Preliminary remarks:

In most surveying courses a certain amount of field practice is given in connection with the study of
the text. Field problems, designed to give the student some practice in the elementary operations of
surveying are outlined in this course later.

It is not possible, in the ordinary field courses in surveying, to develop the student into a surveying
expert.
It is expected, however, that the course will give the student a working knowledge of surveying
instruments and their uses, as well as knowledge of working techniques.

On all surveys the fieldwork is of primary importance. To become skilled in surveying operations
requires a certain amount of experience in the field. The study of a text may serve to make one
familiar with the necessary theory about methods and instruments; but in surveying, as in other
sciences, mastery depends to a large degree upon the length, extent and variety of experience.

Members of the student field practices should from day to day alternately assume the various duties
involved in the fieldwork.

The ability to hold the rod properly is as essential as the knowledge how to manipulate a level or
EDM.

Like other sciences the practice of surveying is complex, and no amount of theory will make a good
surveyor unless he has the necessary skills in the art of observing and is versed in field and office
procedures. The student should realise the importance of knowledge of the practical phases of the
subject and should seek to become as well grounded in the practice as possible.

It should be of each student's interest to play an active role in each field activity!

1. Topography

1.1 Definition and purpose:

Topographic surveying is a method of determining the three-dimensional positions, on the surface

of the earth, of the man made and natural features. It is also used to determine the configuration
(topography) of the terrain.
The purpose of a topographic survey is to find the necessary data for the graphical portrayal
(plotting) of topographic features (s.a. hills valleys, building and roads) and contour lines. The
topographic features and contour lines, plotted in a certain scale, form the topographic map. This
map shows the horizontal distances between the features and their elevations above a given datum.
The topographic maps are used for the planning of a building complex, an industrial plant, a railway
or a highway project as well as for irrigation projects. Bridges, tunnels and dams are also planned
and designed after the preparation of a topographic map. The user of the map should be able to
interpret the map as a model of the ground.
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Topographic surveying and the preparation of a topographic map of the terrain is therefore
generally the first step in the planning and designing of a major civil engineering project.

1.2 General methods:

Two methods are applied to gather the necessary data for the subsequent preparation of a
topographic map:

 Terrestrial method: Also known as ground method. The collection of the data is done by
means of total station or theodolite (stadia tacheometre), as well as with levels, tapes and plane
table. This method is economic and suitable for relative small areas.

 Photogrammetric method: Aerial photographs are used to gather the necessary ground
data. It is an economic method for larger areas and projects and it overcomes the sometimes-
difficult access to the area to be mapped. The accuracy of photogrammetry mainly depends
upon the scale of the aerial photographs. The terrestrial (ground) work is only limited to
establishing horizontal and vertical ground control point (e.g. through traversing and levelling)
that must be clearly defined and well-distributed over the target area and a final terrestrial field
check. The aerial photographs are measured stereoscopically (three-dimensionally) by
means of a special instrument called stereoplotter. With the help of such stereoplotters the
contour lines and positions of all topographic features can be determined.

1.3 Scale of the map:

The scale of a map should be selected according to the purpose of the map. For the first planning
stage of a civil engineering project (e.g. a big bridge) a small-scale map might be adequate, but for
detailed planning (e.g. for the wing wall of the bridge), large-scale maps would be required. The
scale is usually selected before commencing the fieldwork.
The applied field method should be selected according to the scale to which the map would be
drawn. An experienced draftsman usually has a plotting accuracy of about 0.2-0.3 mm, using a
plotting needle and a magnifying glass. If the map will be prepared by means of CAD (Computer
Aided Design) and subsequently plotted on a drum plotter or on a flatbed plotter a plotting accuracy
of 0.1 mm can be achieved. However, a dimensionally stable drawing medium (e.g. polyester film
or foil) must be used.
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If the scale is (say) 1:500, distances in the field should be measured to the nearest 0.10-.15m,
according to the above-mentioned manual plotting accuracy of 0.2-0.3 mm. A scale of 1:2000
therefore requires a distance accuracy in the field of 0.4-0.6 m (just calculate: 0.2 mm x 2000 = 0.4
m). Thus the field methods for large scale maps need to be more precise.

