CONCEPT OF COMPLIANT MATERIALS

Compliant materials are materials that have recognised, predictable and

consistent properties such as paper/card, fabric/textiles.

Classes of compliant materials

 Paper: Paper is a cellulose-based compliant material made from wood pulp or other
plant fibers. It is commonly used in printing, packaging, and labeling applications. It is a
compliant material due to its low density, low modulus of elasticity, and high elongation.
 Card: Card is similar to paper but is thicker and more durable. It is made from a variety
of materials such as paper, plastic, or metal. It is used for applications such as business
cards, postcards, and ID cards. It is considered a compliant material because it is easy to
cut and shape, and it can be easily folded and creased without breaking.
 Fabric/Textile: Fabrics and textiles are compliant materials made from fibers such as
cotton, wool, silk, and nylon. They are used in a wide range of applications such as
clothing, upholstery, and industrial textiles. They are considered compliant materials
because they have low density, high elongation, and high compressive strength. They can
be easily stretched and deformed, and they are able to withstand high compressive loads
without breaking.

Examples of each class of compliant materials

 Paper:
1. Copy paper - a standard office paper used for printing, copying and writing.
2. Construction paper - a type of thick, colored paper used for arts and crafts
projects and making posters.
3. Bond paper - a type of paper used for letterhead, business forms and other types
of high-quality printing.
4. Kraft paper - a type of paper made from wood pulp, and characterized by its
rough texture and natural brown color.
5. Tissue paper - a type of thin, translucent paper used for wrapping delicate items
or as a decorative material.

 Card:
1. Solid Whiteboard - a type of card used for writing and drawing with dry-erase
markers
2. Corrugated Cardboard - a type of card made from three layers of paper, consisting of
wavy inner layer sandwiched between flat outer layers.
3. PVC card - a type of card made from polyvinyl chloride, used for ID cards, credit
cards, and membership cards.
 4. Greeting card - a type of card used for special occasions such as birthdays, holidays,
and weddings.
5. Rigid box - a type of card used for packaging items such as electronics, cosmetics, and
jewelry.

 Fabric/Textile:
1. Cotton - a natural fiber made from the cotton plant, used in clothing, bedding, and
home decor.
2. Nylon - a synthetic fiber known for its strength, durability, and resistance to abrasion.
3. Wool - a natural fiber made from sheep's hair, known for its warmth and moisture-
wicking properties.
4. Silk - a natural fiber made from the cocoons of silkworms, known for its softness,
luster, and drapability.
5. Polyester - a synthetic fiber known for its wrinkle resistance, strength, and
durability.

Process compliant materials are produced

 Paper:
1. Wood pulp is obtained by cutting down trees and breaking them into small chips.
2. The chips are then boiled in water and chemicals such as sodium hydroxide and
sulfuric acid are added to break down the fibers.
3. The pulp is then screened and cleaned to remove any impurities.
4. The pulp is then pressed and formed into sheets on a paper machine, where water
is removed through a process of pressing and drying.
5. The paper is then rolled and cut to the desired size and shape.

Paper is made from wood; a tree is felled, broken into chips, chips are boiled in
water and chemicals added to form pulp; the pulp is pressed with rollers. The
more the layers, the thicker the paper i.e. card

 Fabric/Textile:
1. Cotton is grown and harvested from cotton plants, then the cotton fibers are
separated from the seeds and other plant material.
2. The fibers are then cleaned, carded, and spun into yarn.
3. The yarn is then woven or knitted into fabric, which is then dyed and finished.
4. Synthetic fibers such as nylon and polyester are made by polymerizing monomers,
which are then extruded into fibers and woven or knitted into fabric.
5. Wool fibers are obtained from sheep's hair, and then they are cleaned, carded, and
spun into yarn.
 Fabric/Textile is obtained from natural and man-made fibres which are turned
into yarns and threads. They are made through weaving, knitting,
crocheting, braiding or bonding, knotting, and felting

 Card:
1. Corrugated card is made by gluing together three layers of paper: a wavy inner
layer (the corrugate) sandwiched between flat outer layers (the liners).
2. The layers are fed into a corrugating machine which forms the corrugate layer and
glues it between the two liners.
3. The resulting corrugated board is then cut to the desired size and shape.
4. PVC card is made by heating and shaping PVC material under high pressure.
5. Rigid box is made by gluing layers of card together and cutting them to the desired
size and shape.

