CELL BIOLOGY

Cell is the basic unit of life. It is the smallest structure capable of basic life processes
such nutrition, respiration, excretion and reproduction. All living things are composed of cells. It
is the smallest unit of an organism that is able to function independently. It consists of
protoplasm enclosed within a cell membrane. All cells except bacterial cells have a distinct
nucleus that contains the cell's DNA as well as other structures (called organelles). The main
source of energy for all of a cell's biological processes is Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Cells
carry out thousands of biochemical reactions to ensure perpetuation of life.
Some microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are unicellular. Plants,
animals, and fungi are multicellular. The paramecium is a single-celled organism that propels
itself by cilia. Cilia also create currents that sweep food particles toward the paramecium’s gullet
for ingestion.
Erythrocytes (RBC) are the primary carriers of oxygen to the cells and tissues of the
body. The biconcave shape of the erythrocyte is an adaptation for the surface area across which
oxygen is exchanged for carbon dioxide. Its shape and flexible plasma membrane allow the
erythrocyte to penetrate the smallest of capillaries. Human smooth muscle (visceral or
involuntary muscle) is composed of slender, spindle-shaped cells. Controlled by the autonomic
nervous system, smooth muscle cells help form the structure of the skin, blood vessels, and
internal organs. Fig 4 a photomicrograph shows a number of multipolar nerve cells. The central
cell body is clearly visible in each of the cells, as are the dendrites. The dendrites are short
extensions of the nerve cell body that function in the reception of stimuli. Bacteria, which are
included within the kingdom Prokaryotae, are single-celled organisms lacking a well-defined
internal cellular organization.
An examination of leaves, stems, and other types of plant tissue reveals the presence of
tiny green, spherical structures called chloroplasts, visible here in the cells of an onion.
Chloroplasts are essential to the process of photosynthesis to produce oxygen and sugars that can
be used by animals.

smooth muscle
Nerve Cells
paramecium Erythrocytes

Spirochete (a Diatoms
bacterium) Chloroplasts

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Diatoms, single-celled algae with a cell wall made of silica, or glass, are significant components
of the phytoplankton, tiny, floating, photosynthetic organisms that form the base of aquatic food
chains. Cells vary considerably in size.
The smallest cell, a type of bacterium known as a mycoplasma, measures 0.0001mm in
diameter. Among the largest cells are the nerve cells that run down a giraffe’s neck; these cells
can exceed 3m m in length. Human cells also display a variety of sizes, from small red blood
cells that measure 0.00076 mm to liver cells that may be ten times larger.
Along with their differences in size, cells present an array of shapes. Some, such as the
bacterium Escherichia coli, resemble rods. The paramecium, a type of protozoan, is slipper
shaped; and the amoeba, another protozoan, has an irregular form that changes shape as it moves
around. Plant cells typically resemble boxes or cubes. In humans, the outermost layers of skin
cells are flat, while muscle cells are long and thin. Some nerve cells, with their elongated,
tentacle-like extensions, suggest an octopus.
In multicellular organisms, shape is typically tailored to the cell’s job. For example, flat
skin cells pack tightly into a layer that protects the underlying tissues from invasion by bacteria.
Long, thin muscle cells contract readily to move bones. The numerous extensions from a nerve
cell enable it to connect to several other nerve cells in order to send and receive messages rapidly
and efficiently. Despite their individuality, however, cells also display a remarkable ability to
join, communicate, and coordinate with other cells. The human body, for example, consists of an
estimated 20 to 30 trillion cells.
Dozens of different kinds of cells are organized into specialized groups called tissues.
Tendons and bones, for example, are composed of connective tissue, whereas skin and mucous
membranes are built from epithelial tissue.
Different tissue types are assembled into organs, which are structures, specialized to
perform particular functions. Examples of organs include the heart, stomach, and brain. Organs,
in turn, are organized into systems such as the circulatory, digestive, or nervous systems. All
together, these assembled organ systems form the human body.
The components of cells are molecules, nonliving structures formed by the union of
atoms. Small molecules serve as building blocks for larger molecules.
Proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids are the four major molecules that
underlie cell structure and also participate in cell functions. The organelles, membrane-bound
compartments in cells, are built largely from proteins. Biochemical reactions in cells are guided
by enzymes, specialized proteins that speed up chemical reactions. The nucleic acid
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the hereditary information for cells, and another nucleic
acid, ribonucleic acid (RNA), works with DNA to build the thousands of proteins the cell needs.

