Power Generation Lab Report

Omkar Patil (s2142081)

February 2023

1 Introduction
The purpose of this report is to explain and further explore the steps taken in building an electrical power
generating system in different configurations during the power generation lab. To be more specific, the
first section of the report delves into the design of:

1. A 50Hz 200V line, 3-phase supply connected to loads with variable settings, which resembles an
isolated mode of operation.

2. A generator synchronised with and generating into grid: 300W at 1.0 power-factor and lastly 200W
at 0.8 power-factor lagging, operating as part of a larger network.

The second section answers questions from Section 5 in page 12 of the power generation lab manual.

2 Design and implementation of system

2.1 Background
A generator is used to convert mechanical energy imparted by a prime mover to electrical energy. The
choice of a prime mover typically varies between: an internal combustion engine or a steam, gas, water
and wind turbine. In this lab, an induction motor is used to simulate a prime mover driving a synchronous
generator at angular frequency ω. A rotating magnetic field is generated by the rotors field winding, which
induces an AC voltage in the stator winding a, b and c. The AC voltage frequency is dependent on the
number of rotor poles P , the prime mover’s revolutions per minute N and hence ω as shown in (1)

P N Pω
f= = (1)
2 60 4π
The flux linkage of stator coil a is expressed in (2), by its phase current (ia ), self-inductance (Ls ), field
winding DC current (If ), mutual-inductance’s of coils b and c (Ms ), mutual-inductance of field winding
(Mf ) and phase angle (ϕ) to account for initial conditions of the rotor (Grainger et al., 2016).

ϕa = (Ls + Ms )ia + Mf If cos(ωt + ϕ) (2)

Similar equations exist for coils b and c with −120o and −240o delay respectively. The phase voltage of
coil a (va ), provided the coil has resistance R is√given by (3) using √
Faraday’s law. If load angle is defined
as δ = ϕ + 90o and coil a’s internal emf as ϵa = 2Ea sin(ωt + ϕ) = 2Ea cos(ωt + δ), (3) is reduced to (4)
(Grainger et al., 2016).

dϕa dia
va = −Ria − = −Ria − (Ls + Ms ) + ωMf If sin(ωt + ϕ) (3)
dt dt
dia
va = −Ria − (Ls + Ms ) + Ea cos(ωt + δ) =⇒ Ea = ωMf If (4)
dt
√
The phasor
√ equivalent of phase voltage and current in coil a, alternatively expressed as va = 2Va cos(ωt)
and ia = 2Ia cos(ωt − θ) is represented by (5) (Grainger et al., 2016). Note, Va , Ia and Ea are root mean

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square values. In addition, cos (θ) is also known as power-factor. If synchronous reactance is defined as
Xs = ω(Ls + Ms ), the phasor equivalent to (4) is therefore given by (6) (Grainger et al., 2016).

Va = Va ∠ 0 , Ia = Ia ∠ θ , Ea = Ea ∠ δ (5)

Va = Ea − RIa − jω(Ls + Ms )Ia = Ea − RIa − jXs Ia (6)

Lastly, the power generated is a very important measure. Complex power is often expressed as S =
P + jQ = Va Ia ∗ . By isolating Ia in (6) and assuming coil resistance is negligible, complex power is
simplified to (7).
Ea − Va Ea ∠δ − Va Ea ∠ − δ − Va
Ia = = =⇒ Ia∗ =
jXs jXs −jXs
Va Ea (cos (δ) − j sin (δ)) − Va2
 
Ea ∠ − δ − Va
∴ S = Va = (7)
−jXs −jXs
Therefore, real (P ) and reactive power (Q) is found by multiplying (7) by jj , which yields (8).

Va Ea Va
P = cos (δ) , Q= (Ea cos (δ) − Va ) (8)
Xs Xs
The implemented induction motor and synchronous generator configurations in isolation or as part of
a network during the lab is explained in the sections to come.

2.2 Isolated mode of operation

A system in an isolated mode of operation, generates and supplies power to loads independently, without
being connected to grid. The primary objective with operating in this mode was to supply changeable
resistive loads with a 3-phase, 50Hz 200V line supply.