Resistant materials
Resistant materials are materials that are not pliable or flexible and cannot be easily
compressed with bare hands (plastic, wood, metal, ceramics, and glass)

Resistant materials refer to materials that are strong, durable, and able to withstand
external forces without deforming or breaking.
These materials are often characterized by high strength, high modulus of elasticity, and
low elongation.

Categories of resistant materials

 Plastic:
1. Thermosetting plastics - plastics that are permanently hardened by heating, such as
epoxy, phenolic, and polyester resins.
2. Thermoplastics - plastics that can be repeatedly melted and cooled without losing
their properties, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

 Wood:
1. Hardwoods - woods from deciduous trees such as oak, maple, and cherry, known for
their strength and durability.
2. Softwoods - woods from coniferous trees such as pine, spruce, and fir, known for
their light weight and flexibility.
3. Manufactured (man-made) boards - woods such as MDF, plywood, particleboard,
and chipboard which are made from wood fibers and resins.
  Metal:
1. Ferrous - metals that contain iron, such as steel and cast iron.
2. Non-ferrous - metals that do not contain iron, such as aluminum, copper, and
titanium.
3. Alloys - metals made from a combination of two or more elements, such as stainless
steel, brass, and bronze.
4. Smart metals - metals that exhibit "smart" properties such as shape memory and
super-elasticity, such as Nitinol (Nickel-Titanium alloy).

 Ceramics:
1. Traditional ceramics - ceramics made from natural materials such as clay, and fired
at high temperatures, such as pottery, porcelain, and brick.
2. Advanced ceramics - ceramics made from synthetic materials such as silicon nitride
and alumina, with enhanced properties such as high strength, high temperature
resistance, and chemical resistance.

 Glass:
1. Traditional glass - glass made from natural materials such as sand, soda ash, and
limestone, through the process of melting and shaping.
2. Advanced glass - glass made from synthetic materials such as quartz, and engineered to
have enhanced properties such as high strength, high temperature resistance, and
chemical resistance.

Main sources (natural and synthetic) from which plastics are obtained
The two main sources (natural and synthetic) from which plastics are obtained include:

Natural Source
1. Plants: (Cellulose), a natural polymer found in plants, is used as a raw material for the
production of cellulose acetate, which is used in the production of items such as cigarette
filters and photographic film.
2. Trees: Resins from trees are used as raw materials for the production of phenolic resins,
which are used in the production of items such as electrical insulators and adhesives.
3. Animals: Casein, a protein found in milk, is used as a raw material for the production of
casein plastics, which are used in the production of items such as buttons and figurines.
4. Insects: Shellac, a resin obtained from the lac insect, is used as a raw material for the
production of shellac, which is used as a coating and finish on items such as furniture and
musical instruments.
  By-products:
1. Table tennis balls are made of celluloid, which is a type of plastic made from cellulose.
2. Acetate films are made from cellulose acetate, which is a type of plastic made from
cellulose.
3. Wrapping materials are made of different types of plastics, such as polyethylene and
polypropylene.
4. Rubber is used in a variety of applications, such as tires, seals, and gaskets.
5. Roads and pavements are often made of asphalt, which is a type of bitumen, a by-
product of crude oil.
6. Paints and coatings can contain a variety of synthetic resins, such as acrylic,
polyurethane and epoxy.
7. Glues and adhesives can contain a variety of synthetic resins, such as epoxy and
polyurethane
8. Furniture polish may contain synthetic resins such as polyurethane or shellac

Synthetic Source
1. Crude oil: Many types of plastics are made from petrochemicals, which are chemicals
derived from crude oil. Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyvinyl
chloride (PVC).
2. Coal: Synthetic plastics can also be made from coal and natural gas, through a process
called coal gasification.
3. Natural gas: Synthetic plastics can also be made from natural gas, through a process
called steam cracking.