HISTORY OF CELL BIOLOGY

The cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of similar units of organization,
called cells. A cell is the basic unit of a living organism. The concept of cell theory was formally
articulated in 1839 by Schleiden and Schwann and has remained as the foundation of modern
biology.

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 First Cells Seen in Cork
The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665. He remarked that it looked
strangely similar to cellular or small rooms which monks inhabited, thus depriving the name.
However, what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells called the cork as it
appeared under the microscope. The cell walls observed by Hooke gave no identification of the
nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. The first man to witness a live cell under
a microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the alga spirogyra.

Formulation of the Cell Theory

In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying after-dinner coffee and talking
about their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann heard Schleiden describe
plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by similarity of these plant cells to cells he had observed in
animal tissues. The two scientists went immediately to Schwann’s lab to look at his slides.
Schwann published his book on animal and plant cells (Schwann, 1839) the next year, gave an
account (a treatise). He summarized his observations into the following conclusions about cells:
 The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.
 The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction
of organisms.
 Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous
generation).
We know today that the first two principles (tenets) are correct, but the third is clearly wrong.
The correct interpretation of cell formation by division was finally promoted by others and
formally enunciated in Rudolph Virchow’s powerful dictum, Omnis cellula e cellular…….. “All
cells arise from pre-existing cells”.

Modern Cell Theory

The following statements that represent the modern cell theory:
 All known living things are made up of cells.
 The cell is the structural functional unit of all living things;
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous Generation does not
occur);
 Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division
 All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
 All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
As with the rapid growth of molecular biology in the mid-20th century, cell biology research
exploded in the 1950’s. It became possible to maintain, grow and manipulate cells outside of
living organisms.
.
A Timeline
The following historical events are important in discussing cells and cell theory.
 1665- Hooke described ‘cells’ in cork
 1674- Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He observed bacteria some nine years later
 1833- Brown described the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid
 1838- Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory
 1858- Rudolf Virchow expounds his famous conclusion: omniscellula e cellula, which is
cells develop only from pre-existing cells (cells come from pre-existing cells)

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  1857- Kolliker described mitochondria
 1879- Flemming described chromosome behavior during mitosis
 1898- Golgi described the Golgi apparatus

Conclusion

The cell is the basic unit of all living organisms and all cells are derived from pre-existing cells
by cell division.

CELL TYPES AND STRUCTURE

Cells fall into one of two categories: prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In a prokaryotic cell, found only
in bacteria and archaebacteria, all the components, including the DNA, mingle freely in the cell’s
interior, a single compartment. Eukaryotic cells, which make up plants, animals, fungi, and all
other life forms, contain numerous compartments, or organelles, within each cell. The DNA in
eukaryotic cells is enclosed in a special organelle called the nucleus, which serves as the cell’s
command center and information library. The term prokaryote comes from Greek words that
mean “before nucleus” or “prenucleus,” while eukaryote means “true nucleus.”

PROKARYOTIC CELL
Bacteria cells typically are surrounded by a rigid, protective cell wall. The cell membrane, also
called the plasma membrane, regulates passage of materials into and out of the cytoplasm, the
semi-fluid that fills the cell. The DNA, located in the nucleoid region, contains the genetic
information for the cell. Ribosomes
carry out protein synthesis. Many bacteria contain a pilus (plural pili), a structure that extends
out of the cell to transfer DNA to another bacterium. The flagellum, found in numerous species,
is used for locomotion. Some bacteria have a capsule, a sticky substance external to the cell wall
that protects bacteria from attack by white blood cells. Mesosomes were formerly thought to be
structures with unknown functions, but now are known to be artifacts created when cells are
prepared for viewing with electron microscopes. Like most cells, prokaryotic cells live in a
watery environment, whether it is soil moisture, a pond, or the fluid surrounding cells in the
human body.