2.2.1 System Overview

The wires used throughout the lab were colour coded correspondingly: 3-phase supplies with brown, black
and grey, neutral with blue, earth with yellow/green and dc with red and black. In addition, wires with
reasonable lengths were selected to keep the circuit clean and prevent hazards such as tripping.
A 3-phase 50Hz 240V line supply from grid, was connected to a 3-phase AC inverter driver. The
inverter driver, rectifies the supply and inverts it back to a 3-phase AC voltage with a desired amplitude
and frequency using a control circuit. The 3-phases and an earth from the inverter driver, were then
connected to a 3kW induction motor with a 3000 rpm maximum rating. A knob on the driver allowed full
control over the induction motor’s rotation, which was displayed in rpm on it’s screen.
The shafts of the induction motor and a synchronous generators were already coupled. The synchronous
generator has 4 poles or 2 pole-pairs (See Section 3 Question 2 for more details). A DC exciter comprising
of a controlled DC power supply was connected to the generator’s field winding via a diode box. The diode
box protects the DC power supply, by maintaining a uni-directional flow of current. The three output
phases and neutral from the synchronous motor were linked to a load bank in a star-to-star configuration.
The neutral wires of the load bank were connected in series. The load resistances could be changed to 8
values, by adjusting the bank’s switch setting. The inter-connections described above are best represented
by the block diagram in Figure 1.

Exciter: DC
Diode Box Multimeter
Power Supply

3-phase AC Prime Mover: Synchronous

Load Bank
Inverter Driver Induction Motor Generator

Figure 1: Block diagram of a synchronous generator in an islanded mode of operation

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 Additionally, as all 3-phases have the same resistive loads; the system is balanced and so has equivalent
phase voltage magnitudes. The phase voltage is measured by a multimeter, connected between one phase
and neutral wire. Similarly, phase current is found with a current clamp connected to a multimeter.

2.2.2 Generating a 50Hz 200V line voltage

In order to generate a 50Hz supply using a 4 pole generator, requires the induction motor to rotate at 1500
rpm according to (1).
2(60)f 2(60)(50)
N= = = 1500 rpm.
P 4
As a star-to-star configuration exists between the generator and loads, achieving a 200V line voltage is
equivalent to 200
√ = 115.5V phase voltage. By observing (4), phase voltage va is proportional to field current
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If . Hence, maintaining the phase voltage at 115.5V, required controlling the excitation. Table 1 shows the
data for phase voltage, current, and frequency, as well as excitation with changing load resistances.

Load Field Field Phase Phase Motor Frequency

resistance [Ω] Voltage [V] Current [A] Voltage [V] Current [A] speed [rpm] [Hz]
350 6.75 0.339 115.7 0.3 1521.8 50.79
175 6.90 0.349 114.3 0.7 1520.6 50.74
117 7.05 0.356 115.0 1.0 1508.6 50.34
88 7.30 0.369 114.9 1.3 1520.7 50.77

Table 1: Supplying 50 Hz 115.5V at varying load resistances.

Initially, a decrease in load resistance led to a reduction in both the phase voltage and frequency,
resulting in a slowdown of the induction motor’s speed. To maintain a steady 50Hz 115.5V phase voltage
supply, adjustments were made by increasing the excitation and restoring the induction motor’s speed to
1500 rpm, as detailed in Table 1. Since load is connected in series to a phase, it has a resistance r and
reactance Xl , which play a role in determining the phase voltage. To account for this, the phase voltage
can be expressed as an extension of (6), as shown bellow.

Va = Ea − (R + jXs + r + jXl )Ia

When the generator’s excitation is unchanged, it implies the internal emf Ea is constant. As per
Ohm’s law, when resistance decreases, the load demands a greater current flow to maintain a constant
voltage. However, an increase in current Ia results in a larger voltage drop across the combined impedance
(R + jXs + r + jXl )Ia . This ultimately causes the observed phase voltage to drop.
By increasing the excitation or field current (If ) and restoring the induction motor’s speed to its
nominal level, enables the internal emf |Ea | = ωMf If specified as per (4) to increase. This compensates
for the voltage drop resulting from the decreased load resistance, and ensures the desired operating point
of 115.5V at 50Hz is maintained.

