SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,

Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

NUMBER SYSTEM

A Number system is a method of showing numbers by writing, which is a mathematical

way of representing the numbers of a given set, by using the numbers or symbols in a
mathematical manner. The writing system for denoting numbers using digits or
symbols in a logical manner is defined as a Number system.

Types of Number Systems

Based on the base value and the number of allowed digits, number systems are of many types.
The four common types of Number System are:
 Binary Number System
 Decimal Number System
 Octal Number System
 Hexadecimal Number System

Binary Number System

Number System with base value 2 is termed as Binary number system. It uses 2 digits i.e. 0 and 1
for the creation of numbers. The numbers formed using these two digits are termed Binary
Numbers. The binary number system is very useful in electronic devices and computer systems
because it can be easily performed using just two states ON and OFF i.e. 0 and 1.
Decimal Numbers 0-9 are represented in binary as: 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, and
1001
For example, 14 can be written as 1110, 19 can be written as 10011, 50 can be written as
110010.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Example of 19 in the binary system

2 19

2 9 1
2 4 1
2 2 0
2 1 0
2 0 1

Here 19 can be written as 10011

advantages
Logic operations are the backbone of any digital computer, although solving a problem on
computer could involve an arithmetic operation too. The introduction of the mathematics of logic
by George Boole laid the foundation for the modern digital computer. He reduced the
mathematics of logic to a binary notation of ‘0’ and ‘1’.
Another advantage of this number system was that all kind of data could be conveniently
represented in terms of 0s and 1s.
Also basic electronic devices used for hardware implementation could be conveniently and
efficiently operated in two distinctly different modes.

Decimal Number System

Number system with a base value of 10 is termed a Decimal number system. It uses 10 digits i.e.
0-9 for the creation of numbers. Here, each digit in the number is at a specific place with place
value a product of different powers of 10. Here, the place value is termed from right to left as
first place value called units, second to the left as Tens, so on Hundreds, Thousands, etc.
Here, units have the place value as 100, tens have the place value as 101, hundreds as 102,
thousands as 103, and so on.
For example, 10264 has place values as,
(1 × 104) + (0 × 103) + (2 × 102) + (6 × 101) + (4 × 100)
= 1 × 10000 + 0 × 1000 + 2 × 100 + 6 × 10 + 4 × 1
= 10000 + 0 + 200 + 60 + 4
= 10264
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Octal Number System

Octal Number System is one in which the base value is 8. It uses 8 digits i.e. 0-7 for the creation
of Octal Numbers. Octal Numbers can be converted to Decimal values by multiplying each digit
with the place value and then adding the result. Here the place values are 8 0, 81, and 82. Octal
Numbers are useful for the representation of UTF8 Numbers. Example,

(135)10 can be written as (207)8

(215)10 can be written as (327)8

Hexadecimal Number System

Number System with base value 16 is termed as Hexadecimal Number System. It uses 16 digits
for the creation of its numbers. Digits from 0-9 are taken like the digits in the decimal
number system but the digits from 10-15 are represented as A-F i.e. 10 is represented as A,
11 as B, 12 as C, 13 as D, 14 as E, and 15 as F. Hexadecimal Numbers are useful for handling
memory address locations. The hexadecimal number system provides a condensed way of
representing large binary numbers stored and processed. Examples,
(255)10 can be written as (FF)16
(1096)10 can be written as (448)16
(4090)10 can be written as (FFA)16

HEXADECIMAL 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

DECIMAL 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Sample Problems

Question 1: Convert (19)10 as a binary number?

Solution:

2 19 1
2 9 1
2 4 0
2 2 0
1
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Collect remainders from bottom to top we will get 10011 which is binary representation of
decimal number 10.
Therefore (19)10 = (10011)2

Question 2: Convert 3258 into a decimal?