 By-products:
1. Chemically produced plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene,
polyethylene, and acrylics are obtained from synthetic raw materials such as
petrochemicals.
2. These plastics are produced through polymerization, which is the process of combining
many small molecules (monomers) to form large, repeating chains (polymers).
 Two types of plastics
 Thermoplastics:
1. Polyethylene (PE) - is a thermoplastic polymer, the most common plastic in the
world, used in products such as plastic bags, milk jugs, and toys.
2. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - is a thermoplastic polymer, used in products such as
pipes, siding, and window frames.
3. Nylon - is a thermoplastic polymer, used in products such as clothing, gears, and
ropes.

 Thermosetting plastics:
1. Urea formaldehyde - is a thermosetting polymer, used in products such as
electrical insulators, adhesives, and surface coatings.
2. Polyester resin - is a thermosetting polymer, used in products such as fiberglass,
laminates, and boat hulls.
3. Epoxy resin - is a thermosetting polymer, used in products such as adhesives,
coatings, and composite materials.

List of products and the types of plastics they are made from

Material Products
Polyethylene toys, carrier bags, packaging film, milk jugs, plastic containers,
plastic pipes
PVC pipes, siding, window frames, electrical cables, flooring, credit
cards
Nylon clothing, gears, ropes, fishing line, zipper, gears
Urea electrical insulators, adhesives, surface coatings, wood
formaldehyde laminates
Polyester resin Fiberglass, laminates, boat hulls, surfboards, kayaks, wind
turbine blades
Epoxy resin Adhesives, coatings, composite materials, circuit boards, aircraft
and car parts.
 How wood is obtained
A mature living tree is felled, the branches are cut off to obtain the log,
which is then converted (sawn) to standard sizes, then seasoned.

Wood is obtained from trees, which are grown in forests. Trees are felled (cut down)
when they reach maturity. The branches are cut off to obtain the log, which is the main
trunk of the tree. The log is then transported to a sawmill, where it is converted (sawn)
to standard sizes such as planks, beams, and boards. The sawn wood is then seasoned,
which is the process of drying the wood to reduce its moisture content. This helps to
prevent the wood from cracking, warping, or rotting, and improves its stability and
durability.

Differences between solid timber and man-made boards

Solid timber is wood that comes from a single piece of wood, such as a log or a plank,
and it's cut to the desired size and shape. Examples of solid timber include pine, oak, and
maple.

Man-made boards, also known as engineered wood, are made from small pieces of
wood or waste wood that are bonded together with adhesives, heat and pressure to form
a solid piece of wood. This process allows to make use of small pieces of wood that would
otherwise be wasted and also allows to create different properties that solid wood
cannot provide. Examples of man-made boards include plywood, medium-density
fibreboard (MDF), particleboard, and chipboard.

Solid Timber Man-made Boards

Obtained from a single Made from small pieces of wood or waste
piece of wood (log or wood bonded together with adhesives, heat
plank) and pressure
Natural appearance, Consistent in appearance and density
variations in color and
grain
Can be more expensive Less expensive than solid timber
than man-made boards
More stable and less likely Less stable, more likely to warp or bend
to warp or bend
Can be sanded and Can be sanded and finished but not as many
finished multiple times times as solid timber
Examples: Pine, Oak, Examples: Plywood, MDF, Particleboard,
Maple Chipboard
Comparism of Solid Timber and Man-Made Boards
In general, products made from solid timber tend to be heavier in weight compared to products
made from man-made boards. This is because solid wood is a denser material than man-made
boards which are made from small pieces of wood or waste wood that are bonded together
with adhesives, heat and pressure. The weight of a product made from solid wood will depend
on the specific type of wood used, as some types of wood are denser than others.

On the other hand, products made from man-made boards tend to be lighter in weight
compared to products made from solid timber. This is because man-made boards are less dense
than solid wood and also can be engineered to have a specific density.

In terms of flexibility, products made from solid timber tend to be less flexible compared to
products made from man-made boards. This is because solid wood is a natural material that is
less homogeneous than man-made boards. Man-made boards are made from small pieces of
wood or waste wood that are bonded together with adhesives, heat and pressure, which makes
them more homogeneous and consistent in their properties.

Solid Timber Man-made Boards

Heavier in weight Lighter in weight
Less flexible More flexible
Natural variations in density Consistent density due to
manufacturing process
Can be more expensive than Less expensive than solid timber
man-made boards
Examples: Pine, Oak, Maple Examples: Plywood, MDF,
Particleboard, Chipboard
 Metals
A metal is a chemical element that is typically characterized by being shiny and metallic
in appearance, being solid at room temperature (with the exception of mercury, which is
a liquid), and having good electrical and thermal conductivity.

