Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Fundamental cracking performance of asphalt-filler mastics with

hydrated lime
Juan S. Carvajal-Muñoz a,*,1, Gordon Airey a,2, Rubén D. Hernández-De Las Salas b,
María A. Contreras-Barbas b, Santiago A. Rodríguez-Verdecia b
a
Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre (NTEC), University of Nottingham, United Kingdom
b
Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of the North, Colombia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study evaluates the impact of hydrated lime (HL) on the cracking performance at intermediate temperature
Hydrated lime of asphalt-filler mastics, specifically as a partial replacement for limestone filler (LF). HL, is an active filler known
Cracking for its multiple benefits in asphalt applications. The Double Edge Notched Tension (DENT) test was used to assess
Fracture
fracture properties, including specific total work of fracture, plastic work of failure, essential work of fracture,
DENT test
and average critical tip opening displacement. The results revealed several key findings: a notable loss of
Performance-related
Mastics ductility and toughness with increasing HL dosages, a stiffening effect evidenced by increased peak loads and
reduced failure deformation, and a decrease in the specific total work of fracture, indicating a loss of fracture
energy. However, an enhancement in fracture resistance to plastic deformation is observed with HL addition,
although identifying trends at high dosages remains challenging due to complex interactions between HL and LF.
Furthermore, using low volumetric concentrations of HL minimizes the adverse impact on fracture performance
while leveraging its other beneficial active filler properties. These findings suggest that while HL can improve
certain fracture properties, optimal dosages are crucial to avoid adverse effects. Overall, this paper provides an
updated and comprehensive study of the fracture of mastics at intermediate temperatures, which adds up to the
understanding of asphalt-filler interactions, which can potentially lead to further investigations, such as how the
partial replacement of LF with HL affects asphalt mixtures’ performance-related characteristics, particularly the
fatigue cracking resistance.

1. Introduction importance since these have a great impact on the quality and durability
of road infrastructure. Among the various pavement distresses, fatigue
Asphalt Mastic is a matrix composed of asphalt binder and mineral cracking represents a fundamental challenge for flexible pavement de­
fillers layers between aggregates in an asphalt mix [6]. Mineral fillers signers and constructors due to its very common occurrence at inter­
are added for the purpose of improving asphalt properties, reducing mediate temperatures worldwide. Precisely, cracks in asphalt mixtures
constant cracking and increasing stiffness [5]. This is achieved because typically derive from various factors such as temperature variations,
mineral fillers increase the cohesion of the mix, which allows it to aging and loading effects that, altogether, can lead to cracks onset.
become a more resistant material against deformation. In consequence, Asphalt aging is caused due to oxidation produced by constant climatic
the assessment of asphalt mastics performance is crucial, considering it changes and exposure to oxygen, which negatively affects the asphalt
in terms of their resistance to rutting, cracking and moisture damage, molecular structure, which directly reduces its ductility and promotes
and the main pavement distresses to ensure the durability and satis­ the formation of cracks and its development over time [8]. Similarly, a
factory service life of roads. In fact, asphalt mastics are key components very stiff asphalt mastic caused by excessive ageing can prematurely fail
of road infrastructure projects, so their response to various conditions with respect to fatigue resistance and fracture under repeated traffic
such as temperature, load and environmental factors is of great loads. In addition, the oxidative aging results in a brittle mastic that

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz).
1
0000–0002-9388–0590
2
0000–0002-2891–2517

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.139029
Received 1 June 2024; Received in revised form 10 August 2024; Accepted 31 October 2024
Available online 5 November 2024
0950-0618/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

