‭ niversity of Guyana‬

U
‭Faculty of Engineering & Technology‬
‭Department of Petroleum Engineering‬

‭MEC1117: Fluid MECHANICS FOR‬

‭PETROLEUM TECHNICIANS‬

‭Lecturer: Mr. Anil James‬

‭Experiment: #1‬
‭Osborne Reynolds‬‭’‬
 ‭Project Members‬

‭Names‬ ‭USI‬

‭Irshaad Ali‬ ‭1043236‬

‭Aaron Benn‬ ‭1045229‬

‭Shania Foo‬ ‭1044407‬

‭Serena John‬ ‭1034502‬

‭Tristan Richards‬ ‭1043674‬

‭Rayanna Ward‬ ‭1045611‬

‭Labron Cummings‬ ‭1045667‬

‭Tyresse Phillips‬ ‭1044990‬

‭ ate of Submission‬
D
‭November 28, 2022‬
‭Aim‬‭: To illustrate laminar, transitional, and fully turbulent flows in a pipe and to determine‬
‭under which conditions each flow regime occurs.‬

‭Introduction:‬

‭In nature and in laboratory experiments, flow may occur under two very different regimes:‬
‭laminar and turbulent. In laminar flows, fluid particles move in layers, sliding over each‬
‭other, causing a small energy exchange to occur between layers. Laminar flow occurs in‬
‭fluids with high viscosity, moving at slow velocity. The turbulent flow, on the other hand, is‬
‭characterised by random movements and intermixing of fluid particles, with a great exchange‬
‭of energy throughout the fluid. This type of flow occurs in fluids with low viscosity and high‬
‭velocity. The dimensionless Reynolds number is used to classify the state of flow. The‬
‭Reynolds Number Demonstration is a classic experiment, based on visualising flow‬
‭behaviour by slowly and steadily injecting dye into a pipe. This experiment was first‬
‭performed by Osborne Reynolds in the late nineteenth century.‬

‭Equipment:‬
‭●‬ ‭F1-10 hydraulics bench‬
‭●‬ ‭The F1-20 Reynolds demonstration apparatus‬
‭●‬ ‭Cylinder‬
‭●‬ ‭Stopwatch‬
‭●‬ ‭Thermometer‬

‭Method:‬
‭1. The Reynolds’ apparatus was positioned on a fixed, vibration free surface. It was ensured‬
‭that the base was horizontal and the test section was vertical.‬

‭2. The bench outflow was connected to the head tank inlet pipe.‬

‭3. The head tank overflow tube was placed in the volumetric tank of the hydraulics bench.‬
‭4. A small tube was attached to the apparatus flow control valve and clamped to a fixed‬
‭position in a sink in the lab, allowing enough space below the end of the tube for a measuring‬
‭cylinder to be inserted.‬

‭5. The pump was started. The apparatus flow control valve and the bench valve was slightly‬
‭opened and the head tank was allowed to fill with water. It was ensured that the flow‬
‭visualisation pipe was properly filled. Once the water level in the head tank reached the‬
‭overflow tube, the bench control valve was adjusted to produce a low overflow rate.‬

‭6. It was ensured that the dye control valve was closed, the blue dye was added to the dye‬
‭reservoir until it was about 2/3 full.‬

‭7. The needle was attached, the dye assembly was held over a lab sink and the valve was‬
‭opened to ensure that there was a free flow of dye.‬

‭8. The dye control valve was closed, then the dye injector was mounted on the head tank and‬
‭the injector was lowered until the tip of the needle was slightly above the bellmouth and‬
‭centred on its axis.‬

‭9. The bench valve and flow control valve was adjusted to return the overflow rate to a small‬
‭amount, and the apparatus was allowed to stand for at least five minutes‬

‭10.The flow control valve was adjusted to reach a slow trickle outflow, then the dye control‬
‭valve was adjusted until a slow flow with clear dye indication was achieved.‬

‭11. The flow volumetric rate was measured by timed water collection.‬

‭12. The flow patterns were observed and pictures were taken to classify the flow regime.‬

‭13. The flow rate was increased by opening the flow control valve. The experiment was‬
‭repeated to visualise transitional flow and then, at higher flow rates, turbulent flow, as‬
‭characterised by continuous and very rapid mixing of the dye. Each flow regime was‬
‭observed two times, for a total of six readings.‬
‭14. As the flow rate increases, the bench valve was adjusted to keep the water level constant‬
‭in the head tank.‬

