COMMUNICATION THEORY

INTRODUCTION
Definitions and Nature:

The term communications is generally used in business management which is

hierarchically arranged, and also in science. The credit of applying the concept
in social science should go to Karl Deutsch. Before analysing Deutsch’s ideas in
detail we shall define it. According to C.O.D. (10th edition) communication
denotes the means of sending or receiving information. It is a process of
establishing commonness (communis in Latin means commonness) through
movement of ideas, thoughts, feelings etc. from one to another or between the
groups of persons.
In other words, it is an exchange of facts, thoughts and information, emotions
resulting in a shared understanding. Succinctly stated communication implies
the conveying and receiving of information, facts and other relevant
news/matters from one end to another or one agency to another.
Communication is thus a two-way process.
On the one hand, one end or agency receives information from another
end/agency and the latter, after processing it, responds to the information. So
communication says that news or facts are to be communicated. If it were a
one-way traffic the agency or system would have stopped.
Communication, its exponents say, is a very complicated process. It travels
through various agencies or stages in order to reach its destination. But its
route of travelling is not always easy. Sometimes it is to travel along a very
zigzag way. We have already noted that the word communication is associated
with commonness. The purpose of sending news/facts/information is to share
the ideas/thought/ feelings with others so that this sharing can result in a
decision or desired consequence.
Communication is a very important way/essential technique to establish and
maintain human relations. Because agencies are manned and managed by
human beings, naturally communication inevitably comes to be a part of the
organisation or system.
Once he said, “If you treat an individual as he is he will stay as he is. But if you
treat him as if he were what he ought to be and he could be, he will become
what he ought to be and he could be”. And communication is one of the
essential techniques for maintaining good human relations.
This is the position of communication in the business management world. But
its application in social science has got ample relevance. The purpose of
communication is to inject human relation and human touch into the whole
corpus of political system. All the agencies and their personnel are to be
brought into the gamut of political system so that it can effectively respond to
the external forces.
Cybernetics:
The communications theory is based on a science which is called cybernetics.
Cybernetics is the science of communication and autonomous control systems
in both machine and living being.

In the words of Deutsch (The Nerves of Government):