comes as a result of the modifications in the filler-asphalt interactions, concentrations of HL affect asphalt-filler mastics’ cracking performance.
which can also make it more susceptible to cracking at relatively low Similarly, the significance of this research lies in improving pavement
temperatures [6]. durability by identifying and proposing optimal HL concentrations for
In response to this problem, and with the goal of fostering the con­ satisfactory fracture properties derived from fundamental materials’
struction of more efficient and durable roads, Hydrated Lime (HL) has testing and properties, thus, offering practical recommendations for
historically shown to be an advantageous material with the ability to better performing mastics within the sustainable infrastructure frame­
allow the accomplishment of expected durability requirements. HL is work. Following this introductory section, the paper includes a materials
known today to be much more than a moisture damage additive: it is an and methods section that is followed by a discussion of results and is
“active filler” with the ability to reduce the chemical ageing of the completed by a summary section.
asphalt and to stiffen the mastic in a more pronounced manner than a
normal mineral filler would do [10–13,15,9]. HL acts as an anti­ 2. Materials and methods
oxidant/antistripping/stiffening agent, which can enhance the rutting,
fatigue, age hardening, and moisture-damage resistance of asphalt mixes During this investigation, various mastic types were produced with
and binder [6]. Thereby, the interaction between HL and asphalt pro­ the objective of identifying the main effects induced by HL partial
vides chemical and mechanical benefits for the rheological behavior and replacement on the cracking performance of asphalt-filler mastics at
fracture resistance in mastic and mixtures. Earlier research has shown intermediate temperatures. Fig. 1 presents the materials involved in this
that incorporation of HL resulted in reduced creep stiffness and an study and the different mastic combinations, where LF is partially
elevated m-value in asphalt mastic. Furthermore, asphalt mastics with replaced with HL at various volumetric concentrations. Additionally, the
HL showed a decreased slope of S(t) and E(t) across all loading time parameters used to guide the analysis of cracking performance, derived
intervals. It was also found that a control asphalt mastic AC-30 with 5 % from DENT test and following the Essential Work of Fracture (EWF)
HL and 75 % B (Basalt) additions exhibited improved performance in method, are outlined.
terms of low-temperature thermal cracking [5]. Nevertheless, this paper
focuses solely on the fracture performance of mastics at intermediate
2.1. Materials
temperatures, with emphasis in fundamental material properties such as
those obtained from studying the ductile fracture toughness behavior of
A set of five mastics were manufactured as indicated in Fig. 1 and
the mastics under direct tension, applying the Essential Work of Fracture
Table 1.
(EWF) theoretical background. For this purpose, the Double-Edge
Notched Tension (DENT) test was used.
According to previous work, DENT test is a characterization tech­ 2.2. Methods
nique that can determine the ductile fracture toughness of asphalt
mastic under high tensile loads [6]. This test is based on a 2.2.1. Mastics manufacturing protocol
mechanistic-energetic approach with the objective of evaluating the The method for producing the mastics followed the guidelines pro­
fracture behavior in ductile state through creep and tear processes [16]. vided by Cooley et al., [3] and Taylor, [23]. (1) the specific gravity of the
This test was chosen over other tests since it is based on a mechanical asphalt and fillers was determined; (2) fillers were dried to constant
property that has consistently demonstrated results over time and has mass at 105◦ C; (3) the masses of filler were determined based on the
been used to design structures and materials against ductile failure [6]. desired gravimetric proportions (1:1 asphalt-to-filler ratio) in the mas­
A recent laboratory study by Das and Singh [8] has shown that the tic; (4) 1000 g of base asphalt (30/45) was introduced in the oven for a
combination of B-HL fillers improves the effectiveness on the cracking or maximum period of two hours at 180◦ C, typically being 45 min to 1 h to
fracture resistance of asphalt mastics with the increase in ductile prop­ reduce extreme oxidation and volatization of lighter asphalt chemical
erty. This improvement is based on established fracture parameters fractions, to allow it to be soft and fluid enough to be poured and
(TWF, EWF, PWF, and CTOD) captured through DENT test. According to blended with the fillers; (5) the correct proportions were weighed prior
Das and Singh [8], the Specific Total of Fracture (TWF) measures the to mixing; (6) the asphalt/filler were put in a hotplate at 180◦ C and
total energy required to fracture an asphalt sample; the Essential work of blended manually with spatula for 3 minutes (same mixing time as the
fracture (EWF) is the energy needed to create new surfaces before plastic SMA mixtures). The manual procedure involved mixing of the asphalt
deformation; the Plastic Work of Fracture (PWF) is the energy dissipated and filler in a rotational mode (i.e., clockwise and counterclockwise)
as heat due to volumetric deformation around the fracture region; and using a long metallic spatula and making sure the materials did not settle
the Critical Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) measures the strain to the bottom of the metal tin, thereby simulating the mixing mode used
tolerance and fracture resistance of an asphalt specimen. Additional for bituminous mixtures. (7) The mastics were left covered in the tins for
research work by Xu et al. [25] have combined fracture-related char­ cooling down at ambient temperature (approximately 20◦ C) for further
acterization via DENT test with physiochemical compatibility methods testing.
to further assess the asphalt-filler interactions that occur in bituminous
mastics. Precisely, the authors concluded on the predominant role of 2.2.2. Ageing protocol
asphalt sources and physiochemical characteristics, particle size and Once the base asphalt and bituminous mastics were manufactured
specific surface area on the fatigue performance of the mastics, which following the previous guidelines, they underwent artificial protocols to
comes as a consequence of the concurrence of physical hardening and simulate the aging that occurs during the mixing stage at the production
particle-filling improvement. Based on the literature review carried out, plant and in the materials in the field over the long term.
it was found that very little studies deal with HL effects in the fracture
performance of mastics, in terms of fundamental test methods and 2.2.2.1. Short-term ageing using the Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT). For the
properties, for various volumetric concentrations as a replacement of short-term ageing, the Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) (ASTM D1754)
conventional filler types such as LF. This scarcity of scientific literature (Fig. 2), was preferred due to the simplicity of the ageing protocol and
through relevant and updated test methods such as DENT test strongly the ease for material retrieval in contrast to the Rolling Thin Film Oven
motivated the write-up of this paper. (RTFO) test. More precisely, since a hard asphalt type was used in
Based on the aforementioned, this paper covers an extensive labo­ conjunction with high volumetric concentrations of two filler types to
ratory characterization of asphalt-filler mastics, focused on cracking produce the bituminous mastics, the expected stiffening effect supposed
performance, with incorporated HL as a partial replacement of LF. The the need of an easier method to retrieve the materials after short-term
main objective of the paper is to understand how varying volumetric ageing, which was found, after several attempts, to be much simpler