‭15. The water temperature was measured‬

‭16. The remaining dye was returned to the storage container. The dye reservoir was rinsed‬
‭thoroughly to ensure that no dye was left in the valve, injector, or needle.‬
‭Results‬

‭Table 1 showing raw data collected during the lab‬

‭ bserved Flow‬
O ‭Volume (L)‬ ‭Time (s)‬ ‭Temperature (‬‭0‭C
‬
)‬
‭Regime‬

‭Laminar‬ ‭0.09‬ ‭21.82‬ ‭30.5‬

‭Laminar‬ ‭0.09‬ ‭22.36‬ ‭30.5‬

‭Transitional‬ ‭0.09‬ ‭7.85‬ ‭30.5‬

‭Transitional‬ ‭0.09‬ ‭6.01‬ ‭30.5‬

‭Turbulent‬ ‭0.09‬ ‭3.80‬ ‭30.5‬

‭Turbulent‬ ‭0.09‬ ‭3.53‬ ‭30.5‬

‭Table 2 showing results from the respective calculations‬

‭ bserved‬
O ‭Discharge‬ ‭ elocity‬
V ‭ inematic‬
K ‭ eynold’s‬
R ‭ low‬
F
‭Flow‬ ‭3‬ ‭v(m/sec)‬ ‭Viscosity‬ ‭Number‬ ‭Regime‬
‭Q(m‬ ‭/sec)‬
‭Regime‬ ‭v‬‭(m‬‭2‬‭/s)‬ ‭classified‬
‭using‬
‭Reynold’s‬
‭Number‬

‭Laminar‬ ‭4.214*10‬‭-6‬ ‭0.0525‬ ‭7.240*10‬‭-7‬ ‭725.138‬ ‭Laminar‬

‭Laminar‬ ‭4.025*10‬‭-6‬ ‭0.05124‬ ‭7.240*10‬‭-7‬ ‭707.734‬ ‭Laminar‬

‭Transitional‬ ‭1.1464*10‬‭-5‬ ‭0.1459‬ ‭7.240*10‬‭-7‬ ‭2015.193‬ ‭Transitional‬

‭Transitional‬ ‭1.4975*10‬‭-5‬ ‭0.18780‬ ‭7.240*10‬‭-7‬ ‭2593.922‬ ‭Transitional‬

‭Turbulent‬ ‭2.368*10‬‭-5‬ ‭0.3015‬ ‭7.240*10‬‭-7‬ ‭4164.364‬ ‭Turbulent‬

‭Turbulent‬ ‭2.5495*10‬‭-5‬ ‭0.3246‬ ‭7.240*10‬‭-7‬ ‭4483.425‬ ‭Turbulent‬

‭Photos And Description Of The Flow Characteristics Of Each Experimental Run‬

‭LAMINAR FLOW‬

‭Figure 1 showing laminar flow. Source: Group members‬

‭Characteristics of Laminar Flow‬

‭Laminar flow is characterised by smooth or regular paths of particles of the fluid. For laminar‬
‭flow, fluid particles move in straight lines. Layers of fluid flow over one another at different‬
‭speeds with virtually no mixing between layers.‬

‭The laminar flow is also referred to as streamline or viscous flow.‬‭When the viscous forces‬
‭are dominant (slow flow, low Re), they are sufficient to keep all the fluid particles in line.‬

‭This type of flow occurs typically at lower speeds, and the fluid tends to flow without lateral‬
‭mixing.‬‭Laminar flow occurs at Re < 2000. Usually,‬‭a low-velocity flow is required, but this‬
‭also depends on the size of an object.‬
 ‭TRANSITIONAL FLOW‬

‭Figure 2 showing transitional flow. Source: Group members‬

‭Characteristics of Transitional Flow‬

‭ ransitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the centre of‬
T
‭the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. When this occurs the fluid is transitioning between‬
‭laminar and turbulent flow.‬

‭ ransitional flow at Reynolds numbers‬‭between about‬‭2000 and 4000 the flow is unstable as a‬
T
‭result of the onset of turbulence‬
 ‭TURBULENT FLOW‬

‭Figure 3 showing turbulent flow. Source: Group members‬

‭Characteristics of Turbulent Flow‬

‭Turbulence is characterised by i‬‭rregular movement‬‭and‬‭intermixing of fluid particles with a‬