Anima
l Cell
An animal cell typically contains several types of membrane-bound organs, or organelles. The
nucleus directs
activities of the cell and carries genetic information from generation to generation. The
mitochondria generate energy for the cell. Proteins are manufactured by ribosomes, which are
bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or float free in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus
modifies, packages, and distributes proteins while lysosomes store enzymes for digesting food.
The entire cell is wrapped in a lipid membrane that selectively permits materials to pass in and

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out of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells are typically about ten times larger than prokaryotic cells.
In animal cells, the plasma membrane, rather than a cell wall, forms the cell’s outer boundary.
With a design similar to the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells, it separates the cell from its
surroundings and regulates the traffic across the membrane. The eukaryotic cell cytoplasm is
similar to that of the prokaryote cell except for one major difference: Eukaryotic cells house a
nucleus and numerous other membrane-enclosed organelles. Like separate rooms of a
house, these organelles enable specialized functions to be carried out efficiently. The
building of proteins and lipids, for example, takes place in separate organelles where specialized
enzymes geared for each job are located.
The plasma membrane that surrounds eukaryotic cells is a dynamic structure composed of two
layers of phospholipid molecules interspersed with cholesterol and proteins. Tiny gaps in the
membrane enable small molecules such as oxygen (upper right) to diffuse readily into and out of
the cell.

Nucleus of a Cell
The nucleus, present in eukaryotic cells, is a discrete structure containing chromosomes, which
hold the genetic information for the cell. Separated from the cytoplasm of the cell by a double-
layered membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains a cellular material called
nucleoplasm. Nuclear pores, present around the circumference of the nuclear membrane, allow
the exchange of cellular materials between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.

Endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosome

Attached to the nuclear membrane is an elongated membranous sac called the endoplasmic
reticulum. This organelle tunnels through the cytoplasm, folding back and forth on itself to form
a series of membranous stacks. Endoplasmic reticulum takes two forms: rough and smooth.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so called because it appears bumpy under a microscope.
The bumps are actually thousands of ribosomes attached to the membrane’s surface. The
ribosomes in eukaryotic cells have the same function as those in prokaryotic cells—protein
synthesis. Eukaryote ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic reticulum
help assembles proteins that typically are exported from the cell molecules to link amino acids to
partially completed proteins. These incomplete proteins then travel to the inner chamber of the
endoplasmic reticulum, where chemical modifications, such as the addition of a sugar and lipids
are carried out.

The second form of endoplasmic reticulum, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), lacks
ribosomes and has an even surface. Within the winding channels of the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum are the enzymes needed for the construction of molecules such as carbohydrates and
lipids for making membrane. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is prominent in liver cells,
where it also serves to detoxify substances such as alcohol, drugs, and other poisons.

Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus, a minute cellular inclusion in the cytoplasm, is a series of smooth, stacked
membranous sacs, an organelle that resembles a stack of deflated balloons.
Proteins are transported from free and bound ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi
apparatus modifies, packages, and distributes proteins after they are produced by the ribosomes.

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 Lysosomes
Lysosomes are small, often spherical organelles that function as the cell’s recycling center and
garbage disposal. Powerful digestive enzymes concentrated in the lysosome break down worn-
out organelles and ship their building blocks to the cytoplasm where they are used to construct
new organelles. Lysosomes store enzymes for digesting food. Lysosomes also dismantle and
recycle proteins, lipids, and other molecules.

Mitochondria
The mitochondria are the power houses of the cell. Within these long, slender organelles, which
can appear oval or bean shaped under the electron microscope, enzymes convert the sugar
glucose and other nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This molecule, in turn, serves as
an energy battery for countless cellular processes. Muscle and liver cells are particularly active
and require dozens and sometimes up to a hundred mitochondria per cell to meet their energy
needs.

Cytoskeleton
Unlike the tiny prokaryotic cell, the relatively large eukaryotic cell requires structural support. A
dynamic network of protein tubes, filaments, and fibers, crisscrosses the
cytoplasm, anchoring the organelles in place and providing shape and
structure to the cell. The cytoskeleton also functions as a monorail to transport
substances around the cell. A cell such as an amoeba changes shape by
dismantling parts of the cytoskeleton and reassembling them in other
locations. Many components of the cytoskeleton are assembled and disassembled by the cell as
needed. During cell division, for example, a special structure called a spindle is built to move
chromosomes around. After cell division, the spindle, no longer needed, is dismantled.

Plant Cell
Plant cells contain a variety of membrane-bound structures called organelles. These include a
nucleus that carries
genetic material; mitochondria that generate energy; ribosomes that manufacture proteins;
smooth endoplasmic reticulum that manufactures lipids used for making membranes and storing
energy; and a thin lipid membrane that surrounds the cell.
Plant cells also contain chloroplasts that capture energy from sunlight and a single fluid-filled
vacuole that stores compounds and helps in plant growth. Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid
cell wall that protects the cell and maintains its shape. Plant cells have all the components of
animal cells and boast several added features, including chloroplasts, a central vacuole, and a cell
wall.