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1.4 Total field work procedure in topographic surveying:

The general steps are as follows:

1. Gathering information about the existing ground reference points and benchmarks, and their
coordinates and elevations respectively.
The Ethiopian Mapping Authority (EMA) in Addis Abeba and the local surveying authorities
(such as the municipalities) can be a helpful source of information.

2. Establishing horizontal and vertical control points if the existing control network is not dense
enough. At this stage a reconnaissance of the area to be mapped is absolutely indispensable and
should therefore be carried out thoroughly.
The term reconnaissance means the first inspection of the target area in terms of existing
control points, possible sites for new observation stations, as well as the permanent marking of
those stations, detection of possible obstacles and possible solutions to overcome them etc. With
other words, after the first inspection, one has got some idea about the terrain and the features of
the ground.
It is also necessary to estimate the duration of the whole fieldwork.
The establishing of horizontal and vertical control points is the most essential part and is the
first step in the field work process of topographic surveying, since the three-dimensional
coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each point to be surveyed can only be determined with respect to well
established reference points. Most commonly traversing with EDM (Electronical Distance
Metre) and/or satellite technology (GPS) is applied for establishing reference points. With a
level, the elevations of the traverse stations are determined. It is very important to close the level
circuit in order to check the levelling work!
Latest in the office the measured data have to be checked for mistakes and the coordinates are
calculated. The traverses can be are measured by means of a theodolite (the angular
measurements will be carried out in two faces and two sets!) and steel tape (at least one forward
and one backward measurement is carried out for each traverse side!).
If a Total Station is available, all angular and distance measurements are done with it.
The allowable difference Dt between two independent measurements of the same distance,
carried out by means of the same instrument is determined as follows:

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 Dt = 0.004* + 0.01 m , with d = lengths of traverse side in meter

Example: A traverse side has been measured with a tape two times independently. The forward
measurement was 171.73 m and the backward measurement amounted to 171.77 m.
The allowable difference Dt is determined as follows:
Dt = 0.004* + 0.01 m
Dt = 0.06 m; the actual difference is 171.77 m-171.73 m = 0.04 m and is therefore
smaller than 0.06 m.

3. Preparation of a field book where all measured features, such as roads, buildings, trees, ditches,
fences, manholes, spot heights etc. are entered. In the case of stadia tacheometry all relevant
readings, such as horizontal angles, vertical angles, the three stadia readings, and the
instrument height are booked in a special form. The distances and elevations are calculated in
the office and subsequently the three-dimensional coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each surveyed point
can be determined if necessary.
Prominent points, such as summits and depressions, are called spot heights and have to be taken,
since they form an important part of the topography of the terrain to be surveyed.
In addition, the characteristic valley lines and ridge lines, as well as the lines of steepest slopes
have to be surveyed.
Terrain breaklines are lines where the change of slope is very abrupt. The outlines (borders) of
a quarry site are for example typical terrain break lines. However, most commonly, terrain break
lines exist along man made features, such as the cuttings and embankments along roads or
ditches.

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 Breaklines have to be determined in the field and are entered in the field book! Usually, contour
lines on maps do not go through breaklines, but are left blank. An example of how to represent
in a field book spot heights, valley lines, as well as break lines is illustrated in figure 1:

figure 1

To know the lines of steepest slopes from the field book facilitates the office work, because
contour lines are always interpolated along the direction of steepest slope (refer also to chapter
1.6.1.3)!