Most metals are also malleable and ductile, meaning they can be bent or shaped without
breaking. They are also good conductors of heat and electricity, which makes them useful
in a wide range of applications.

Some common examples of metals include copper, aluminum, iron, gold, and silver.

How metals are obtained

Metals are typically obtained through mining and processing of mineral ores.
The raw ore is extracted from the earth and then typically undergoes a series of crushing,
grinding, and separation processes to separate the metal-bearing minerals from the rest
of the material.
The ore is then further refined through processes such as smelting and/or electrolysis to
purify the metal and remove impurities.
Depending on the type of metal, different processes may be used for extraction and
refining.

Products made from each category of metals

Ferrous metals:
 Machine parts, such as gears, bearings, and structural components
 Nails, screws and other fasteners
 Hand tools, such as hammers, wrenches, and pliers
 Automotive parts, such as engine blocks, gearboxes and suspension systems
 Construction materials, such as steel beams and reinforcing bars

Non-ferrous metals:
 Kitchen cooking utensils, such as copper pots and pans
 Window frames, door knobs and other architectural fittings made of brass or
bronze
 Electrical wires and cables, made of copper or aluminum
 Automotive parts, such as radiators and catalytic converters
 Coins, jewelry, and other decorative items made of gold, silver, and other precious
metals.
 Alloys:
 Sculptures and statues, made of bronze (copper alloy) or brass (zinc alloy)
 Ornaments and other decorative items, made of various alloys of gold and silver
 Aircraft and spacecraft parts, made of alloys such as titanium and aluminum
 Dental fillings and crowns, made of alloys such as gold and silver alloy
 Weaponry, made of alloys such as steel and nickel alloy

Smart metals:
 Shape memory alloy (SMA) for applications such as actuators, medical devices, and
robotics
 Nitinol (Nickel-Titanium alloy) for applications such as implantable medical
devices, stents, and orthodontic wires
 Magnesium alloys for aerospace, automotive, and biomedical applications
 Bimetallic strips for thermostats and other temperature control applications

Materials used for building under natural and man-made

Natural materials used for building include:

 Stone (such as granite, limestone, and sandstone)
 Timber (such as pine, cedar, and redwood)
 Clay (used for making bricks and ceramics)
 Sand (used in making concrete and glass)
 Earth (such as adobe and cob)

Man-made materials used for building include:

 Concrete (made from cement, water, and aggregate)
 Steel (used for structural support and as a building material)
 Glass (used for windows and skylights)
 Plastics (used for various building components such as pipes and insulation)
 Brick (made from clay or cement)
 Asbestos (formerly used as insulation)
 Rebar (steel reinforcement used in concrete)
 Lumber (treated wood used for framing, decks and other exterior application)
 Drywall (gypsum board used for interior walls and ceilings)
Sources of the natural building materials
 Stone is obtained from quarries, mines or as fieldstones.
 Timber is obtained from forests and logging operations.
 Clay is obtained from the earth, typically from deposits found near bodies of water.
 Sand is obtained from pits, river banks, sea, and desert regions.
 Earth is obtained from soil on the site where the building is constructed.
 Some natural materials such as straw, bamboo, and cork are also used for building, but
these are typically obtained through farming or harvesting operations.
 Limestone is obtained through mining or quarrying operations.
 Granite is obtained from granite quarries, and it is a hard igneous rock which is widely
used for construction and decorative purposes.
 Marbles are obtained from marble quarries, and it is a metamorphic rock composed of
recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite.
 Slates are obtained from slate mines, and it is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock
that is created by the alteration of shale or mudstone by low-grade regional
metamorphism.
 Sandstone is obtained from sandstone quarries, and it is a sedimentary rock composed
mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains.
 Bamboo is obtained from bamboo forests, and it is a fast-growing and renewable
resource that is used for construction, flooring, and furniture.
 Straw is obtained from cereal crops like wheat, barley, oats, and rye, and it is used for
insulation and as a building material in straw bale construction.
 Cork is obtained from the bark of cork oak trees, and it is used for flooring, insulation,
and as a sustainable building material.