Cell Wall: The most important feature distinguishing the cells of plants from those of animals is
the cell wall. In plant cells, a sturdy cell wall surrounds and protects the plasma membrane, the
cellular contents and limits cell size. Its pores enable materials to pass freely into and out of the
cell. The strength of the wall also enables a cell to absorb water into the central vacuole and
swell without bursting. The resulting pressure in the cells provides plants with rigidity and
support for stems, leaves, and flowers. Without sufficient water pressure, the cells collapse and
the plant wilts.

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 It also has important structural and physiological roles in the life of the plant, being involved in
transport, absorption, and secretion. A plant's cell wall is composed of several chemicals, of
which cellulose (made up of molecules of the sugar glucose) is the most important. Cellulose
molecules are united into fibrils, which form the structural framework of the wall. Other
important constituents of many cell walls are lignins, which add rigidity, and waxes, such as
cutin and suberin, which reduce water loss from cells. Many plant cells produce both a primary
cell wall, while the cell is growing, and a secondary cell wall, laid down inside the primary wall
after growth has ceased. Plasmodesmata penetrate primary and secondary cell walls, providing
pathways for transporting substances.

Vacuoles: Vacuoles are membrane-bound cavities filled with cell sap, which is made up mostly
of water containing various dissolved sugars, salts, and other chemicals. The central vacuole of a
mature plant cell typically takes up most of the room in the cell. The vacuole, a membranous
bag, crowds the cytoplasm and organelles to the edges of the cell. The central vacuole stores
water, salts, sugars, proteins, and other nutrients. In addition, it stores the blue, red, and purple
pigments that give certain flowers their colors. The central vacuole also contains plant wastes
that taste bitter to certain insects, thus discouraging the insects from feasting on the plant.

Plastids: Plastids are types of organelles, structures that carry out specialized functions in the
cell especially storage of pigments. Three kinds of plastids are important here. Chloroplasts
contain chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments; they are the site of photosynthesis, Chloroplasts
convert light energy—typically from the Sun—into the sugar glucose, a form of chemical
energy. Leucoplasts, which contain no pigments, are involved in the synthesis of starch, oils,
and proteins. Chromoplasts manufacture carotenoid

Major differences between prokaryotes and Eukaryote.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Unicellular/filamentous Unicellular/filamentous/multicellular
No true nucleus or chromosomes chromosomes within a nucleus
Circular DNA lying naked in the cytoplasm Linear DNA associated with protein and RNA
in the nucleus
Few organelles not bounded by membrane Many membranes bounded organelles
Rigid Cell wall with Murein as Rigid Cell wall with cellulose as main strengthening
main strengthening compound compound
Simple flagellar with no microtubule Complex flagellar with 9+2 arrangement of
microtubule
Mesosome in Bacteria and membrane in Mitochondria for respiration
blue-green algae for respiration
No chloroplast, photosynthesis takes place on Photosynthesis takes place in Chloroplast
membrane which shows no stacking

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 Cell division
Cell division is the process by which a cell divides to form two or more new cells. Upon
completion of the process, each daughter cell contains the same genetic material as the original
cell and roughly half of its cytoplasm. Among prokaryotes, cell division occurs by simple
fission. Among eukaryotes, the cell nucleus divides first, and then a new cell membrane is
formed between the nuclei to form the new cell. Cell division is used as a means of reproduction
in organisms that reproduce asexually, as by fission or spore formation, and sexually reproducing
organisms form gametes. Cell division is also the source of tissue growth and repair in
multicellular organisms. The two types of cell division in eukaryotic organisms are mitosis and
meiosis.

THE CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS

What is mitosis?
Mitosis is a nuclear division with cytokinesis, which produces two identical daughter cells during
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase from a single parent cell. It is the process in which
a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two
daughter nuclei.
It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm,
organelles and cell membrane into two daughter cells containing roughly equal shares of these
cellular components. During the process of mitosis, the pairs of chromosomes condense and
attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
The cell then divides during cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells.
However, there are many cells where karyokinesis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming
single cells with multiple nuclei.
This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various different
groups.