The precision of contour lines depends to a large extent upon the right distribution of the
surveyed points, as well as upon the appropriate number of points. The selection of the points
to be surveyed is the most difficult task in topographic survey and should therefore be done by
the most experienced party member!
If not enough points are taken to represent the terrain properly the contours cannot be
interpolated correctly (see figure 2):

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 figure 2

The determination of the location of a point by measuring the angle and the distance to that
point is also called “radial positioning”.

The principle is very easy and is illustrated in figure 3:

figure 3

The illustration below (figure 4) shows an application of the radial positioning method:

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 figure 4

The benchmarks BM 101 and BM 102 are surveying stations with known three-dimensional
coordinates (Easting, Northing and Elevation). The instrument is set up over (say) BM 101 and
a reference direction is measured to another visible benchmark BM 102. The reference
target is occupied with a ranging pole standing in a vertical position exactly over the point. To
save manpower the ranging pole can be supported by a ranging pole tripod. For setting up the
ranging pole vertically a rod level or a plumb bob can be used.
In case of stadia techeometry the following data are measured and booked:

 point number of point to be surveyed

 instrument height (can be determined with a tape )
 horizontal angle
 vertical angle ( most commonly the zenith angle)
 upper, middle and lower staff reading

Before leaving now the station BM 101 it is very important to take a check reading on BM 102.
This assures that during the survey, done on BM 101, the instrument has not been disturbed.
The check reading is also booked and is immediately compared with the initial measured
reference direction.
A sample data book (table of recording) is attached at the end of this handout.

The survey can also be complemented by distances measured with a tape:

Example:

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 The points 73 and 74 (corner points of a building) have been measured by means of a stadia
tacheometre. It is assumed that the building is perpendicular. In order to plot the other two
corners of the building it is sufficient to measure the distances 5,50m and 5,51m by means of a
tape. The distance 12,30m should be measured for checking purposes.

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 In the case of curves or tukuls at least three points have to be measured for an unmistakable
determination:

Examples:

Sometimes it can be advantageous to take some features from at least two previously surveyed
object (e.g. two manholes) only by taking oblique offsets to the point to be determined. This
method is also sometimes referred to as distance intersection. In the office this point can than
easily be plotted by means of a compass. However, one should consider that those points
determined by oblique offsets do not have an elevation.

Example:

The points 182 and 183 were surveyed from benchmark 104. The distances 14,37m and 8,89m
are the oblique offsets taken to determine the tree. However, distance intersection always gives
you 2 solutions (one solution left from line 182-183 and one solution right from the same line)!
Make sure in the field where the new point is located, related to the line 182-183.

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 Sometimes it is not possible to measure all topographic features directly from the traverse or
triangulation stations because there are obstacles in-between. In this case a new station is to be
determined by means of radial positioning. Figure 5 illustrates an example:

BM 111

BM 109

BM 110
BM 112

obstacle new obstacle

station
 




 









figure 5

As illustrated in figure 5, the building cannot be seen from any traverse point. Therefore a new
station from where the building corners (say) 388 and 389 can be taken has to be established.
For a save determination of the new station the angle (direction) and distance to the new station
should be measured independently from two traverse points in order to avoid a possible faulty
determination and to increase the accuracy. The arithmetic mean of the two determinations is
than calculated and used for the further survey. The new station is also marked with a stake, a
nail or an iron pipe. A concrete monument is not necessary because of the temporary character
of the station.

1.5 Plotting the map:

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 Plotting refers to the transfer of survey data to the map. Before starting the plotting the required
size of the map sheet can easily be determined by examining the extreme station coordinates.