‭great exchange of energy throughout the fluid.‬

‭Turbulent flows happen in higher velocities and‬‭low‬‭viscosity.‬‭The flow velocity profile for‬
‭turbulent flow is fairly flat across the centre section of a pipe and drops rapidly extremely‬
‭close to the walls‬

‭If the Reynolds number is greater than Re > 3500, the flow is turbulent.‬
‭Analysis of Data‬

‭Diameter of test pipe (d) =‬‭0‬. ‭010‬‭‬‭𝑚‬

−‭5‬ ‭2‬
‭Cross Sectional Area of test pipe (A) =‬‭7‬. ‭854×‬‭10‬ ‭𝑚‬

−‭07‬ ‭2‬
‭Kinematic Viscosity at 35°C =‬‭7‬. ‭240×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭/‬‭𝑠‬
‭3‬ ‭3‬
‭𝑚𝑙‬ ‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑚𝑙‬ ‭6‬ ‭𝑚‬
‭Conversion Ratio for‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭‬‭→‬ ‭𝑠‬ = ‭1‬ ‭𝑠‬
→ ‭1‬. ‭0×‬‭10‬ ‭𝑠‬

‭Equations to be used‬‭:‬

‭𝑣𝑑‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ ‭𝑉‬

‭ ‬
𝑉
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝑡‬

‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝐴𝑣‬
‭Laminar Flow‬
‭A flow is considered laminar when the Re number of that flow is less than 2000‬

‭ ‭s‬t‬ ‭timing – 21.82 s‬

1

‭ ‬
𝑉
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝑡‬

‭90‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙‬ −‭1‬
‭𝑄‬ = ‭‬ ‭21‬.‭82‬‭‬‭𝑠‬ = ‭4‬. ‭214‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬
−‭1‬
‭4‬.‭214‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬ −‭6‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭6‬ = ‭4‬. ‭214×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭1‬.‭0×‬‭10‬

‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝐴𝑣‬
‭𝑄‬
‭∴‬ ‭𝐴‬ = ‭𝑣‬
−‭6‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭4‬.‭124×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬ −‭1‬
−‭5‬ ‭2‬ = ‭0‬. ‭0525‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
‭7‬.‭854×‬‭10‬ ‭‭𝑚
‬ ‬

‭𝑣𝑑‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ ‭𝑉‬
−‭1‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ [ ][‭0.‬‭010‬‭‭𝑚
‭0‬.‭0525‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬ ‬ ‬]
−‭07‬ ‭2‬ −‭1‬ = ‭725‬. ‭138‬
‭7‬.‭240×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬

‭ ‭n‬ d‬ ‭timing – 22.36‬

2

‭ ‬
𝑉
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝑡‬

‭90‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙‬ −‭1‬
‭𝑄‬ = ‭‬ ‭22‬.‭36‬‭‬‭𝑠‬ = ‭4‬. ‭025‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬
−‭1‬
‭4‬.‭025‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬ −‭6‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭6‬ = ‭4‬. ‭025‬ × ‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭1‬.‭0×‬‭10‬
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝐴𝑣‬
‭𝑄‬
‭∴‬ ‭𝐴‬ = ‭𝑣‬
−‭6‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭4‬.‭025‬×‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬ −‭1‬
−‭5‬ ‭2‬ = ‭0‬. ‭05124‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
‭7‬.‭854×‬‭10‬ ‭‭𝑚
‬ ‬

‭𝑣𝑑‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ ‭𝑉‬
−‭1‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ [ ][‭0.‬‭010‬‭‬‭𝑚]‬ = ‭707‬. ‭734‬
‭0‬.‭05124‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
−‭07‬ ‭2‬ −‭1‬
‭7‬.‭240×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭Transitional Flow‬
‭ ‬‭flow‬‭is‬‭considered‬‭transitional‬‭when‬‭the‬‭Re‬‭number‬‭of‬‭that‬‭flow‬‭is‬‭more‬‭than‬‭2000‬‭but‬‭less‬
A
‭than 4000‬

‭1st timing – 7.85 s‬

‭ ‬
𝑉
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝑡‬

‭90‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙‬ −‭1‬
‭𝑄‬ = ‭‬ ‭7.‬‭85‬‭‬‭𝑠‬ = ‭11‬. ‭464‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬
−‭1‬
‭11‬.‭464‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬ −‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭6‬ = ‭1‬. ‭1464‬ × ‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭1.‬‭0×‬‭10‬

‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝐴𝑣‬
‭𝑄‬
‭∴‬ ‭𝐴‬ = ‭𝑣‬
−‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭1‬.‭1464‬×‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬ −‭1‬
−‭5‬ ‭2‬ = ‭0.‬ ‭1459‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
‭7.‬‭854×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬

‭𝑣𝑑‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ ‭𝑉‬
−‭1‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ [ ][‭0.‬‭010‬‭‭𝑚
‭0‬.‭1459‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬ ‬ ‬]
−‭07‬ ‭2‬ −‭1‬ = ‭2015‬. ‭193‬
‭7‬.‭240×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬

‭ ‬‭nd‬ ‭timing – 6.01 s‬

2
‭ ‬
𝑉
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝑡‬

‭90‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙‬ −‭1‬
‭𝑄‬ = ‭‬ ‭6.‬‭01‬‭‬‭𝑠‬ = ‭14‬. ‭975‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬
−‭1‬
‭14‬.‭975‬‭‭𝑚
‬ 𝑙𝑠‬ −‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭6‬ = ‭1‬. ‭4975‬ × ‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭1‬.‭0×‬‭10‬

‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝐴𝑣‬
‭𝑄‬
‭∴‬ ‭𝐴‬ = ‭𝑣‬
 −‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭1‬.‭475‬‭‬×‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬ −‭1‬
−‭5‬ ‭2‬ = ‭0‬. ‭18780‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
‭7‬.‭854×‬‭10‬ ‭‭𝑚
‬ ‬

‭𝑣𝑑‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ ‭𝑉‬
−‭1‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ [ ][‭0.‬‭010‬‭‬‭𝑚]‬ = ‭2593‬. ‭922‬
‭0‬.‭18780‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
−‭07‬ ‭2‬ −‭1‬
‭7‬.‭240×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭Turbulent‬
‭A flow is considered laminar when the Re number of that flow is more than 4000‬

‭ ‭s‬t‬ ‭timing – 3.80 s‬

1
‭ ‬
𝑉
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝑡‬

‭90‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙‬ −‭1‬
‭𝑄‬ = ‭‬ ‭3.‬‭80‬‭‬‭𝑠‬ = ‭23‬. ‭684‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬
−‭1‬
‭23‬.‭684‬‭‭𝑚
‬ 𝑙𝑠‬ −‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭6‬ = ‭2‬. ‭368‬ × ‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭1‬.‭0×‬‭10‬

‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝐴𝑣‬
‭𝑄‬
‭∴‬ ‭𝐴‬ = ‭𝑣‬
−‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭2‬.‭368‬‭‬×‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬ −‭1‬
−‭5‬ ‭2‬ = ‭0‬. ‭3015‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
‭7‬.‭854×‬‭10‬ ‭‭𝑚
‬ ‬

‭𝑣𝑑‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ ‭𝑉‬
−‭1‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ [ ][‭0.‬‭010‬‭‭𝑚
‭0‬.‭3015‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬ ‬ ‬]
−‭07‬ ‭2‬ −‭1‬ = ‭4164‬. ‭364‬
‭7‬.‭240×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬

‭ ‬‭nd‬ ‭timing – 3.53 s‬

2
‭ ‬
𝑉
‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝑡‬

‭90‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙‬ −‭1‬
‭𝑄‬ = ‭‬ ‭3.‬‭53‬‭𝑠‬ = ‭25‬. ‭495‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑙𝑠‬
−‭1‬
‭25‬.‭495‬‭‭𝑚
‬ 𝑙𝑠‬ −‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭6‬ = ‭2‬. ‭5495‬ × ‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭1‬.‭0×‬‭10‬

‭𝑄‬ = ‭𝐴𝑣‬
‭𝑄‬
‭∴‬ ‭𝐴‬ = ‭𝑣‬
−‭5‬ ‭3‬ −‭1‬
‭2‬.‭5495‬‭×
‬ ‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬ −‭1‬
−‭5‬ ‭2‬ = ‭0‬. ‭3246‬‭‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
‭7.‬‭854×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬
 ‭𝑣𝑑‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ ‭𝑉‬
−‭1‬
‭𝑅𝑒‬ = ‭‬ [ ][‭0.‬‭010‬‭‬‭𝑚]‬ = ‭4483‬. ‭425‬
‭0‬.‭3246‬‭𝑚𝑠‬
−‭07‬ ‭2‬ −‭1‬
‭7‬.‭240×‬‭10‬ ‭‬‭𝑚‬ ‭𝑠‬
‭Discussion‬
‭Answer to questions‬