Interphase
Interphase is often included in discussions of mitosis, but interphase is technically not part of
mitosis. The cell engages in metabolic activity and gets prepare for mitosis. Chromosomes are
not clearly seen in the nucleus, although a dark spot called the nucleolus may be visible. The cell
may contain a pair of centrioles (or microtubule organizing centres in plants) both of which are
organizational sites for microtubules. Each chromosome is duplicated as two chromatins

Prophase
Each chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible under the light
microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centrioles begin to move to opposite
ends of the cell and fibres extend from the centrioles. Some fibres cross the cell to form the
mitotic spindle.

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Fig.1 a-c Prophase

The nuclear membrane dissolves, marking the beginning of metaphase. At the end of prophase,
each chromosome is seen to consist of two identical sister chromatids attached together at the
centromere.

Metaphase
Spindle fibres align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell nucleus (Fig. 2a). This
arrangement in a line is referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps to ensure that
in the next phase, when the paired chromosomes (consisting two sister chromatids) are separated,
each new nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome.
Anaphase
The paired chromosomes (consisting two sister chromatids) separate at the centromere and move
to opposite sides of the cell (Fig. 2b).

2(a) (b)
Metaphase (a) and Anaphase (b)

Telophase
Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, (Fig. 3) and new nuclear membranes form around the
daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and are no longer visible under the light microscope.
The spindle fibres disperse, and cytokinesis or the partitioning of the cell also begin during this
stage.

Telophase

Cytokinesis
In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fibre ring composed of a protein called actin around
the centre of the cell contracts pinching the cell into two daughter cells, each with one nucleus.

9
In plant cells, the rigid wall requires that a cell plate be synthesized between the two daughter
cells.

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A-K Diagrams illustrating mitotic cell division: A Interphase; B, C, D and E Prophase; F
Metaphase. G, H and I Anaphase; J and K Telophase

Mitosis in an Animal Cell

MEIOSIS

Meiosis, process of cell division in which the cell’s genetic information, contained in
chromosomes, is mixed and divided into sex cells with half the normal number of chromosomes.
The sex cells can later combine to form offspring with the full number of chromosomes. The
random sorting of chromosomes during meiosis assures that each new sex cell(gamete), and

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therefore each new offspring, has a unique genetic inheritance. Meiosis differs from normal cell
division, or mitosis, in that it involves two consecutive cell divisions (Meiosis I and meiosis II)
instead of one and the genetic material contained in chromosomes is not copied during the
second meiotic division. Whereas mitosis produces identical daughter cells, meiosis randomly
mixes the chromosomes, resulting in unique combinations of chromosomes in each daughter cell.

To illustrate the steps of meiosis, consider an organism with 2 pairs of chromosomes. The
normal number of chromosomes or diploid number for the organism the is 4. In order for the
diploid cell of the organism to reproduce, it must undergo meiosis to produce cells with half the
normal number of chromosomes, called the haploid number. Each haploid cell contains only 2
chromosomes. Prior to meiosis, the cell undergoes interphase, in which it synthesizes materials
needed for cell growth and prepares for cell division. During this stage the cell’s genetic
information, in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is replicated.

Each of the two consecutive cell divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) consists of four stages:
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I and Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II,
Telophase II respectively.

Meiosis I

Prophase I: This has long and many stages.

(a) Leptotene - Each long DNA strand coils and condenses to form recognizable, small
bead-like structure- a chromosome. Since the DNA was copied during interphase, each
chromosome condenses to form two identical chromatids, joined at a centromere. As the
organism cell has four (4) chromosomes at this stage, each with two identical chromatids,
making a total of eight (8) chromatids.
(b) Zygotene- Pairing of the homologous chromosome called synapsis occurs here. The
paired chromosomes are called bivalent and each bivalent consists of tetrad of chromatids
(i.e., these two pairs of chromatids gather together in groups of four called tetrads. Each
cell contains 2 tetrads.
(c) Diplotene- While grouped together in tetrads, sections of the chromatid of the
homologous chromosome may randomly exchange, or cross over ( at a point refer to as
chiasma)) with each other . this process, called genetic recombination, is the first of two
ways that meiosis mixes genetic information during sexual reproduction.
(d) Diakinesis- Later on, the overlapped chromatids separate at the point where chiasmata
are formed.

Also, in prophase I, two structures called centrioles; both located on one side of the nucleus,
separate and move toward opposite sides of the cell. As the centrioles move apart, they radiate

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thin hollow structures called spindle fibres. The membrane around the nucleus of the cell breaks
down, marking the beginning of the next stage

Metaphase I: The spindle fibres attach to the chromatids near the centrioles. The spindle fibers
move the tetrads so that they line up in a plane halfway between two centrioles.