An example: The westernmost station has an easting of 5800 m and the easternmost station has
an easting of 6200 m. The coordinate difference is therefore 6200 m-5800 m=400 m. If a scale
of 1:500 is used, a paper length of at least 0.8 m (400m *1/500) is needed to accommodate the
drawing in the east-west direction. In the same manner the needed north-south extension of the
paper is examined. However, one should never select a too close-fitting paper size, but always
select a paper size that is a bit bigger than the minimum paper size in order to have more space
for the plotting of the surrounding topographic features and for a border.
In the preparation of a topographic map, the first plotting task is to define accurately the
position of the horizontal control points on the plot. This is best accomplished by preparing a
rectangular grid and plotting each traverse point by means of the computed coordinates. The
procedure to prepare the rectangular grid is as follows (see also figure 6):

1. The 4 corners a, b, c and d of the drawing medium ( most commonly stiff paper) are
connected diagonally by means of a T-square and a hard pencil. The size of the paper
should be considered before the plotting and depends upon the scale of the drawing, as well
as upon the extension of the area to be plotted.
2. From the resulting intersection point S, 4 equal distances are set out along the 4 diagonals
by means of the T-square and the pencil. The result are the 4 points A; B; C and D on the
diagonals.
3. The 4 points A, B, C and D form a rectangle and are to be connected.
4. Based on this rectangle the grid is developed by setting out the grid width along the 4 sides
of the rectangle. The grid width is usually 10 cm on the map. The resulting points are
marked either with a needle or with a small pencil line and are subsequently connected.
Later each grid line is labeled with its corresponding coordinate value.
5. Checking the grid. All grid points have to lay on one line, both, in the horizontal and vertical
direction, as well as diagonally.
In addition, the diagonal distances between two grid points must be equal to *grid width.
The deviation from this value should not exceed 0.2 mm.

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 figure 6

A well fitting grid is a prerequisite for an accurate plotting!

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 The plotting of the traverse points is carried out as illustrated in figure 7:

figure 7

Point P has got the (reduced) coordinates X=761,71 and Y=853,94. It has to be plotted in the
rectangular grid in scale 1:1000. The nearest grid lines to point P are therefore in the eastern
direction 700-800 and in the northern direction 800-900.
By means of a scale the distances AE and DF =53,94 are set out. Than, in the same manner,
the distances AH and BG are set out. Where the lines EF and GH intersect the traverse
point to be plotted is located. The point P is marked either with a needle or with a small
circle drawn with a sharp pencil. The point is than labeled with its number. In the same
manner all other traverse points are plotted.
To detect a possible mistake while plotting the traverse points, the side lengths and the
angles of the traverse are checked with a protractor and scale after plotting them on the map.

Plotting of the topographic features:

The plotting of all topographic features, including spot heights, can be done most easily with
the use of a protractor and a scale. The centre of the protractor is held with a hand exactly
over the observation station.
Than, either the zero degree mark or the known azimuth is lined up with the respective
traverse side in order to orient the protractor properly. The desired angle or azimuth of the
points is than taken from the field notes and noted along the edge of the protractor, and fine
points are marked at these positions (to avoid mixing up of points, the point numbers are
written next to the points). With a scale, the distances, also taken from the field notes, are
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 than set out from the protractor centre (traverse station) and going through the respective
previously marked points. The end points are marked with a sharp pencil (just a point with a
small circle around), and labeled with their point numbers and elevations.
When all points of one station have been plotted, the protractor is moved to the next
position, and the process continues. The points are than connected as illustrated in the field
book.

Plotting and drawing for surveying purposes has nothing to do with architectural
drawing, and therefore an artistic portrayal of the topography should be avoided.

However, a map title with the map scale, a north arrow and a legend (explanation of the used
symbols) are indispensable items of each topographic map.

1.6 Relief representation:

1.6.1 Contour lines:

The graphical portrayal of the configuration of the land surface (relief) is most commonly
done with contour lines.
A contour line is a line that connects points of equal level on the surface of the earth. The
shoreline of a body of still water (e.g. a lake) is an excellent illustration of a contour line.
They are drawn on the two-dimensional paper to give the impression of a third dimension.
An example for contour lines is given in figure 8:

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 figure 8

1.6.1.1 Contour interval:

The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contour lines is called the contour
interval.
The contour interval for the example, illustrated in figure 8 is 1 meter.
The proper choice of the contour interval depends on the slopes of the terrain to be
represented, the scale of the map and the purpose of the survey. If, for example, the terrain is
very hilly and the contour interval is too small in relation to the scale, the contour lines
become to crowded.
In addition, the smaller the contour interval the more points have to be measured in the field
and the more time consuming is the plotting. As a result of that the topographic map would
become more expensive.

