EC 441 Data Acquisition and Control-I

Lecture-2

Static Characteristics of Measurement Elements

Dr. Nizar Khemri

Fall 2024
 What is a measurement System?

Input Output
Process True value of Measurement System Measurement value of
variable variable

Slide 2
 Static Characteristics of Elements

Input I Output O
Element

• These are the relationships which may occur between the output O and input I of an
element when I is either at a constant value or changing slowly
Systematic characteristics Statistical characteristics
Range Repeatability
Span Tolerance
Non-linearity Uncertainty
Sensitivity
Environmental Effects
Hysteresis
Resolution
Wear and Ageing Slide 3
 Systematic Characteristics
• Range
• Input range IMIN to IMAX
• Output range OMIN to OMAX
• Span
• Input maximum variation = IMAX - IMIN
• Output maximum variation = OMAX – OMIN
• Linearity
• Values of I and O lie on a straight line
• The ideal straight line connects the minimum point A(IMIN, OMIN ) to maximum point B(IMAX, OMAX)
• So, the equation is:
𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝑂 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁

𝑶𝑰𝑫𝑬𝑨𝑳 = 𝑲𝑰 + 𝒂

Slide 4
 Systematic Characteristics
• Range
• Input range IMIN to IMAX
• Output range OMIN to OMAX
• Span
• Input maximum variation = IMAX - IMIN
• Output maximum variation = OMAX – OMIN
• Linearity
• Values of I and O lie on a straight line
• The ideal straight line connects the minimum point A(IMIN, OMIN ) to maximum point B(IMAX, OMAX)
• So, the equation is:
𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝑂 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁 Measurement Element
𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁
𝑂𝐼𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐿 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎
I K +
O
𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝑂𝑀𝐼𝑁 +
𝐾= = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = tan Ѳ
𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁
a
𝑎 is the line zero crossing
Slide 5
 Systematic Characteristics

Example: A pressure transducer may have an input range of 0 to 104 Pa and

an output range of 4 to 20 mA. Determine the ideal straight line.
- Input range: 0 to 104 Pa
- Output range: 4 to 20 mA

𝑂 = 1.6 × 10−3 𝐼 + 4.0

However, in many cases the straight-line relationship is not obeyed and

the element is said to be non-linear.

Slide 6
 Systematic Characteristics

• Non-Linearity
• Defined as the relationship between O and I that deviates from the ideal straight line
• Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N(I ) which is
N(I ) = O(I ) − (KI + a) or O(I ) = KI + a + N(I)

Slide 7
 Systematic Characteristics

• Non-Linearity
• Defined as a relationship between O and I that deviates from an ideal straight line
• Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N(I ) which is

O(I ) = KI + a + N(I)

Measurement Element

I K + +
O
+ +
N( )
a
Slide 8
 Systematic Characteristics

• Non-linearity Quantification
• Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the maximum non-linearity ; expressed
as a percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of span

Slide 9
 Systematic Characteristics
• Non-linearity Quantification
• In many cases O(I ) and therefore N(I ) can be expressed as a polynomial in I:
𝑂 𝐼 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1𝐼 + 𝑎2𝐼2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑞𝐼𝑞 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝐼𝑚 = σ 𝑚𝑞=0 𝑎𝑞𝐼𝑞
• Copper-constant thermocouple junction (type T)
E(T) = 38.74T + 3.319 × 10-2T2 + 2.071 × 10-4T3− 2.195 × 10-6T4+ HOT

(for the range 0 to 400 °C and E = 0 μV at T = 0 °C and E = 20,869 μV at T = 400 °C)

➔ EIDEAL = 52.17T
N(T ) = E(T ) − EIDEAL
= −13.43T + 3.319 × 10−2T 2 + 2.071 × 10−4T 3− 2.195 × 10−6T 4 + HOT

• Other than polynomials, some other expressions may be more appropriate in some cases, for example the resistance
R(T) ohms of a thermistor at T °C is given by:
3300
𝑅 𝑇 = 0.04 × 𝑒 𝑇+273