“the science of communication and control, which has been derived from
technology and which Norbert Wiener has called cybernetics is therefore a new
science about an old subject. Cybernetics, the systematic study of
communication and control in organisations of all kinds, is a conceptual
scheme on the grand scale. Essentially it represents a shift in the centre of
interest from drives to steering, from instincts to systems of decisions,
regulation and control including the non-cyclical aspects of such systems. … It is
perhaps safe to say that social science is already being influenced by the
interests implicit in cybernetics”.
Norbert Wiener is the chief exponent of the cybernetics theory. He was quite
aware of its importance and relevance in social science. Social science does not
believe that a society is an agglomeration of distinct social groups. Rather,
there are numerous social groups in any pluralist society and they are closely
connected and related with each other and because of this factor all the social
groups think and act together. Again, this togetherness is connected by a
system of communication. The science of cybernetics studies this.
Following Wiener and Deutsch, Wasby has defined
cybernetics in the following words:
Cybernetics is a theory of information, self-regulating machines, computers and
the physiology of nervous system. An important concept of cybernetics is that
of a machine which recognises stimuli learns, adjusts itself automatically upon
receiving feedback about its performance and moves through a determined
number of possible states”.
From this definition we can easily pick up certain aspects of cybernetics. Such
as cybernetics can be compared easily with the nervous system. It possesses a
self-regulating machine, which means it does not produce undesirable
consequences or does not go astray. Cybernetics is a very improved system
because it adjusts itself automatically. Again, the cybernetics is characterised
by feedback mechanism implying that inputs are converted into outputs and,
again, the outputs are converted into inputs.
In this way the system of cybernetics operates. The communication passes
through channels and if any one channel is blocked the flow of communication
is affected. “The viewpoint of cybernetics suggests that all organisations are
alike in certain fundamental characteristics and that every organisation is held
together by communication. So communication is a process different from
transportation on the one hand and from power engineering on the other”.
Central Idea of the Theory:
A threadbare analysis of Deutsch’s communications theory reveals certain very
interesting and important aspects.
Some important aspects are stated below:
1. The inflow or outflow of information/news from one end to another or vice
versa is not automatic, there is a specific role of human beings. This we may
call steering and co-ordinating process or role. In any political system there are
many channels through which information is transmitted.
But there is co-ordination or cooperation among the channels which is manned
or managed by human beings. Without human efforts the information could
not be communicated from one end to another or it could never reach
destination.
2. Deutsch has assumed that since human efforts are behind the
communication of news and information, it has been found that the meaning
and context of the information or news undergo changes and this is inevitable.
Here lies a major difference between the communications as it prevails in
business organisation and in political system.
In the former the news/decision/ information are communicated from one
stage to another in writing or in clear forms so that any sort of ambiguity
cannot crop up. But in political system information/news originate in other
system and also environment and then these are transmitted to other places.
3. A very important aspect of Deutsch’s communications theory is he has
undervalued the importance of power. Davies and Lewis have stated the matter
in this way: “It is one of the concerns of Deutsch to reduce the importance of
power as a component of continuing political activity”. Deutsch does not
believe that power or the application of physical force is the exclusive
determinant of political affairs.
Even power does not constitute the essence of politics. There is communication
at the centre of politics. In his judgment power/physical force has a very minor
role. He says that when persuasion or cooperation or influence fail to achieve
desired goals then and then only power is applied. So communication is the
most important factor of dynamisation of political system. Political system
changes because of the effectiveness of communication. Needless to say that
Deutsch has viewed politics in this light.
4. There is a clear difference between the approaches to politics in general
sense and Deutsch’s approach to politics. Deutsch is of opinion that the social
goals are to be achieved through co-ordination and co-operation among
people of society which is effected by communication.
5. Deutsch has drawn our attention to another aspect of his communication
theory. In every political system authority adopts decision. But Deutsch is of
opinion that habit, concurrence with the activities of the system play a very
vital role in the implementation of decision. This habit grows and develops
through time.
6. Political system is endowed with self-regulating mechanism. Numerous
forces or elements make their presence in the political systems and they
frequently challenge the political system. But since it has self-regulating
mechanism ultimately it succeeds in checking or controlling the forces or their
undesirable effects. Because of this self-regulating system the system is able to
maintain stability or equilibrium.
So, the self- regulation cannot be taken or judged separately. Because of the
communication’s efficiency members of the political system keep themselves
fresh and up-to-date about all facts and information. This finally results in good
and effective co-operation among the members.
7. We use the terms such as self-regulation control etc. These should not be
interpreted in ordinary sense. The political system is so patterned that
whenever the elements from the environment come political system directs
their movement to particular communication channels so that they can prove
their worthiness or effectiveness.
If the political systems were not blessed with the self-regulation it could not
perform this function. Needless to say that Deutsch implies self-regulatory
mechanism or control in this sense. The term government has also been
differently interpreted by Deutsch. He has not used this term in ordinary or
conventional sense. He treats government just like a referee of a match or
steering of a ship.
8. There are many vehicles which carry information. Some of them are political
parties, interest groups, pressure groups, various organisations. The groups,
parties and organisations enjoy freedom and work as medium between people
and the government and in this way they all maintain their relationship with
the agencies and government. If any conflict arises parties, groups and
organisations try to settle it amicably.
Thus, the conflict or contradiction cannot lead to destabilisation. This
interpretation of Deutsch makes a room for a theory of social change. He never
says that stability of political system means halt of change. Stability means
political system cannot be changed to satisfy the whims of certain persons.
Political system will continue along with it the change.
Key Concepts of Communications Theory:
In his analysis of cybernetics or communications theory Karl Deutsch has used
certain key concepts which will be dealt with briefly. Like Easton he has applied
feedback mechanism in his theory. According to Wiener feedback is a type of
control of a machine on the basis of actual performance rather than its
expected performance. “By feedback or as it is often called, a servo-mechanism
—is meant a communications network that produces action in response to an
input of information and includes the results of its own action in the
information by which it modifies its subsequent behaviour”.
The feedback mechanism, according to Deutsch, is a very crucial stage of
political system. Information originates in other systems or in the environment
and then it is transmitted through several channels. Information is again
converted into decision and this again is transmitted to other places or system.