Solution:
3258 = 3 × 82 + 2 × 81 + 5 × 80
= 3 × 64 + 2 × 8 + 5 × 1
= 192 + 16 + 5
= 21310
Question 3: Convert (2056)16 into an octal number?
Solution:
Here (2056)16 is in hexadecimal form
First we will convert into decimal form from hexadecimal.
(2056)16 = 2 × 163 + 0 × 162 + 5 × 161 + 6 × 160
= 2 × 4096 + 0 + 80 + 6
= 8192 + 0 + 80 + 6
= (8278)10
Now convert this decimal number into octal number by dividing it by 8

So will take the value of remainder from 20126

(8278)10 = ( 20126)8
Therefore, ( 2056 )16 = ( 20126 )8
Question 4: Convert (101110)2 into octal number.
Solution:
Given (101110)2 a binary number, to convert it into octal number
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

OCTAL NUMBER BINARY NUMBER

0 000

1 001

2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

Using the above table we can write given number as,

101 110 i,e.
101 = 5
110 = 6
So (101110)2 in octal number is (56)8
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Binary Operations:

Binary Addition is a base-2 number system that uses two states 0 and 1 to represent a
number. We can also call it to be a true state and a false state. A binary number is
built the same way as we build a normal decimal number.
Binary arithmetic is an essential part of various digital systems. You can add, subtract,
multiply, and divide binary numbers using various methods. These operations are
much easier than decimal number arithmetic operations because the binary system
has only two digits: 0 and 1.
Binary additions and subtractions are performed as same in decimal additions and
subtractions. When we perform binary additions, there will be two outputs: Sum (S )
and Carry (C).

1. There are four rules for binary addition:

2. There are four rules for binary subtraction:

3. There are four rules for binary multiplication:

Multiplication is always 0, whenever at least one input is 0.

SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

There are four parts in any division: Dividend, Divisor, quotient, and remainder.
4. There are four parts in any division: Dividend, Divisor, quotient, and remainder.

The result is always not defined, whenever the divisor is 0

Binary arithmetic is essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital
system.
Addition Binary Numbers
Rule to follow when binary numbers are added:

 0+0=0
 0+1=1
 1+0=1
 1 + 1 = 0 (with a carry of 1)
Examples - Adding Binary and Decimal Numbers

Decimal Binary
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Decimal Binary

5 101
1 +6 + 110
= 11 = 1011

6 110
2 +6 + 110
= 12 = 1100

15 1111
3 + 20 + 10100
= 35 = 100011

3.25 11.01
4 + 5.75 + 101.11
= 9.00 = 1001.00

Subtracting Binary Numbers

Rule to follow when binary numbers are subtracted:

 0- 0=0
 1- 0=1
 1- 1=0
 0- 1 = 1 (with a borrow of 1)
Examples - Subtracting Binary and Decimal Numbers

Decimal Binary

9 1001
1 -5 - 101
=4 = 0100
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Decimal Binary

16 10000
2 -3 - 11
= 13 = 01101

6.25 110.01
3 - 4.50 - 100.10
= 1.75 = 001.11

Multiplication of Binary Numbers

Rule to follow when binary numbers are multiplied:

 0x0=0
 0x1=0
 1x0=0
 1x1=1

Examples of Binary Multiplication

Some binary multiplication examples are given below for a better understanding of this
concept.
Example 1: Solve 1010 × 101
Solution:
1010 × 101

1010
(×) 101
—————–
1010
0000
——————
01010 ……. First Intrmediate Sum
1010
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

——————–
110010-------result
Comparison with Decimal values:

10102 = 1010

10102 = 510

10 x 5 = 5010

(110010) 2 = 5010

Division of Binary Numbers

Rule to follow when binary numbers are divided:

 0/1=0
 1/1=1

Example divide 1111100 by 10

SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

GRAY CODE Gray code has a property that two successive numbers differ in only one
bit because of this property gray code does the cycling through various states with minimal
effort and is used in K-maps, error correction, communication, etc.
For example, the sequence of Gray codes for 3-bit numbers is: 000, 001, 011, 010, 110, 111, 101,
100, so G(4)=6.