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J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

Fig. 1. Experimental Plan.

Table 1
Composition of the mastics and main conventional properties.
Material Composition by Penetration Softening Rotational
Code Total Mastic (dmm), 25◦ C point (◦ C) viscosity
Volume (mPa.s),
135◦ C

BIT 30/45 (100 %) 40.11 52.80 448

M1-C* BIT (72.1 %) + 22.50 60.10 1689
27.9 % LF
M2 BIT (72.1 %) + 20.25 62.35 2235
6.7 % HL +
21.2 % LF
M3 BIT (72.1 %) + 18.75 63.75 2709
13.2 % HL +
14.6 % LF
M4 BIT (72.1 %) + 17.75 65.10 3413
19.6 % HL +
8.3 % LF
M5 BIT (72.1 %) + 17.25 67.80 4719
25.8 % HL +
2.0 % LF Fig. 2. Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT).
*
Note: Control mastic, no HL added. Properties indicated for materials in
unaged condition.
2.2.2.2. Long-term ageing using the pressure ageing vessel apparatus
(PAV). Into the pressure ageing vessel (Fig. 3) were introduced the
materials that were previously aged via TFOT, at standard testing con­
through the metal pans used for TFOT than with the glass bottles of
ditions. A 100◦ C temperature, a 2.1 MPa pressure and an ageing time of
RTFO. Furthermore, it was found that the loss of mastic mass after RTFO
20 hours and 40 hours were considered as the long-term ageing.
was too high in comparison to the TFOT method. The TFOT method
involved subjecting the asphalt and bituminous mastics to ageing
2.2.2.3. Considerations of constant film-thickness for consistent ageing.
induced by air and temperature for a period of 5 hours at 163◦ C
The film thickness was a crucial parameter in the TFOT and PAV ageing
(325 ◦ F). Oxidative ageing of the asphalt occurs during TFOT. After
protocols, following recommendations from previous research by Kumar
TFOT was carried out, the materials were left at ambient temperature for
& Goetz (1977) and Alfawaqui (2018) in relation to keeping the film
cooling down and subsequently transferred to glass vials for further
thickness comparable among all aged materials. Attention was paid to
testing or kept in the metal trays for subsequent long-term ageing in
this aspect due to the influence of film thickness on the ageing mecha­
PAV.
nism of bituminous mixtures and their mechanical performance (Kumar
& Goetz, 1977). More precisely, the mastics were introduced to the PAV