2.2.3 Problems encountered

The inverter drivers knob used to adjust rpm caused drastic changes in the motor’s speed, requiring precise
and gradual adjustments to reach the nominal value. Careful monitoring and fine-tuning were necessary to
avoid deviations. However, if left alone for some time, the rpm would drift and cause the supply frequency
to drop. In order to prevent this, a control system could be implemented to compare with a set point and
constantly make adjustments to maintain a desired speed.
Furthermore, when the resistive load was reduced to 70Ω, which is the lowest resistance setting tested,
the synchronous generator would begin to vibrate. Even after increasing the field current and rotor speed
to maintain operation at the set operating point, the generator continued to vibrate. In this case, the
generator was overloaded and supplying beyond its rated capacity. Hence, this load was not considered in
the final data and is a limitation of this isolated system.

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2.2.4 Comparison with real isolated power systems
Synchronous generator’s in an isolated mode of operation (stand-alone) are often used as back-up systems
in case of power shortages (Greacen et al., 2013). Hence, they play a significant role in critical facilities
such as: hospitals and nuclear power plants. Such generators also exist in off-grid locations such as: remote
villages, islands and oil rigs. Real life stand alone generator’s have additional components in comparison to
the one described in this sub-section including: an automatic voltage regulator (AVR), a protection system
and an electronic control system. The AVR system regulates the output voltage by dynamically adjusting
excitation based on feedback error (difference between desired and output voltage), as the load changes
(Greacen et al., 2013). In contrast, during the lab the excitation was controlled manually and was a slow
process. The protection system shuts down a generator, if unexpected events such as an over-current,
over-voltage or under-frequency supply occurs (Greacen et al., 2013). A control system is the source of all
control signals and ensures the proper functioning of the entire generator (Greacen et al., 2013).

2.3 Operating as part of a larger network

Operating as part of a larger network, a power generating system works in conjunction with multiple
generators connected along the same transmission line. The primary objective of this mode, is to achieve
synchronisation with the grid and then, produce 300W at 1.0 power-factor and 200W at 0.8 power-factor.

2.3.1 System Overview

The setup described in Section 2.2.1 was replicated, except the resistive load bank was no longer connected.
Instead, the 3-phases of the synchronous generator were connected to one end of a 3-phase isolator switch
(breaker), while the other end was connected to the three-phase 50Hz 200V line voltage from grid. A link
box was used to connect the neutral’s of the generator and grid. The isolator switch was kept open until the
generator was synchronised with the grid. Additionally, the breaker protects the generator from damage
in the unlikely event of an overload or short-circuit. It also allows us to isolate faults in the system.
Synchronising lights were connected in parallel to the isolator switch, in order to provide visual confir-
mation of synchronisation between the synchronous generator and grid. When the system is synchronised,
the lights will not blink as: the voltage, frequency and phase difference across them will be zero. However,
as the frequency difference increases, the lights will flash at a faster rate at varying times. If the phase
sequence is incorrect and the phase angles are unaligned, the flashing will be out of sequence or not in
unison. Lastly, if the voltage magnitude difference is large, the lights will be lit brighter. The system
inter-connections are best conceptualised by the block diagram in Figure 2 and set-up as in Figure 3.
The oscilloscope was used to visually observe the graphical patterns of the generator’s phase and
grid voltage. The probe settings were first properly configured and then connected to a phase wire from
both the generated and grid supply. In order to measure the generator’s phase current ia , a current
transformer equipped with a 10Ω resistor was incorporated. The alternating current ia , induces a voltage
in the secondary winding of the transformer. This voltage is proportional to the current (v = 10i N ) and is
a

measured by the oscilloscope as a valid alternative. The probe and it’s earth, were made sure to connect
across the resistor.