Anaphase I begin when the spindle fibers pull the tetrads apart, pulling the homologous
(maternal and paternal) chromosomes toward opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase I: The first meiotic division concludes with this phase, when the two new groups of
chromosomes reach opposite sides of the cell. A nuclear membrane may form around the two
new groups of chromosomes and a division of cell cytoplasm forms two new daughter cells.
Each daughter cell receives two (2) chromosomes made up of a random mixture of maternal and
paternal chromosomes. This second mixing of genetic information is called independent
assortment. Genetic recombination and independent assortment make it possible for parents to
have many offspring who are all different from each other.

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15
16
In the second meiotic division the cell moves directly into prophase II, skipping the interphase
replication of DNA. Each cell begins the second division with 2 chromosomes. Once again, the
centrioles radiate spindle fibres as they move to opposite sides of the cell.

During metaphase II, the chromosomes line up along the plane in the center of the cell, (single
chromosomes not bivalent align at the equator and in anaphase II the pairs of chromatids are

17
pulled apart (note for the first time the sister chromatids separate), each moving toward opposite
ends of the cell

Telophase II completes meiosis. The spindle fibres disappear and a new nuclear membrane form
around each new group of chromosomes to form four haploid cells.

The original diploid cell with 4 chromosomes has undergone meiosis to form four haploid
daughter cells, each containing 2 chromatids. It is now possible for two haploid sex cells to join
during fertilization to form one egg cell with the normal diploid number of chromatids. After
fusion and DNA replication, two haploid cells will yield one diploid egg cell with 2 pairs of
chromosomes.

In humans meiosis occurs only in the reproductive organs, the testes in males and the ovaries in
females. In males, each of the meiotic divisions result in four equally sized haploid cells that
mature into functional sperm cells. In females, the meiotic divisions are uneven, resulting in
three tiny cells called polar bodies and one large egg that can be fertilized.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

1 Common type of cell division It is not a common type of cell division
2 Occurs in all somatic cells Occurs only in specialized germ cells
3 One division per circle Two per cycle
4 An equational division A reductional division
5 Two daughter cells formed per cycle Four daughter cells formed per cycle
6 Chromosomes number of daughter Chromosomes number of daughter cell half that
cell same as the parent cell of parent cell
7 Synapsis, crossing over, chiasmata or Synapsis, crossing over, chiasmata or genetic
genetic exchange of chromosomes not exchange of chromosomes occur here
occur here
8 Genetic content of products identical Genetic content of products not identical
9 Products of mitosis are capable of Products of meiosis cannot undergo mitosis, but
undergoing further mitosis can undergo mitosis
10 Mitosis begins at zygote stage and Meiosis begins only when the organism is
continues throughout life matured

GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis is the series of changes through which cells of germinal epithelium pass in order
to give rise to the gametes. The two types of gametes irrespective of their differences undergo
the same phases of development. The phases are phase of multiplication, phase of growth and
phase of maturation

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 In animals, gametogenesis deals with the formation of egg and spermatozoon, reproductive
gametes. It takes place in the gonads (testes and ova).
Spermatogenesis: Formation of Sperm
In males, spermatogenesis takes in the seminiferous tubules in the germinal epithelium. Germinal
epithelium is a single layer of cells lining the outer wall of the seminiferous tubules and form the
outer covering of the testes. Each cell is called spermatogonium (sperm mother cell).
Spermatogonium undergoes mitosis division to produce many daughter cells. When the cell in
the germinal epithelium is destined to become functional germ cell, its fate is indicated by its
entering at once into the phase of the multiplication and undergoing repeated divisions (mitotic
type -proliferation- resulting in spermatogonia)
The spermatogonium grows into primary spermatocytes by slight increase in size and occupies
a more superficial position in the epithelium lining the seminiferous tubule (fist stage in
development). As the cells divides through several generations the newly formed cells move
towards the lumen of the tubule. Following the growth phase is the phase of maturation during
which meiotic division take place. The number of chromosomes in the nuclei of spermatocytes is
reduced to half (i.e., haploid). If the normal compliment (diploid number) of the somatic cell is
represented by 2n, then as a result of these reduction or meiotic division, each spermatozoon
possesses only n- chromosomes.
Each primary spermatocyte then undergoes first meiotic division, producing two secondary
spermatocytes, each of which has n- chromosome. Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes
second meiotic division o form cells called spermatids. Spermatids undergo no further
development, but grow into a sperm, first by losing some of the cytoplasm, secondly re-
organization the chromatin materials in the nuclei to form a compact head and third collecting
the remaining cytoplasm at one end of the cell to form tail. Located among the germinal cells of
the tubule are many large cells called subtentacular cells lie adjacent to the developing
spermatocytes. Spermatocytes remain attached to them until the head and tail are formed.
Subtentacular cell are believed to secrete substances that are needed by the developing sperm.