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J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

Table 2
Densities of the mastics and mass of material added to the TFOT/PAV pans for
consistent ageing.
Material Mastic density Film Volume Mass
thickness (cm3) added to
Slurry Urick’s
(mm) pan (g)
method equation
(kg/m3) (kg/m3)

BIT – – 32.5 50 50.00

M1-C 1462 1462 32.5 50 73.12
M2 1445 1445 32.5 50 72.29
M3 1429 1429 32.5 50 71.47
M4 1413 1413 32.5 50 70.68
M5 1397 1397 32.5 50 69.90

Note: pan dimensions for PAV/TFOT are a diameter equal to 140 mm, and a
height of 9.5 mm. These are used to determine the film thickness required to
obtain a total volume of asphalt/mastic (50 cm3).

Fig. 3. Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV).

2.2.3. Fundamental fracture characterisation via DENT test
The DENT test determines an essential work of failure (we), a plastic
or non-essential work of failure term (bwp), and an approximate critical
pans to achieve an equivalent volume, considering a fixed thickness of
crack tip opening displacement (CTOD), the latter of which provides a
32.5 mm, instead of adding these by weight as specified in the standard
measure of strain tolerance [2]. Higher values allow the pavement to
(i.e., 50 g). This procedure was selected to have same volumetric content
flex more before failing and thus should increase fatigue life [2]. This
in the pans that would allow for a more consistent ageing process for all
means that the material can hold more loads and tensions before a sig­
mastics due to the film thickness being equal. This way, all materials
nificant fracture. Double-Edge Notched Tension (DENT) was conducted
tested were subjected to a similar ageing protocol for both short- and
with the aim of assessing the asphalt mastic’s ability to resist crack
long-term age conditioning. Details on the experimental procedure are
growth under steady-state loading conditions and to determine fracture
indicated below.
toughness and compare it with each mixture This was done following
As an initial approach, the densities of the mastics were calculated by
the Ontario Ministry of Transportation Standard (LS-299). The proced­
using Eq. 1., with the purpose of calculating the mastic mass required in
ure involves preparation of asphalt/mastic samples using metal moulds
the pan. This method is commonly used for slurry density calculations,
followed standard protocol (LS-299) (Fig. 4).
thus, it is termed as “slurry method”.
Calculation of fracture properties include: (1) the total work of
100 fracture (Wt), which refers to the area under the load versus load-line
ρmastic = ( ) (1)
cw cw ) displacement curve J (Eq. 3.); (2)the specific total work of fracture
+ (100−ρ
ρs l (wt), related to each replicate sample tested, kJ/m2 (Eq. 4.); (3) the
specific essential work of fracture (we), the energy required to fracture or
Where, ρmastic is the density of the mastic (kg/m3), cw is the concentra­ break the sample without plastic deformation away from the fracture
tion of filler by weight of mastic (%), ρs is the density of the solids (kg/ zone, kJ/m2; (4) the specific plastic work of fracture (wp), the non-
m3), and ρl is the density of asphalt (kg/m3). essential work dissipated during the deformation of a volume of
Another approach consists of the calculation of the mastics’ densities asphalt around the fracture zone, MJ/m3; (5) the geometric constant of
by adapting the original Urick’s equation of suspensions to the filler- the plastic zone (β), and (6) the critical tip opening displacement
asphalt systems. According to the original formulation, the density of (CTOD), mm (Eq. 5. and Eq. 6.).
the suspension equals the volume average densities of the medium and ∫ tf
the particles (Urick, 1948; Sayan & Ulrich, 2002) (Eq. 2.). Wt = P × d, KJ (3)
0
ρmastic = ϕLF (ρLF − ρB ) + ϕHL (ρHL − ρB ) + 1000 (2)
Where, P is the load in Newton, d is the displacement in the test in m, tf is
Where, ρmastic is the density of the mastic (kg/m3), ϕLF is the volumetric the time when the maximum stroke is reached or ductile failure,
fraction of LF, ρLF is the density of LF in the mastic (kg/m3), ρb is the whichever is attained first, as is seen in the Fig. 5.
density of asphalt (assumed to be 1000 kg/m3), ϕHL is the volumetric
fraction of HL in the mastic, and ρHL is the density of HL (kg/m3). wt =
(averageWt )
(4)
The comparison of results provided by the slurry method and the (B × l)
Urick’s equation validate the differences among the mastics’ densities
Where, B is the sample thickness in m, and l is the ligament length (the
and allow the determination of the mass required in the pans for an
space between the notches) in m, as illustrated in Fig. 6.
equivalent volume and film thickness. Through this approach, then, is
warranted a uniformity in the ageing of the materials, which would not we
CTOD = (5)
be attained if using the standard of 50 g for all the materials. Precisely, σn
adding 50 g of all materials would result in a dissimilar volume and film
thickness, that would cause a different ageing among the materials for Where, σ n is the net section stress of specimen in N/m2, calculated
short and long term. In result, from Table 2, a higher HL-replacement using
leads to a lower weight of mastic needed to obtain the desired vol­ Ppeak
ume/thickness, which is due to the substantially lower particle density σn = (6)
(B × l)
of HL compared to LF that produces a less dense mastic in contrast to the
control mastic with LF solely. Also, the mass of the mastics is inherently Where, Ppeak is the average peak load of the specimen tested with the
higher than that of the unmodified asphalt as it is expected for materials smallest ligament length (i.e., the average maximum load for the 5 mm
with a substantially higher density to that of asphalt. ligament specimens).
Determination of we and βwp is done either graphically by plotting wt