Exciter: DC
Diode Box Multimeter
Power Supply
Breaker: 3-phase
3-phase AC Prime Mover: Synchronous
isolator switch Grid
Inverter Driver Induction Motor Generator
and Link Box
Current Synchronising
Transformer Lights

Oscilloscope

Figure 2: Block diagram of a synchronous generator operating as part of larger network

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 Figure 3: The lab setup as described in Section 2.3.1

2.3.2 Generating a 300W 1.0 power-factor supply

A unity power-factor implies, the angle between the voltage and current phasor’s, also known as the phase
angle is θ = arccos (1) = 0o . Recall from Section 2.1, complex power may be expressed as S = P + jQ.
The argument of complex power is the phase angle θ. Therefore,
Q Q
arg(S) = arctan ( ) = 0o =⇒ = 0.
P P
Based on the findings above, it can be inferred that the reactive power Q is equal to zero. Therefore,
the complex power can be expressed as the active power, S = P ∠0o . It should be noted that, 300W is a
measure of active power. As a 3-phase supply exists, each phase must produce an active power of P = 300 3
= 100W. By substituting (4) into (8) realise: adjusting the frequency ω from the inverter driver and field
current If with excitation voltage, the active and reactive power are controlled.

ωMf If Va Va
P = cos (δ) , Q= (ωMf If cos (δ) − Va )
Xs Xs
The objective was achieved by closely monitoring the power readings on a multimeter, while iteratively
adjusting the relevant parameters. Table 2 shows the power, excitation and frequency data.

Active Reactive Apparent Field Field Motor Frequency

Power [W] Power [VAr] Power [VA] Voltage [V] Current [A] speed [rpm] [Hz]
101.1 0 101.1 6.74 0.338 1497.6 50.975

Table 2: Generating 100∠0o complex power per phase at unity power-factor

2.3.3 Generating a 200W 0.8 power-factor lagging supply

A similar procedure as in Section 2.3.2 was adopted to achieve the desired power factor. A 0.8 lagging
power factor corresponds to a phase angle of θ = arccos (0.8) = 36.9o . Hence, the argument of the complex
power is given as
Q Q
arg(S) = arctan( ) = 36.9o =⇒ = 0.75.
P P

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 The above results indicate that the reactive and active power are related by Q = 0.75P . To generate an
active power of 200W, the generator must produce 200 3 = 66.7W per phase. This in turn requires producing
0.75(200)
p
a reactive power of Q = 3 = 50VAr per phase and an apparent power of |S| = (66.7)2 + (50)2
= 83.3VA. By carefully adjusting and monitoring the parameters using a multi-meter, the desired power
factor was achieved. The power, excitation, and frequency data obtained are presented in Table 3.

Active Reactive Apparent Field Field Motor Frequency

Power [W] Power [VAr] Power [VA] Voltage [V] Current [A] speed [rpm] [Hz]
65.6 50 82.5 7.46 0.379 1497.5 50.975

Table 3: Generating 83.3∠36.9o complex power per phase at 0.8 power-factor lagging

As the power factor was gradually adjusted, the sinusoidal waves of voltage and current started to drift
apart on the oscilloscope, resulting in a phase difference. These changes are clearly depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Phase difference between phase voltage (blue) and current (pink) shown on an oscilloscope

2.3.4 Problems encountered

Adjusting the phase sequence of the generator to match the grid proved to be a challenging task. Initially,
the synchronising light’s connections were reconfigured, which was not successful as the generator connec-
tions to the breaker remained the same. So a decision was made to modify the connections made to the
breaker and test again with the synchronising lights. However, instead of directly changing the generator
connections, the two phases supplied to the induction motor were swapped, thereby reversing the direction
of spin and phase sequence. This modification synchronised all phases with the grid.
Moreover, a lot of noise was observed in the voltage representation of current from the current trans-
former on the oscilloscope. This could be attributed to the electromagnetic interference created by the
AC voltage supplies in the surrounding. Although noise could be reduced by moving wires around the
primary to the right position, a more permanent solution was required. Hence, an electric current trans-
ducer was used, which operates based on the Hall effect by producing an output signal proportional to the
magnetic field created by the current of interest. This allows for more consistent and precise measurements
of current. As shown in Figure 4, the output signal has significantly less noise

