Femininity and masculinity or one's gender identity refers to the degree to which persons see

themselves as masculine or feminine given what it means to be a man or woman in society. Femininity
and masculinity are rooted in the social (one's gender) rather than the biological (one's sex). Societal
members decide what being male or female means (e.g., dominant or passive, brave or emotional), and
males will generally respond by defining themselves as masculine while females will generally define
themselves as feminine. Because these are social definitions, however, it is possible for one to be female
and see herself as masculine or male and see himself as feminine.

How does a gender identity develop?

Biological: Supporters of a biological approach to gender development argue that males and females are
biologically programmed for certain kinds of activities compatible with male and female roles.

Humanistic theory: Personality is the expression of each individual's self-actualizing tendency as it

unfolds in that individual's unique, perceived reality. Central to Rogers’ theory is the self, the part of
experience that a person identifies as “I” or “Me”.

Sociobiological theory: Sociobiologists (evolutionary theorists) argue that gender has gradually evolved
over the course of human development as part of our broader adaptation to the environment. The
relatively greater physical strength and lung capacity of males make them better suited to hunting and
defending territory and family. The child-bearing and milk-producing capacities of females, however,
make them ideally suited to childcare and other nurturant roles.

Psychoanalytic theory: Freud’s theory is related to his explanation of moral development. Up until the
resolution of the Oedipus complex, gender identity is assumed to be flexible. Resolution of the Oedipus
complex occurs through identification with the same-sex parent, and results in the acquisition of both a
superego and gender identity.

Social learning theory: According to social learning theory, one reason girls and boys learn to behave
differently is that they are treated differently by their parents. Social learning theory emphasizes the
roles of observational learning and reinforcement.

Cognitive-developmental: The cognitive-developmental approach emphasizes the child’s participation in

developing both an understanding of gender and gender-appropriate behaviour. Children’s discovery of
the fact that they are male or female causes them to identify with members of the same sex (not the
other way around as psychoanalytic and social learning theories suggest).

CONSTRUCTING MASCULINITY

“To understand men you have to understand it is nurture, not nature that rules their lives” – Dr. Stephen
Whitehead

A central problem in the literature, however, is the issue of what constitutes ’masculinity’ and what is its
relationship to notions of ’man’ and ’manhood’. Too often, ’masculinity’ (as well as femininity) is used
unproblematically as a description of ’men’, and this has implications for the study of organizational
behaviour.

From the social constructionist perspective, masculinity is an achieved status. People learn what
behaviors and attitudes they should have according to their label – male or female. Further, when a male
is acting in culturally condoned gender-appropriate ways, he is viewed as masculine, and when a female
is acting in gender-appropriate ways, she is seen as feminine. Although his approach is valuable in
focusing attention on what is considered gender-appropriate behavior in a given organization or society,
and how that might impact discriminatory practices, it is nonetheless problematic in suggesting that
’males’ acquire ’masculinity,’ without exploring the contexts in which labels develop and change.

When boys enter adolescence, they are faced with the arduous task of assuming and effectively adopting
the sociocultural masculine meanings that are embedded in their surrounding micro and macro
environments. This constitutes a crucial turning point in the boys’ lives since the success of their
adopting the prevailing masculine ethos will determine many of their life chances and successes, both in
the personal arena of intimate relationships and the public arena of business competition and market
relations.

Typical masculine values accorded to the male gender include:

(a) increased importance on independence, rationality, and aggression;
(b) the exercise of emotional control at the expense of emotional attachment
(c) the overt externalization of inner feelings and desires; and
(d) the celebration of physical strength as well as the glorification of violence.

Men are socialized to think of themselves as all mighty and powerful, and, consequently, to feel entitled
to such illusionary feelings. Illusionary because in reality, most men tend to enjoy only limited amounts
of power, and, instead, use dominance, authority, and emotional distancing to socially construct and
maintain images of themselves as powerful. Such sociocultural constructions of male power tend to
negatively affect men by:
(a) limiting their access to vital social support networks,
(b) weakening their nurturing capabilities, mainly, their providing support to others, and
(c) discouraging, inhibiting, or altogether preventing viable alternative forms of sexual expression, such
as kissing, holding, and caressing. Instead, such constructions elevate the male sexual response
cycle—with its exclusive emphasis on penile erection and ejaculation—at the highest echelons of male
sexual expression.

Thus, masculinity refers to all those culturally defined male gender dictates (the dos and don’ts) that
come to constitute a male human being within the contexts of the prevailing historicosocio-cultural
environment within which he is born and socialized. It is an active state of doing male gender and it is
both intrapsychic and socially dependent in nature.

HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY

Connell's understanding of hegemonic masculinity sees heterosexual men as being strongly placed in the
patriarchal system. However, she also says though the men are the beneficiaries of the patriarchal
system, they want to change this system and its oppressive structure, She argues that men are different
from one another and those who are unassertive heterosexual may not be party to this dominant
masculinity. Therefore, hegemonic masculinity allows us to understand how the presence of plural
masculinities generates hierarchical domination not only between men and women, but also between
men themselves. The other three types of masculinity are complicit, subordinated and marginalized.