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J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

Fig. 4. DENT equipment for fracture characterisation at intermediate temperatures for asphalt/blends. (a) Overall view of the device including the water bath,
cooling system and data acquisition system, (b) detail of the water bath with the asphalt specimen ready for testing.

intrinsic material property, three assumptions or conditions should be

met: (i) the ligament must be fully yielded before cracking initiates, (ii) the
load-displacement diagrams should be self-similar for all ligament lengths in
order to verify a common geometry of fracture, and (iii) the sample must be
yielded under a plane stress state of tension [18–20].

3.1. Validation of the fracture parameters

Fig. 8. shows net section stresses in function of ligament length (5, 10

and 15 mm) for each sample. As mentioned in [2], this graph is usually
used to determine if a material is tested under plane-stress or
plane-stress/plane-strain mixed conditions. Whereas is valid to use a
famous criterion proposed by R. Hill, where he settled that in plane
stress conditions, net section stress (σ n ) can reach a maximum value of
Fig. 5. Schematic of the total work of fracture (Wt) in a Load vs. Displace­ 1.15 times the tensile yield stress (σty ) of the material. If this factor
ment Curve.
(σn /σty ) is exceeded, it may indicate that samples are tested under
plane-strain mixed conditions (Hill, 1952, as cited in [8]). However, the
plane-stress condition is not normally met in the case of asphalt binders
as indicated by Subhy et al. [17]. This happens due to the viscoelastic
behavior and soft nature of bituminous materials, therefore, having very
thin samples for maintaining plane-stress conditions is not practical.
Furthermore, it can be seen from Fig. 5. that all materials have a
decreasing trend, i.e., as the ligament length increases, the net section
stress decreases. This graph trend is a visual method to distinguish if a
material is under mixed plane stress/strain conditions too as suggested
by Subhy et al. [17,22]. Whereas all materials are under same mixed
regimen, the fracture parameters given by DENT test are reliable,
therefore, test results can be compared for analysing the fracture per­
formance and behavior of each mastic.