2.3.5 Comparison with real large network power systems

A real synchronous generator connected with the grid includes additional components, which ensures
quick and efficient synchronisation and safety of the system. Such components include: a governor, phase
measurement unit, transformers and switch gear. A governor controls the output power of the prime mover
by adjusting its speed, preferably in response to changes in the loads power demand (Greacen et al., 2013).

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In certain power plants such as those which use coal, a governor is linked with a combustor, which produce
variable flow rates of steam that drives the prime mover. This is analogous to the inverter driver’s knob.
A phase measurement unit (PMU) is used as a way to synchronise with the grid. The device measures
voltage, current, frequency and then computes a phase difference, which is sent to a control system for
synchronising with the grid (Shively, 2017). The device is also used after linking with the grid, as a way
to monitor the variables and find any faults in the system (Shively, 2017). During the lab, synchronising
lights were used for simplicity. In some cases, a PMU could be linked with a power factor correction unit
that improves the power factor for efficient power transmission (Shively, 2017).
A transformer is traditionally used to step up the generated voltage supply to match with the grid
before synchronising (Greacen et al., 2013). A transformer wasn’t used in the lab, as the generator was
able to produce the desired voltage supply. In some cases a step down transformer is also used.
Lastly, a switch gear similar to the 3-phase isolator switch used in the lab, is a protection mechanism
used to turn off the generator system, after sensing abnormalities including faults or overloads (Clark,
2022). A switch gear consists of circuit breakers and protective relays (Clark, 2022).

3 Questions for lab manual

1) How will you control the speed of the induction motor?
When a 3-phase supply is connected to the stator winding of an induction motor, it creates a rotating
magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field induces a current in the rotor winding, which in turn generates
a second magnetic field that opposes the change of the first due to Lenz’s law. This opposition results in
the rotor to spin. The motor’s speed in revolutions per minute N , is affected by the supply voltage V,
frequency f , number of poles P and slip s as shown bellow and corresponds with (1). The motor’s torque
is proportional to the square of supply voltage V. Hence, as the supply voltage decreases, the torque also
decreases and causes the rotor to slow down.
f
N = 120
Ps
As mentioned in Section 2.2.1, the induction motor’s 3-phase supply and earth connections should be
linked to an AC inverter driver to regulate its speed. The inverter driver rectifies the incoming 3-phase
supply and inverts it back to a 3-phase voltage with a desired magnitude and frequency through a control
circuit before feeding it to the motor. The driver has a knob for adjusting the motor’s speed, which is then
shown on it’s screen in rpm.

2) At what speed (in rpm) should the prime mover drive the generator?
The speed of the prime mover, which is the induction motor in this case, is directly proportional to the
frequency of the voltage required to generate. In Section 2.2, the first task involves generating a 50Hz
voltage, while the second task in Section 2.3 requires synchronising with the grid, which also operates at
roughly 50Hz. Therefore, by rearranging (1) in terms of the motor’s speed in rpm,

2(60)(50) 6000
N= = .
P P
The number of poles of the synchronous generator were initially unknown. Hence, a test was conducted
where the induction motor was set to around 1000 rpm, which generated a supply with a frequency of 33.5
Hz from the generator. By substituting these findings in (1) yielded P = 2(60)(33.5)
1000 = 4.02. This can be
approximated to 4 poles or 2 pole-pairs. Therefore, the induction motor’s rpm should be set to

2(60)(50) 6000
N= = = 1500 rpm.
P 4
3) When supplying the resistive load, how can you control the generator output frequency?
The frequency of the output voltage is determined by the power balance between the mechanical power
input from the motor Pin = T ω and the electrical power output of the generator Pout = Va Ia cos θ from

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(5). Here, T represents the motor shaft’s torque. For steady-state operation, the input and output power
must be the same as expressed by the equation bellow.
T ω = Va Ia cos θ
If for example the load decreases, a voltage drop is observed, which results in the torque and frequency to
decline as well. The frequency of the generator can be controlled by the knob of the inverter driver. As
observed in an isolated mode of operation, the system inertia is low and frequency can change very easily.
So during the lab, it was very important to always monitor and adjust the motor’s speed.