See problems 2.1 & 2.2

Slide 10
 Systematic Characteristics
• Sensitivity
• is the change in output for unit change in input
∆𝑂 𝑑𝑂
lim =
∆𝐼⟶0 ∆𝐼 𝑑𝐼
• For linear elements, sensitivity is the slope or the gradient K
• For nonlinear elements sensitivity is
𝑑𝑂 𝑑𝑁
=𝐾+
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼

Thermocouple
sensitivity

Slide 11
 Systematic Characteristics
• Environmental Effects Ambient Temperature Relative Humidity

▪ Modifying input IM
▪ Interfering input II I Element O

• Modifying input IM : affects sensitivity

K → K + KM IM
• Where KM is the change in slope for unit change in IM Atmospheric pressure Supply voltage

Slide 12
 Systematic Characteristics

• Environmental Effects
• Interfering input II : affects zero bias a
a → a + KI II 𝑶𝑰𝑫𝑬𝑨𝑳 = 𝑲𝑰 + 𝒂

• Where KI is the change in zero bias for unit change in II

Notes:
• KM & KI are called environmental
coupling constants or
sensitivities
• A given environment input can
be modifying input or interfering
input or both types

Slide 13
 Systematic Characteristics
▪ Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is a measure of the dependence of an element on its input history or its past input
• The output can be different depending on past information of I (decreasing or increasing)
𝐻 𝐼 =𝑂 𝐼 𝐼 ↓ −𝑂 𝐼 𝐼 ↑

• Again, hysteresis is usually quantified in terms of the maximum hysteresis 𝑯෡expressed as a

percentage of f.s.d., i.e. span. Thus:

Slide 14
 Systematic Characteristics

▪ Hysteresis

Gear Backlash or Play

Slide 15
 Systematic Characteristics

▪ Resolution
• defined as the largest change in I that can occur without any corresponding change in O
• A common example is a wire-wound potentiometer:

∆𝐼𝑅
× 100%
• resolution expressed as a percentage of f.s.d. is thus 𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋 − 𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑁
Slide 16
 Systematic Characteristics

• Wear and Ageing

• As an element is used over time, its sensitivity k and/or a parameters change with time

Examples:
• stiffness of a spring
K(t) = k0 - bt
• a1,a2,… for thermocouple equation

Slide 17
 Systematic Characteristics
▪ Error Bands
• Is used by manufactures to some up small effects of nonlinearity + hysteresis + resolution
• The output O is specified as lying between
OIDEAL - h and OIDEAL+ h ➔ OIDEAL ± h

Slide 18
 Systematic Characteristics
• Generalized Model
• If hysteresis and resolution effects are not present in an element but environmental and
non-linear effects are
• Then, the relationship between O and I becomes:
𝑂 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑀𝐼𝑀𝐼 + 𝐾𝐼 𝐼𝐼

Measurement Element

Ideal Actual Slide 19

 Systematic Characteristics

Examples:

• The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of 100 Ω and gauge factor of 2 (Section 8.2)
• Non-linearity and dynamic effects can be neglected
• Resistance of the gauge is affected by ambient temperature as well as strain
• Here, temperature acts as both a modifying and an interfering input, i.e. it affects both gauge
sensitivity and resistance at zero strain
Slide 20
 Systematic Characteristics

Examples:

• Copper–constantan thermocouple between 0 and 400 °C.

• for ideal straight-line EIDEAL = 52.17T
• for non-linear correction functions
N(T ) = E(T ) − EIDEAL= −13.43T + 3.319 × 10−2T 2 + 2.071 × 10−4T 3− 2.195 × 10−6T 4 + HOT

• The dynamics are represented by a first-order transfer function of time Constant 10 seconds (Chapters
4 and 14) Ref Slide 21
 Systematic Characteristics
Examples:

• An accelerometer with a linear sensitivity of 0.36 mVm−1s2 and negligible non-linearity

• Any transverse acceleration aT , i.e. any acceleration perpendicular to that being measured,
acts as an interfering input
• The dynamics are represented by a second-order transfer function with a natural frequency of
250 Hz and damping coefficient of 0.7
Slide 22