Fig. 6. Schematic of a typical DENT specimen. Red area: Cross-sectional area of 3.2. Force displacement curves
ligament length (l x B).
The following Figs. (9 to 11) depict the behavior of each material in
for the three ligament lengths or mathematically using the least squares the DENT test conducted on a ductilimeter at a constant temperature of
fitting method. we refers to the specific essential work of fracture (i.e., wt 20◦ C, with the same ligament lengths of 5, 10, and 15 mm. In a Load vs.
value when l = 0.0) and βwp is the slope of the best-fit straight line (for wt Displacement chart, the area under the curve represents the amount of
= we +βwpl). energy required to crack the material. Therefore, a larger area under the
curve indicates that the material is more capable of withstanding the
3. Results and discussion appearance of cracks. The ability of the mastic to reach more displace­
ment (X-axis) or a higher peak load (Y-axis) depends on how rigid or
This section presents and discusses the main results derived from the flexible/deformable the mastic is. Curves that indicate higher toughness
experimental work previously described. An energy-based approach to typically exhibit a balance between peak load and displacement, as these
study the fracture properties of the materials is presented in this section two parameters have an inverse relation. In other words, as a material
based on the Double-Edged Notch Tension (DENT) test, following the reaches more displacement, the peak load will decrease, and vice versa.
Essential Work of Fracture (EWF) method. This method has been widely Fig. 9 illustrates the change in the behavior of the mastics as more HL
used for evaluating the fracture in polymers and metals, with recent replaces LF. The stiffening effect on the mastics is noticeable, as evi­
applications in bituminous binders [1,17–21]. In order to have an denced by the behavior of the curves. Whilst the addition of HL as a
partial replacement of LF is higher, the curves reach higher load peaks

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J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

Fig. 8. Net section stress as a function of the ligament length for all materials.

Fig. 9. Force-displacement curves for all materials for 5-mm DENT insert size (20◦ C).

and show less displacement, meaning that mastics are losing ductility the presence of rubbers or polymers as described in earlier research by
and winning strength at the same time. Additionally, it can be noted that Singh et al. [16]. Nevertheless, in this instance, such behavior is most
for dosages greater than 10 % of HL (M3 to M5) this behavior is more likely attributable to the interaction between the LF as an inert filler and
remarkable, indicating a greater loss of ductility and leading to a the HL as an active filler within a rather hard asphalt (30/45) and it
possibly loss of toughness (smaller area under the curve) in comparison cannot be associated to an “elastomeric” response. The appearance of a
with base asphalt. second peak suggests a high transient resistance to
In Fig. 10, the load-displacement curves exhibit a similar behavior to post-peak/post-yielding deformation; however, this does not confer any
that described in Fig. 9. As more HL is added to the mastic, it reaches a benefit to toughness due to the still significant reduction in displace­
higher peak load and a lower displacement, indicating a stiffer mastic as ment. Particularly in this graph, the mastic M4 (19.6 % HL + 8.3 % FL)
it represents a very high loss of ductility and a greater gain of strength. In exhibits the best ductile response, showing the curve with the most area
agreement with Fig. 6, Fig. 7 similarly demonstrates that mastics with under it. This result suggests the possibility that an optimal dosage of HL
high volumetric concentrations of HL (>10 %) experience the most could enhance the mastic’s strength without overly affecting its tough­
significant toughness loss. ness, thus maintaining its ductile properties. Despite this, the boundary
Fig. 11 provides a more detailed view of the process until failure of of this beneficial effect, if it exists, is not yet clear due to the complex
each mastic (15 mm ligament length), highlighting a two-peak behavior interaction between HL and LF. In addition, an intriguing result pre­
in all curves (except for the BIT mastic) where the second peak load of sented across all figures is that mastic M3 exhibits a stiffer behavior
mastics with >10 % HL dosages is more remarkable and even higher compared to mastic M4, despite having a lower proportion of HL. This
than the first peak. This behavior is highly unusual in mastics without demonstrates once again the complex interaction between LF and HL.

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J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

Fig. 10. Force-displacement curves for all materials for 10-mm DENT insert size (20◦ C).

Fig. 11. Force-displacement curves for all materials for 15-mm DENT insert size (20◦ C).