4) When supplying the resistive load, how can you control the generator output voltage?

As explained in Question 3, the voltage drop across a phase of the generator changes as the load varies. If
the load resistance decreases, the output voltage also decreases. To control the voltage supply, the internal
emf Ea of the generator must be controlled to compensate for any voltage drop. Using (4), it can be seen
that Ea is proportional to the field current If . Therefore, by adjusting excitation of the generator via the
DC power supply, the output voltage is controlled. Further details on how this was attempted during the
lab can be found in Section 2.2.2.

5) What will happen if the resistive load on the generator is increased?

As the resistive load increases, the phase current Ia and thus excitation required to maintain a stable
supply initially decreases. This is due to Ohm’s law, which suggests resistance is inversely proportional to
current. The phase voltage Va is also observed to initially drop. This is justified by using the expression
deduced in Section 2.2.2 bellow, where r and Xl is the load impedance.
Va = Ea − (R + jXs + r + jXl )Ia .
The (R + jXs + r + jXl )Ia term predominantly contributes to the voltage drop, as the load resistance r
increases, although Ia declines. Additionally, the initial frequency after increasing the load should decrease
due to an uneven power balance. The electrical power demanded by the load Va Ia cos (θ) plunges as both
Va and Ia decrease, thus proportionally reducing toque and frequency (T ω = Va Ia cos (θ), see Question 3).

Figure 5: Equivalent circuit for one phase of a stator coil connected to load.

Conversely, in order to maintain the phase voltage and frequency at a set operating point, the internal
emf Ea controlled by the excitation is increased to compensate for the voltage drop. Due to Ohm’s law,
the current proportionally increases, which is best understood from the equivalent circuit in Figure 5 for a
phase. The increase in current demand results in the generator having to produce more power. Hence, to
maintain a power balance, the torque is observed to increase as the frequency is set to a constant.

6) When synchronising to the grid, what will happen to the synchronising lights when:

a) The voltages are correct, but the generator frequency is 49 Hz?

The grid has a supply with a frequency of around 50Hz, which in this case implies a frequency difference
of approximately 1Hz. As observed during the lab in Section 2.3.1, a frequency difference between the

8
generator and grid supply directly corresponds to the light’s rate of blinking. As an example, a larger
frequency difference will result in a greater rate of blinking. With a frequency difference of 1Hz, the lights
will be blinking relatively fast.

b) The voltages and frequency are correct, and the generator voltage is in phase with the
grid voltage?

As the voltage, frequency and phase differences are zero, the generator and grid supplies are synchronised.
Therefore, there will be no potential difference across the lights. This implies the lights will be turned off.

c) The voltages and frequency are correct, but the generator voltage is 180° out of phase
with the grid voltage?

It was observed during the lab, if the generator and grid phases are unaligned, but their phase difference
is constant, the lights don’t blink in unison and instead in a circular sequence. In this case, as the supplies
are 180o out of phase, which implies as one reaches its maximum, the other will reach its minimum. Thus,
the lights will blink in a circular sequence at the greatest rate of blinking, which is around 100Hz.

d) The voltages, frequency and phase are correct, but the generator phase rotation is wrong
(i.e. phase b leads phase a by 120° etc.)?

These conditions mean that the generator has an incorrect phase sequence. The light bulbs will still not
blink in unison and will also be out of sequence.

7) If the generator phase rotation is wrong, how would you correct it?

The process of correcting the phase sequence is carried in two ways, either by: changing the connections
of the breaker at the generator’s end or reversing the direction of rotation by changing two phases of
the induction motor’s connections. It is also critical to ensure the phases are almost aligned using an
oscilloscope, before attempting these steps, as otherwise they will yield no success. Note, changing the
synchronising light’s connection is incorrect, as no changes are actually made to the breaker’s connections.