Information is also related with decision.
Other systems or structures of the political system come to know that the
authority has responded to the information it received from systems or
subsystems. Deutsch further maintains that all the organisations of a political
system come under the operation of feedback.
From the analysis of Deutsch we come to know that the feedback process has
introduced a type of dynamism in political system. If there were no feedback
mechanism the information could not travel from one stage or agency to
another. Again, the feedback system is not all.
From Deutsch’s analysis we come across another concept and it is negative
feedback. It can be defined in the following way: “A negative feedback system
is one which transmits back to itself the information which is the result of
decision and actions taken by the system and which leads the system to change
its behaviour in pursuit of the goals which it has set itself”.
Two other important terms used by Deutsch may be discussed here. One is load
and the other is lag. The concept load may be explained in the following way. It
means the total amount of information possessed or collected by the political
system at a particular point of time.
Deutsch’s communication theory can work in an open system because only in
such a system the agencies can function freely and the inflow or outflow of
information takes place without any hindrance or trouble. In fact, Deutsch’s
communication theory and Easton’s general system theory come within the
same category. Both envisage an open system.
Criticism:
1. One important shortcoming of the communications theory is it speaks a lot
about the inflow and outflow of information. He believes that the
inflow/outflow determine the process of decision-making. But the real situation
teaches us different thing. Decision-making, of course, depends on information
but at the same time more on the nature of information.
Deutsch appears to us to be cautious and meticulous about the inflow and
outflow of information. But he should have been cautious about the nature of
information. By making this mistake Deutsch makes his hypothesis incomplete.
2. Deutsch admits that power is a component of political activity. But
unfortunately he has reduced its importance by declaring that power is
“neither the centre nor the essence of politics”. In reply to this observation we
humbly submit that we do not agree with him. In any modern political system,
power always plays an important and active role.
In the communication network of political system the power is quite active and
effectively determines the functioning of channel and inflow and outflow of
information. This particularly happens in authoritarian regimes. The authority
says or determines what should be allowed to travel and what should not.
Even in liberal political systems the authority never remains indifferent to all
news and incidents. Even in liberal system the neutrality of information is very
often questioned. The capitalist class controls both the electronic and print
media to safeguard its own interest and in this situation neutrality of
information is a myth.
By minimising the role of power Deutsch has inflicted a gross injustice on the
actual working of political system as well as importance of power. Deutsch may
justify himself by citing instances. But we can counteract him by collecting
opposite examples.
3. Cybernetics is a subject of engineering. But it has been applied by Deutsch in
system analysis or political science. Engineering and political science are two
different disciplines and there are polar like differences, so far as content is
concerned, between the two subjects.
Cybernetics, in its mechanistic form, cannot have effectiveness in political
science. Human behaviour, attitude of people, incidents of political system,
occurrences of environment do not move and act mechanistically. One can
explain the operative aspect of the communication network in the background
of social science in general and political science in particular but the critics are
of opinion that the transfer of subject of this category is not desirable.
Wiener was so much enamoured by the cybernetics that he applied it in social
sciences for scientific and empirical investigation. He was immediately followed
by Deutsch. Deutsch felt that the application of the cybernetics must help the
study of political science and much improve the investigation which lag far
behind sociology and anthropology. Moreover, Deutsch wanted to follow the
footsteps of Easton.
4. Deutsch claims that communications theory is a model. What is model?
Model is generally a representation of something usually in a smaller scale. It is
also defined as a theoretical representation of empirical data that aims at
advance understanding. If model is the representation of something in a
smaller scale, it is supposed that it should be simple and easily understandable.
But Deutsch’s communications theory is not simple at all but highly complex.
5. We even apprehend the proper functioning of the model. In engineering the
performance of cybernetics is satisfactory because the inanimate objects work
mechanically. But the structures/agencies of political system consist of human
being and they cannot work mechanically.
6. The communications theory cannot claim to be impartial; it is vitiated by
anti- Marxist notion. The core idea of Marxism is the social change through
class struggle and it further believes that in a capitalist society there is no
possibility of emancipation of common people. Hence, the only way is to
intensify the class struggle and to seize the political power by means of
revolution.
The general systems theory of Easton and Almond and the communications
theory of Deutsch have lent their unequivocal support to the belief that class
coordination and cooperation among classes and groups and peaceful relations
among them exist in any capitalist society and there is no necessity of
destroying capitalism and inviting Marxism to fill the vacuum.
7. The theory is based on rationality and formality of the structures which
means that the structures and agencies do their allotted duties and this
performance is based on the concepts of rationality and formality. The
structures do not violate the principle of rationality. But in reality the
performance of the structure depends not always upon rationality.
Now, if rationality and formalism are not always strictly adhered to the
decision-making process will be disturbed. It is said that decision-making
process depends upon incrementalism or it is incremental in nature. This is a
great drawback of Deutsch’s theory of communications.
8. Another criticism against the communications theory is that political system
itself is very complicated and also its functions. Moreover, the functions are to
some extent unpredictable. The authority of a liberal democracy is to respond
to a situation which it could not predict earlier and in that case the
communication theory will not be of very much help. Communications theory
works, it is alleged by critics, through formalism but the actual working does
not always adhere to formality. If so, the theory cannot serve the purpose.
9. It is apprehended that the structures or agencies may be misused by some-
one or by any other institutions and, if it so happens, normal functioning of the
structures will be affected. In other words, deliberate interference or efforts will
have their impact upon the decision-making process and we do not know how
the rationality or normal communication will survive.
Conclusion:
Though communications theory does not portray the true nature of the
functioning of modern political systems both liberal and non-liberal the fact is
that in this age of the phenomenal progress of sophisticated technology which
includes improved technology political system can hardly keep itself away from
the impact of this technology.
The communication in numerous ways influences the behaviour of individuals’
and political phenomena. Government applies the improved technology for its
normal functioning and transmission of information and feedback process are
parts of that normal functioning.
Every government today wants to provide better service to its citizens and that
has necessitated the arrival of communications network. So we can say that
communications theory does not purport to be an imaginary concept but a
ground to earth model which has been able to establish itself as a way of
analysing the actual occurrences of political system.