Finally, it is important to note that all load-displacement diagrams deformation response, the base asphalt (BIT) and the control mastic
(for 5, 10, and 15 mm) follow a self-similar trend, which ensures (M1-C) demonstrate better ductile response across all ligament lengths
compliance with the condition to verify a common geometry of fracture as a greater addition of HL to the mastics decreases the failure defor­
and validate the DENT test. mation values. Nevertheless, the relationship between increasing HL
dosages (while replacing LF) and deformation response is not entirely
clear, since despite there seems to be an inverse trend (higher HL dosage
3.3. Peak and failure deformation
leads to decreased failure deformation), it is also observed that mastic
M3 has a lower failure deformation than M4 and M5, despite M3 has a
Fig. 12 illustrates the relationship between peak load and failure
lower HL dosage. For this reason, the behavior of mastic M3 deviates
deformation of each material across all ligament lengths. This diagram
from the expected trends. Overall, there is a clear increasing trend in
specifically showcases the maximum values of peak load and failure
stiffness with the addition of HL that can be interpreted as a worse yield
deformation described by the load-displacement curves. Regarding peak
strength and therefore, a poor cracking performance is expected. These
load, there appears to be an increasing tendency with higher HL dosages
results are quite opposite to the ones observed in previous research by
replacing LF, but curiously, mastic M3 exhibits higher load peaks than
Das & Singh [8], in which the increasing addition of Hydrated Lime to a
M4, deviating from the expected trend. Notwithstanding, it is evident
control grade asphalt binder (VG-30) represents lower peak loads and
that much of the stiffness gained in the mastics is due to the presence of
greater failure deformation values, indicating better yield strength.
Hydrated Lime, as there is a substantial difference in peak loads between
mastic M1-C (with only LF dosage) and the other mastics with HL
included, where peak loads are superior. Conversely, in terms of

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J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

increases as the ligament length increases, regardless of the mastic

composition. This behavior is expected since the larger ligament length
is, the more energy will be required for propagating the crack or starting
to create new surfaces before plastic deformation. Such behavior is also
consistent even when considering different f/b ratios, as suggested by a
detailed investigation conducted by Das & Singh [8]. However, for in­
dividual 5- and 10-mm ligament lengths, the specific total work of
fracture shows a decreasing trend as the incorporation of HL (as partial
replacement of LF) increases. According to Das & Singh [6], this trend
indicates a decrease in the yield strength property, meaning that the
mastic loses fracture energy, which is detrimental to its fracture per­
formance. Nevertheless, the 15 mm ligament lenght wt results do not
show any clear trend.
Other fracture parameters shown in Table 3 are also depicted in
Fig. 13 and Fig. 14, making it easier to analyze the trends in each
parameter since they are normalized. Fig. 13 displays the normalized
plastic work of fracture (standardized to mastic BIT values), showing
Fig. 7. A schematic diagram depicting the relationship between wt and liga­
that there is an enhancement in fracture resistance as the values of
ment length l [24].
normalized βwp increase with the addition of HL while replacing LF
(except for mastic M3 and M4), compared with mastics BIT and M1-C. As
3.4. Fundamental fracture parameters stated by Das & Singh [8], the Plastic Work of Fracture is related to the
resistance to plastic deformation after yielding, indicating that an in­
Table 3 presents the DENT results parameters, including the specific crease in βwp values can exhibit better fracture performance. However,
total work of fracture (wt) per ligament length, the specific plastic work in contrast to the work presented by Das and Sigh, no clear trend is
of failure (βwp), the specific essential work of fracture (we), and the observed at high dosages of HL (from mastic M3 onwards). This
average critical tip opening displacement (CTOD) for each material. The behavior is likely attributable once again to the complex interaction
minimum value of the R2 index, shown in the table as 0.844, indicates between LF and HL, making it challenging to establish a correlation
that all estimations of we and βwp for each mastic are highly reliable. between high HL dosages as a partial replacement for LF and the plastic
Analyzing Table 3, it is evident that the specific total work of fracture work of failure, therefore, further research is needed to elucidate this

Fig. 12. Relationship between peak load and failure deformation for all materials, depicting ligament lengths of 5 mm, 10 mm, and 15 mm.

