley. “And I feel, this evening, that death may be closer to
me than I have supposed. Ah, do I hear someone in the hall?”
With a nervous movement, entirely foreign to him, Dr. Priestley
rose from his chair and stood facing the door. Harold, with a queer
feeling of expectation, walked towards it and opened it. In the hall
stood Inspector Hanslet, handing his coat and hat to Mary.
“Good evening, Mr. Merefield, I thought I’d look round and see if
the Professor had any information for me,” he said. “May I see him?”
 “Yes, come in by all means,” replied Harold, with a sudden sense
of relief. “But I shouldn’t stay too long, if I were you. He’s rather
tired and nervy to-night.”
Hanslet nodded, and Harold led the way into the study. “It’s
Inspector Hanslet, sir,” he said.
The Professor appeared to have entirely recovered his usual
equanimity. “Ah, good evening, Inspector,” he said blandly. “I half
expected that you would be round this evening. I am very glad to
see you.”
“I thought I would come round, on the chance that you had
some hint to give me,” replied Hanslet. “I can’t make head or tail of
the business I told you about last night. The more I think about it,
the more puzzling it seems. It’s the utter lack of motive that makes it
all so inexplicable.”
“I believe, mind, I say only that I believe, that I have discovered
the motive,” said the Professor quietly.
“You have!” exclaimed Hanslet excitedly. Then, seeing the slow
movement of the Professor’s head, he smiled. “I know you won’t tell
me until you are certain,” he continued. “But at least tell me this. Are
there likely to be any more of these mysterious deaths?”
“There will be one more, unless I am able to prevent it,” replied
the Professor.
 Chapter XV.
The Bone Counters
Mr. Ludgrove, as Hanslet had said to Dr. Priestley, bore the shock
of the finding of the numbered counter extremely well. He had
refused to make any alteration in usual habits, and it was with the
greatest difficulty that Whyland could persuade him to allow a
constable to sleep in the house at night.
“I can assure you that this mysterious warning does not terrify
me,” he had said. “I am an old man, and death cannot be far off in
any case. I am not sure that I should not prefer a violent end to
some lingering illness which might leave me helpless for months
before it killed me. But, if you think that by keeping a close watch
over me you can gain some clue to the distributor of these counters,
by all means do so.”
He was in this frame of mind when Hanslet came to see him on
the Sunday afternoon. Whyland brought him round and introduced
him, and Mr. Ludgrove welcomed him with his usual courtesy.
“I have heard of you, Inspector Hanslet, and I am indeed proud
to make your acquaintance. Sit down, and make yourself
comfortable.”
“Thank you, Mr. Ludgrove,” Hanslet replied. “I thought you
wouldn’t mind my coming to have a chat with you. Whyland here
has told me all about these queer happenings in this street of yours,
and of the help which you have been to him.”
“I am afraid that I have been of very little help,” said Mr.
Ludgrove with a smile. “Inspector Whyland has been kind enough to
appreciate beyond their value any suggestions I have made.”
“Well, that’s as may be,” replied Hanslet. “Now, Mr. Ludgrove, I
am going to ask for further assistance on your part. You know as
much about these counters as I do. They seem to have been sent,
so far, to six men, all of whom have died shortly after they received
them. Whyland tells me that he has utterly failed to establish any
connection between these men. Except for the fact that Tovey and
Copperdock were close friends, they all seem to be comparative
strangers to one another, and have never been associated in any
common enterprise. You see what I mean, of course?”
“I do, indeed. In fact, Inspector Whyland and I discussed the
point, long ago. It might be possible to imagine a motive for the
murder of a group of men who were inspired by a common motive
or who belonged to some common society. The difficulty is,
assuming that the agency which compassed their deaths was the
same in each case, to imagine a motive for the actions of that
agency.”
“Exactly!” exclaimed Hanslet warmly. “I see that you appreciate
my point as clearly as I do myself. But now we have a fresh line of
investigation. You yourself are added to the list of those who have
received the counter. Can you explain why you should have been
singled out?”
Mr. Ludgrove shook his head. “As you may suppose, the subject
has occupied my thoughts ever since I found the counter,” he
replied. “I am an old man, as I have said before, and for the last
twenty years or more I have led a retired life, retired, I mean, in the
sense that I have taken no part in the affairs of the world. I have
had enemies as well as friends; few men who have reached my
years could say otherwise. But most of the contemporaries of my
youth are dead, and in any case I do not believe that any of the
enemies I may have made would be so vindictive as to seek my life.”
“Let us look at it another way, then,” said Hanslet. “Can you
imagine any way in which you, in common with the six men who
have already died, could have made an unconscious enemy?”
“I cannot,” replied Mr. Ludgrove. “Of those six men, I knew only
two personally, Mr. Copperdock fairly well, and Mr. Colburn slightly.
Both of these I have known only since I came to live in Praed Street,
five years ago. Tovey, I had heard Copperdock speak of. The name
of Richard Pargent, I had seen mentioned in the newspapers. The
other two were complete strangers to me. I cannot imagine how we
could have committed any act in common which would draw down
upon us the vengeance of a single assassin.”
“Then you do not believe that these deaths are the work of a
single assassin, Mr. Ludgrove?” enquired Hanslet with interest.
“Not of a single man, acting upon any rational motive,” replied
Mr. Ludgrove. “Even in the brain of a homicidal maniac there is
usually traceable some dim guiding principle. He either conceives a
hatred for a certain class of person, or he kills indiscriminately,
usually selecting the people nearest to hand. In this case the
selection was anything, but indiscriminate. Mind, I am assuming for
the moment, as apparently you are yourself, that the death of all six
was the direct sequel of their receipt of a numbered counter. If you
adopt the theory that a single man is responsible, you may as well
believe in the existence of the black sailor.”
“I am afraid that we are already committed to him,” said Hanslet
with a smile. “You see, we offered a reward for him, and it would
never do for the police to admit that they had offered a reward for a
ghost. Whyland, what is your honest opinion of this black sailor?”
“Entirely between ourselves and this most comfortable room, I
have never believed in his existence for a moment,” replied Whyland
readily. “But what could I do? That young rip, Wal Snyder, swore to
having seen him, and I couldn’t shake him.”
“Whether young Snyder saw him or not,” remarked the herbalist,
“your reward has made him a very real person to the poorer classes
of this district. One or other of my customers sees him every night,
usually during the hour which immediately follows the closing of the
public houses. And, as a rule, they come here hot-foot to tell me
about it.”
“I’m sorry, Mr. Ludgrove,” laughed Whyland. “I wouldn’t have
done it if I could have helped it. By the way, I suppose that you are
perfectly satisfied that none of these odd customers of yours know
anything about this business?”
“Perfectly,” replied Mr. Ludgrove. “They are a strange lot, I admit,
professing a code of morals which in some respects would shock the
conscience of a savage, and many of them are not above any petty