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 Oogenesis: Process of egg formation.
Mammalian oogenesis originates in the germinal epithelium of the female gonads (ovaries) in
diploid primordial cells called oogonia. By growth and storage of much cytoplasm or yolk the
Oogonium is transformed into diploid primary oocytes with the capacity to undergo meiosis. The
first meiotic division reduces the chromosome number by half which also distribute vastly the
different amount of cytoplasm to the two products by a grossly unequal cytokinesis. The larger is
secondary oocytes , and the smaller is “ primary polar body. In some cases the 1 st polar body
undergoes further division producing secondary polar body. All polar body degenerates and take
no part in fertilization. Second division of meiotic of the Oocyte again involves an unequal
cytokinesis producing a large yolky Ootids and a secondary polar body. By additional growth
and differentiation, the ootid become a mature female gamete called the ovum. At the end of
oogenesis only one of the daughter cells becomes an egg. The polar body cells form the covering
cells called follicle cells

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Gametogenesis in plants

In plant we have sporophytes and gametophytes generation. In angiosperm sporophyte

generatoin dominates and gametophytes generation is greatly reduced. In lower plants ,
gametophytes dominates and sporophyte generatoin is greatly reduced. The male gametophytes
are called microgametophytes and are present in anther and the female gametophytes are called
megagametophytes and are present in ovary.

Process of microgametophyte formation

Gametogenesis in plant is refered to as sporogenesis. In angiosperm ( flowering plants) the

process is divided into two, microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis.

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 Microsporogenesis

Microsporogenesis takes place in the male reproductive part of the flower (anther) to produce
microspore or pollen grains. The anther contains pollen mother or microsporocytes

Each microsporocyte undergoes meiosis and produce four microspores which are hapliod and
equal in size.

NOTE: The microspore marks the beginning of gamatophytes generation which is haploid
generation. Within each microspore the nucleus undergoes a mitotoc division (karyokinesis, no
cytokinesis – no cytoplasmic division). One of the two nuclei formed will become the generative
nucleus and the second is the tube nucleus. The generative nucleus will divide again to produce

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sperm nuclei. At this stage a microspore will have three nuclei, 2 sperm nuclei and 1 tube
nucleus. At this stage the microspore is called pollen grain. At pollination, the pollen grain in
deposited on the stigma and then pollen tube begins to germinate. Within the pollen tube are the
tube nucleus and the two sperm nuclei . The 2 sperm nuclei are involved in fertilization process
in plants. One fuses with the egg nucleus to form zygote and the other one fuses with the polar
nuclei to give rise to the endosperm.

Megasporogenesis

This is formation of female gamete in plants. It takes place in the ovary of the flowers. Ovary
may contain one or more ovules. In each ovule is megasporocytes or megaspore mother cell
( diploid) . Megasporocyte undergoes meiosis to give rise to 4 haploid megasppores. 3 of the 4
megaspore degenerate and the forth enlarge its size (growth of the 4th) . This form the embryo
cell megagametophyte). Witin the embryo cell the haploid nucleeus undergoes

Three mitotitic division which is karyokinesis (only the nucleus that divides mitotically) . This
results in 8 haploid nuclei within the embryo sac. The nuclei undergoes migration in the embbyo
sac. The opening of the sac correspond to micropyle. 3 of these nuclei migrate to one end of the
cell as antipodal cells( form the nutritive tissue), another 2 will form synergys at the opposite
end. Two nuclei will fuse together at the centre of the cell to form polar nucleus ( this gives rise
to endosperm). The remaining nucleus will mature to egg nucleus. The embryo sac is now
matured for fertilization by the pollen grain. Note: In spite of the differences in the process, the
gamatogenesis in plant and animals , the critical process leading to the next generation is the
same. Reason for application of the same law of inheritance in both plant and animal,

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