‭Question 1: How is the flow pattern of each of the three states of flow (laminar, transitional,‬
‭and turbulent) different?‬
‭To see the flow's characteristics, dye was injected through a glass tube. Figure 1 depicts how‬
‭the flow appeared to travel in a straight line at low speeds (with some blurring from dye‬
‭diffusion). Figure 2 illustrates the dye fluctuating as flow speed is increased and intermittent‬
‭bursts are seen. The dye blurs and appears to fill the entire pipe as the flow rate is further‬
‭increased, as shown in Figure 3. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows are what we refer‬
‭to as these. It is also found that a flow in a pipe is laminar if the Reynolds number (based on‬
‭the diameter of the pipe) is less than 2100 and turbulent if it is greater than 4000. Transitional‬
‭Flow prevails between these two limits. However, it should be noted that laminar flow has‬
‭been maintained under carefully controlled circumstances at very high Reynolds numbers.‬
‭Laminar flows are smooth and streamlined, while turbulent flows are erratic and chaotic,‬
‭contrary to transitional flows, which are a combination of laminar and turbulent flows, with‬
‭turbulence in the center of the pipe and laminar flow near the edges.‬

‭Question 2: Does the observed flow condition occur within the expected Reynold’s number‬
‭range for that condition?‬
‭The observed flow for each type of flow occurred within the expected Reynold’s number‬
‭range for that condition. Laminar flow is said to be when Reynold’s number is less than‬
‭2000 or Re < 2000. Reynold’s number for laminar flow calculated from the two recorded‬
‭timings are, 𝑅𝑒 = 725. 138 and 𝑅𝑒 = 707. 734 respectively. The transitional flow would be‬
‭when Reynold’s number is greater than 2000 but less than 4000 or 2000 < Re <4000.‬
‭Reynold’s number for transitional flow calculated from the two recorded timings are, 𝑅𝑒 =‬
‭2015. 193 and 𝑅𝑒 = 2593. 922 respectively. Lastly, turbulent flow is when Reynold’s number‬
‭is greater than 4000 or Re > 4000. Reynold’s number for turbulent flow calculated from the‬
‭two recorded timings are, 𝑅𝑒 = 4164. 364 and 𝑅𝑒 = 4483. 425 respectively. After completing‬
‭the appropriate calculations, the observed flows did occur within the expected Reynold’s‬
‭number range for each condition.‬
‭Question 3: Discuss your observation and any source of error in the calculation of the‬
‭number.‬
‭The laminar flow occurs when the fluid is flowing slowly and the turbulent flow occurs‬
‭when it is flowing fast. In transitional flow, the flow switches between laminar and‬
‭turbulent in a disorderly fashion. As the water flow rate increase, the Reynolds number‬
‭calculated also increases, and the dye line changes from a thin thread to a swirling‬
‭shape. It was proved that the Reynolds equation is dimensionless. A specific source of error‬
‭was not found while calculating the number. However, one can be identified in the‬
‭conducting of the lab directly. The tube through which the dye flowed was slightly foggy, so‬
‭a clear view of the flow was difficult to see.‬

‭ uestion 4: Compare the experimental results with any theoretical studies you have‬
Q
‭undertaken.‬

‭After collecting the experimental results and comparing them with some theoretical studies,‬
‭from that it show that when the turbulent flow has a rise velocity and the shape of the bubble‬
‭as well as the thickness of the film and the wall shear stress are in agreement. From the‬
‭information found it states that the laminar flow travels smoothly on the path (as is shown in‬
‭the image collected), in contrast with turbulent flow which would make the fluid undergo‬
‭irregular fluctuations and mixing.‬
‭Conclusion‬

‭In completing this experiment, the experimenters were able to successfully differentiate‬
‭between the laminar, transitional and turbulent flow patterns and identify the necessary‬
‭conditions for them to be present. The essential factor that determines the various flow‬
‭patterns is velocity at which the fluid flows. Low velocity allows for a steady, calm flow‬
‭represented by laminar flow and an increased velocity allows for a more rapid flow‬
‭represented by the turbulent flow pattern.‬
‭References‬

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