PATRIARCHAL TO TRANSFORMATIVE MASCULINITY

Patriarchal masculinities insist that power is about domination and control. This control might come
from direct violence or more indirectly, such as from the community beliefs and practices that position
men as superior to women. Using one's power over another is unjust. The "power over" system of
patriarchal masculinities makes it seem natural and normal that there are gender inequalities between
men and women, as well as hierarchies among men as well. Of course, inequalities of power between
men are produced by many other forces and factors of social inequality (as are inequalities between
women). Clearly, all men do not share the same experiences of masculine privilege, just as all women do
not share the same experiences of gender inequality. Patriarchal masculinities feed off and reinforce
these other social inequalities. Men who hold political and economic power because of their wealth
and/or majority ethnic/racial identity and/or majority religious affiliation as well as their masculine
privilege often feel entitled to this power because the "power over" system of patriarchal masculinities
makes it seem natural and normal that social inequalities should exist.

On the other hand, Transformative masculinities should be positive for everyone, because they
emphasize the values of equality, respect and dignity for people fall gender identities.

MASCULINITY AS HOMOPHOBIA

Sports have also become an arena where masculinity and homophobia are exhibited continuously.
Sports still remains a location where men and their bodies are privileged, in turn reinforcing cultural
expressions of sexism and homophobia.

In sports young boys are socialised to enact traditional masculine traits such as toughness and
heterosexuality that boys often become afraid of femininity and homosexuality. Because of this,
numerous men athletes in variety of sports did not disclose themselves being homosexuals.

TOXIC MASCULINITY

Toxic masculinity refers to the notion that some people’s idea of “manliness” perpetuates domination,
homophobia, and aggression. Toxic masculinity involves cultural pressures for men to behave in a certain
way. And it’s likely this affects all boys and men in some fashion.

This idea that men need to act tough and avoid showing all emotions can be harmful to their mental
health and can have serious consequences for society, which is how it became known as “toxic
masculinity.”

● Toxic masculinity glorifies unhealthy habits. It’s the notion that “self-care is for women” and
men should treat their bodies like machines by skimping on sleep, working out even when
they’re injured, and pushing themselves to their physical limits.
● Mental health stigma- Toxic masculinity also discourages men from getting mental health
treatment. Depression, anxiety, substance use issues, and mental health problems may be
viewed as weaknesses. Toxic masculinity may also stress that it’s inappropriate for men to talk
about their feelings. Avoiding conversations about problems or emotions may increase feelings
of isolation and loneliness. It may also reduce men’s willingness to reach out and get help when
they’re experiencing a mental health issue.
● Race, Ethnicity, and Gender- Boys of all races and ethnic backgrounds who don’t act “masculine
enough” may be subjected to harassment at school. Gender non-conforming students reported
 worse treatment than the kids who conform to traditional gender norms while also identifying as
LGBTQ+.

Toxic Masculinity Examples

● When a boy cries and his father tells him to "toughen up" or that "men don't cry"
● When a man calls women "sluts" or "whores" for having sex outside of monogamous
relationships
● When a man tells his partner what they can and cannot wear, and who they are and are not
allowed to spend time with
● The violence against trans women that occurs every year by men who are threatened by a
perceived violation of gender norms
● When men criticize other men for being attracted to, or in relationships with, trans women
● When a man is afraid to be emotionally vulnerable with his partner for fear of seeming "weak"
● When a man who is struggling with his mental health doesn't want to see a therapist because he
should "man up" or "power through it"

FEMININITY:

“One is not born a woman, but rather becomes one” (De Beavoir, 1988:295)

Often, masculinity and femininity are described as two poles on a spectrum, where masculinity is
associated with aggression, physical strength and a strong sexual drive, and femininity is associated with
passivity, physical weakness as well as sexual reserve. This can go even further where the powerful man
is contrasted with the powerless woman.

CONCLUSION

The gender identity, the degree of masculinity and femininity of an individual can have an incredible
impact on his/her life experiences. For example, an individual might maintain the gender identity which
conflicts with the gender role s/he is assigned. In this case gender, one category generally perceived as
simplistic and bipolar, becomes an area of extreme confusion and discontent. Aside from genitalia, which
remains generally unexposed, society maintains certain expectation of what each gender should look,
sound, and act like. Any deviation from these rigid models opens a person up to at the very least ridicule.
The gender identities of women and men are closely interlinked. One way this is evident is in the division
of labour by gender. Certain tasks and responsibilities are allocated to women and others to men --the
division of labour itself creates interdependence. Changes for women thus also mean changes for men.
More broadly, equality between women and men cannot be achieved by changes in the roles and
responsibilities carried by women. To date, too few men have been involved in considering what a more
equal society would look like and in working as partners with women to define and pursue strategies for
equality. In part, this can reflect resistance to the implications of change. However, it can also be argued
that more efforts must be made by equality advocates to develop alliances with those men who support
efforts to construct a more equal society.