Table 3
The specific total work of fracture (wt) per ligament length used to determine the plastic work of failure (βwp) and essential work of fracture (we), and CTOD for all
materials.
Material Specific total work of fracture (kJ/m2) per ligament length Plastic work of failure (βwp) Essential work of fracture (we) R2 Avg CTOD (mm)
(mm)

5 10 15

BIT 14.96 18.48 23.49 0.853 10.448 0.990 10.203

M1-C 17.65 22.46 32.04 1.439 9.657 0.965 4.052
M2 16.70 22.00 37.02 2.032 4.923 0.929 1.712
M3 14.80 20.12 28.72 1.392 7.296 0.982 2.294
M4 14.57 21.38 38.24 2.367 1.055 0.943 0.357
M5 13.22 15.48 30.92 1.770 2.173 0.844 0.635

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J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

Fig. 13. Normalised plastic work of failure (βwp) for the materials.

Fig. 14. Comparison of the normalised we and CTOD for the materials.

trend. Nonetheless, a practical approach may be to consider low dosages properties as the mastics reach yielding earlier because the energy
of HL (5–7 %) due to their benefits in enhancing resistance to plastic required for new surface generation as part of the fracture process is
deformation. lower (represented in low we results), and they are less susceptible to
Essential Work of Fracture (We) is directly related to the resistance to deformation due to low strain tolerances (represented in low CTOD re­
propagation cracks, as it represents the work required to yield the mastic sults), thus allowing cracks to propagate easier and faster.
or the fracture energy up to the first peak load (yielding point) before the These results are consistent with earlier research work by Chen et al.
occurrence of plastic deformation, as suggested by Das & Singh [7]. [4] in which different mineral fillers are independently added to a 60/80
Furthermore, the CTOD parameter is critical in determining the fracture penetration grade asphalt; in this study, high dosages of HL and LF (up to
performance of a mastic as it is related to the strain tolerance response. 35 %) are analyzed, concluding that for both fillers, a clear and
High values of both We and CTOD parameters are signs of good fracture well-defined decreasing trend for both WE and CTOD values is observed
performance. Fig. 14 displays both We and CTOD parameter values, also once dosages exceed 15 %. Furthermore, according to observations from
normalized compared with the BIT mastic. It is evident that We and a previous study by Ma et al. [14], CTOD values tend to decrease in the
CTOD values follow a similar trend due to the relation between them presence of stiffer mastics, whether due to the effect of polymers or other
expressed in Eq. 5. Although the increasing addition of HL as a partial additives (such as mineral fillers), as the stiffening effect increases
replacement of LF does not show any definable trend in the we and strength but simultaneously reduces strain tolerance in ductile failure.
CTOD values, it can be seen a remarkable decrease in both we and CTOD Overall, Figs. 13 and 14 reveal an unclear trend for the we, βwp and
values, which becomes more severe when high dosages of HL (19 % - CTOD parameters once HL dosages exceed 6.7 % (mastic M2) as a partial
20 %) are applied. These results indicate a loss of fracture resistance replacement for limestone filler, highlighting the complex interaction

9
J.S. Carvajal-Muñoz et al. Construction and Building Materials 453 (2024) 139029

between Hydrated Lime and Limestone Filler. However, from the limited Colciencias-Colfuturo (728 National Call, 2015) and Universidad del
trend observable at lower dosages, utilizing less than 6.7 % of Hydrated Norte (CCBUNDDA/12/2016) to successfully complete Ph.D. studies at
Lime addition is recommended as a practical approach. This strategy the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom.
minimizes the negative impact on fracture performance while capital­
izing on the other beneficial properties of this active filler, such as its Data Availability
stiffening effect, antioxidant capabilities, and enhanced resistance to
moisture damage. Data will be made available on request.

4. Conclusive remarks References

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The first and corresponding author, Juan S. Carvajal-Munoz, ac­ compatibility between bitumen and fillers from a perspective of bitumen
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knowledges the valuable support provided by the Colombian sponsors

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