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 Table 1 gives an overview about which contour interval should be selected for the different
map scales and terrain types:

Scale of the map Type of terrain Contour interval

large flat 0,2-0,5 m
1:1000 or larger rolling 0,5-1,0 m
hilly 1,5-2,0 m
intermediate flat 0,5-1,5 m
1:1000-1:10000 rolling 1,0-2,0 m
hilly 2,0-3,0 m
small flat 1,0-3,0 m
1:10000 or smaller rolling 2,0-5,0 m
hilly 5,0-10,0 m
mountainous 10, 25 or 50 m

table 1

A rolling terrain has got gently raising and falling slopes.

Table 2 shows common contour intervals for different purposes:

Purpose of survey Map scale Contour interval

building sites 1:1000 or less 0,2-0,5 m
town planning and 1:5000-1:10000 0,5-2,0 m
reservoir planning
survey of extensive 1:5000-1:20000 2,0-3,0 m
area, earthwork,
etc.

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 table 2

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 1.6.1.2 Characteristics of contour lines:

The contours have the following characteristics:

 The contour lines are closed lines. However, they may close either on the map itself or
outside the map, depending upon the topography.
 As the perpendicular distance between two contour lines is the shortest distance,
contours are always perpendicular to the direction of the steepest slope. Therefore,
surface water always runs downhill at right angle to the contour lines. These contour
lines form U's, pointing downhill (see also figure 9)

figure 9

 In case of a valley lines or streams, the contours run roughly parallel to the valley line or
stream and form V's pointing uphill where they cross the valley line or stream.

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  If the spacing between the contour lines is small the slope is steep, but for gentle slopes
the spacing is large (see also figure 10).

figure 10

 Contour lines never cross one another or branch into two contour lines of the same
elevation because a point on the ground cannot have two elevations (see also figure 11);
they may overlap and appear to meet only at vertical walls or cliffs.

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 figure 11

 Depression contours form closed loop contours around the lowest point. The elevations
of the contours decrease from outside to inside.
 Summit contours form closed loop contours around the highest point. The elevations of
the contours increase from outside to inside.

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 1.6.1.3 Interpolation of contours:

Interpolation refers to the process of determining intermediate values between observed data
points. The assumption is made that the ground slope between two adjacent points is
constant (in a straight line). The interpolation is therefore linear.
Interpolation is necessary because the series of points observed in the field do not
necessarily lie exactly on the contour lines shown on the map; it is not practical to locate and
measure every point on a “round” or whole-number contour.
Two methods are mainly applied for linear interpolation, namely the mathematical
interpolation and the graphical interpolation.
No matter which method is applied, the linear interpolation is always done along the
direction of the steepest slope!

Mathematical method: Also sometimes referred to as calculation method. The following

example (see also figure 12) shows the principle:

figure 12

Figure 12 illustrates a vertical section through the ground. Point A and B are observed
ground points with its elevations 125,40 m and 127,70 m respectively. The horizontal
distance between the two points is 24,0 m. Wanted is the position of the “round-number”
contour lines 126,0 m and 127,0 m along the line AB:

X1: (126,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30 X2: (127,0-125,4) = 24,0:2,30