8) When synchronised to the grid, how can you control the real power fed into the grid?

As discussed in Section 2.3.2 by manipulating certain expressions, real power could be expressed in a form
shown bellow. The phase voltage Va is now a constant, as it is synchronised with the grid. Similarly, mutual
inductance Mf and synchronous reactance Xl is a constant value, as it depends only on the generator’s
geometry. The only variables which can be controlled are: the angular frequency of the motor ω via the
inverter driver’s knob and field current If of the generator by adjusting excitation through the DC supply.
Varying these 2 parameters will allow control over real power.
ωMf If Va
P = cos (δ)
Xs
During the lab, it was observed that changing the motor’s rpm and thus ω, resulted in more significant
changes to real power than varying excitation. Never the less, a combination of both were used.

9) When synchronised to the grid, how can you control the generator power factor?

The generator’s power factor cos θ is equivalent to the argument of complex power θ = arctan ( Q P ). By
using the equations developed in Section 2.3.2, the equality can be expressed as,
 
Q Q
P F = cos θ = arctan ( ) = cos
P P
Va
!!
Xs (ωMf If cos (δ) − Va )
  
Va
P F = cos arctan ωMf If Va
= cos arctan 1 − .
cos (δ) ωMf If cos (δ)
Xs

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It can then be inferred that, by varying ω through changing the induction motor’s rpm with the inverter
driver and field current If with the excitation voltage, the power factor can be controlled. During the lab,
the power factor was controlled by first deducing the reactive power with the first line of equations above
and then changing the motor’s rpm and generator’s excitation as figured.

10) As you increase the power into the grid the generator may ”lose synchronism”: how
would you prevent this occurring?

The generator looses synchronism when it is over excited and the cosine of load angle cos δ > 90o . In order
to fully understand this, the phasor diagram from the phasor representation defined by (6) is necessary to
understand. For a lagging power factor, the phase current phasor Ia lags the phase voltage phasor Va by θ
degrees. The RIa phasor is parallel to Ia , while the jXs Ia is perpendicular Ia . The vector addition of Va ,
RIa and jXs Ia is the internal emf Ea phasor. These phasor’s are diagrammatically shown as in Figure 6.

Figure 6: The phasor diagram of the generator’s equation from (6). Note ϕ is actually θ in this report.

The angle between the voltage and internal emf phasor is the load angle δ. If Ea cos δ = Va , the generator is
said to be in normal excitation. Similarly, if Ea cos δ < Va the generator is under-excited and if Ea cos δ > Va
the generator is over-excited. Trivially, in order to prevent loosing synchronism (δ > 90◦ ), the phase angle
θ should be less than 90◦ if the current phasor Ia has a large magnitude. By checking the diagram, this
will result in an Ea phasor working out to be in the second quadrant. This can be mathematically proven
by isolating δ in (8).  
P Xs
δ = arccos
Va Ea
By expanding real power in terms of the rectangular form of complex power, the equation is simplified to
   
Va Ia Xs cos θ Ia Xs cos θ
δ = arccos = arccos .
Va Ea Ea

If δ is greater than 90◦ the inequality reduces to the case stated above.
 
Ia Xs cos θ Ia Xs cos θ
δ = arccos > 90◦ =⇒ >0
Ea Ea

∴ cos θ > 0 =⇒ θ > 90◦

It can also be found from the equations above that δ approaches 90◦ in two cases, namely: as Ea increases
or Ia decreases in which case the term inside arccos approaches 0. To ensure Ea is not too great, the
excitation must be properly controlled. Lastly, to prevent a small Ia , the load must not be extremely big
and instead within the generator’s capability.

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4 Reference List
B. Shively, “What Is a Phasor Measurement Unit and How Does it Make the Grid More Reliable?Bob Shively,” En-
erdynamics, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.enerdynamics.com/Energy-Currents Blog/What-Is-a-Phasor-
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