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 X1 = 6,26 m X2 = 16,70 m

Therefore, the contour line 126,0 m passes at a distance of 6,26 m from Point A towards
point B, and the contour line 127,0 m passes at a distance of 16,70 m from the same point.
In the topographic map the two distances (X 1 and X2) are set out with a scale along the
straight line AB, marked with a point and labeled with its elevations.
The same calculation, carried out in the reverse direction (from point B to point A) serves as
a check.
The mathematical interpolation is a very accurate method and shall be applied in cases
where a high accuracy is demanded. The beginning student may find it time consuming and
tedious, but with some practice the speed increases.
Graphical method: with this interpolation method the work is done very quickly and also
quite accurate, some practice provided. A sheet of tracing paper is needed on which parallel
lines a drawn to represent the desired contour interval. The distance between two parallel
lines on the tracing paper must be chosen that way, that the distance, perpendicular to the
parallel lines on the tracing paper, for the elevation difference between point A and B is
shorter than the distance AB itself. Figure 13 illustrates the method:

figure 13

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 The tracing paper is used as follows: Suppose points A and B are two points with the
elevations 125.40 m and 127.70 m respectively, and it is desired to interpolate the 1 m
contour lines between the two points. The tracing paper is shifted in such a way, that point A
takes up a value of 125.40 m between the lines 125.0 and 125.5 on the tracing paper (this is
done by estimation). The point A is than fixed by means of a needle or pin to the tracing
paper. Now, the tracing paper is rotated around point A until point B takes up a value of
127.70 m between the lines 127.5 and 128.0 on the tracing paper (this is done again by
estimation).
In this position, the contour lines 126.0 and 127.0 are found at the intersection of the 126.0
and 127.0 lines on the tracing paper with the plotted line AB. These points are fixed by
pricking with a needle trough the tracing paper into the drawing.

1.6.1.4 Sketching of contour lines:

After locating the points of various contour lines as described previously, the contours can
be sketched. To see clearly the course of each contour, the points of same elevation are
joined with straight lines. Then, the points of same elevation are connected with a smooth
curve. This is best accomplished by using french curves. It is positioned on the paper to pass
through as many points as possible and a portion of the curve is drawn. The french curve is
then repositioned for drawing another portion of the contour.
Figure 14 illustrates the principle:

figure 14

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 While sketching the contours one should always remember the characteristics of contours
(see also chapter 1.6.1.2 Characteristics of contour lines).

1.6.1.5 Labeling of contour lines:

Some basic rules should be followed (see also figure 15):

figure 15

 Intermediate contour lines are drawn with a continuous line. The intermediate contour
lines depend upon the character of the terrain. In hilly or mountainous areas, the
contours, divisible by 10, 20, 25, 50 or 100 m are considered as intermediate contour
lines. However, in flat terrain a intermediate contour line can be divisible by 1, 2 or 5 m.
An index contour line is a main contour line that helps the map user to quickly interpret
the height situation portrayed on the map. It is drawn with a continuous line of thicker
width. Most commonly every fifth contour line is an index contour. In the example,
illustrated in figure 15, those contours whose elevations are multiples of 5 m are shown
with a heavier line (120, 125, 130 etc.) and are therefore index contours. When the
contour interval is 10 m, the index contours have elevations that are multiples of 50 m.

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  All other contour lines are drawn with a dashed line of the same width as the
intermediate contour lines. They are called supplementary contour lines. In flat terrain
the 0.5 or 0.25 m contour lines are drawn in that manner.
 A small gap is left for writing the elevation.
 The elevation of a contour should be so written that the foot of the text shows towards
the lowest point.
 The amount and the location of elevation labels should be so selected, that the map will
have a neat appearance.

1.6.2 Other methods of representing relief:

In surveying, the relief is generally represented by contours. However, in some cases other
methods are applied:

By spot heights: These are accurate altitudes for individual points along roads, mountaintops
etc. There is no artificial physical evidence in the field of the presence of such a spot height.
They are marked on the map, usually with a dot followed by a number giving the accurate
altitudes in meters (see figure 16):

figure 16

By hachures: These are short lines drawn in the direction of the ground slope. An examples
for hachures, applied in the case of a road cutting and embankment is illustrated in figure 17:

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 figure 17

This method can also be applied in the case of a ditch.

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