How to generate n bit Gray Codes?

Following is 2-bit sequence (n = 2)
00 01 11 10
Following is 3-bit sequence (n = 3)
000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100
And Following is 4-bit sequence (n = 4)
0000 0001 0011 0010 0110 0111 0101 0100 1100 1101 1111
1110 1010 1011 1001 1000
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

n-bit Gray Codes can be generated from a list of (n-1)-bit Gray codes using the following
steps.
1. Let the list of (n-1)-bit Gray codes be L1. Create another list L2 which is the reverse of L1.
2. Modify the list L1 by prefixing a ‘0’ in all codes of L1.
3. Modify the list L2 by prefixing a ‘1’ in all codes of L2.
4. Concatenate L1 and L2. The concatenated list is the required list of n-bit Gray codes.

How to Convert Binary To Gray and Vice Versa?

Binary : 0011
Gray : 0010

Binary : 01001
Gray : 01101
BINARY TO GRAY CONVERSION :
1. The Most Significant Bit (MSB) of the gray code is always equal to the MSB of the given
binary code.
2. Other bits of the output gray code can be obtained by XORing binary code bit at that index
and previous index.

GRAY TO BINARY CONVERSION :

1. The Most Significant Bit (MSB) of the binary code is always equal to the MSB of the given
gray code.
2. Other bits of the output binary code can be obtained by checking the gray code bit at that
index. If the current gray code bit is 0, then copy the previous binary code bit, else copy the
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

invert of the previous binary code bit

BCD CODE:
The BCD equivalent of a decimal number is written by replacing each decimal digit in
the integer and fractional parts with its four bit binary equivalent.the BCD code is more
precisely known as 8421 BCD code , with 8,4,2 and 1 representing the weights of
different bits in the four-bit groups, Starting from MSB and proceeding towards LSB.
This feature makes it a weighted code , which means that each bit in the four bit group
representing a given decimal digit has an assigned weight.
Many decimal values, have an infinite place-value representation in binary but have a
finite place-value in binary-coded decimal. For example, 0.2 in binary is .001100…
and in BCD is 0.0010. It avoids fractional errors and is also used in huge financial
calculations.
Consider the following truth table and focus on how are these represented.
Truth Table for Binary Coded Decimal

DECIMAL NUMBER BCD

0 0000

1 0001

2 0010

3 0011
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

DECIMAL NUMBER BCD

4 0100

5 0101

6 0110

7 0111

8 1000

9 1001

1. Convert (123)10 in BCD

From the truth table above,
1 -> 0001
2 -> 0010
3 -> 0011
thus, BCD becomes -> 0001 0010 0011

2. Convert (324)10 in BCD

(324)10 -> 0011 0010 0100 (BCD)
Again from the truth table above,
3 -> 0011
2 -> 0010
4 -> 0100
thus, BCD becomes -> 0011 0010 0100

This is how decimal numbers are converted to their equivalent BCDs.

SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

EXCESS-3 CODE
The excess-3 code (or XS3) is a non-weighted code used to express code used to
express decimal numbers. It is a self-complementary binary coded decimal (BCD) code
and numerical system which has biased representation. It is particularly significant for
arithmetic operations as it overcomes shortcoming encountered while using 8421 BCD
code to add two decimal digits whose sum exceeds 9. Excess-3 arithmetic uses
different algorithm than normal non-biased BCD or binary positional number system.

Representation of Excess-3 Code

Excess-3 codes are unweighted and can be obtained by adding 3 to each decimal digit
then it can be represented by using 4 bit binary number for each digit. An Excess-3
equivalent of a given binary number is obtained using the following steps:

 Find the decimal equivalent of the given binary number.

 Add +3 to each digit of decimal number.
 Convert the newly obtained decimal number back to binary number to get
required excess-3 equivalent.
You can add 0011 to each four-bit group in binary coded decimal number (BCD) to get
desired excess-3 equivalent.
These are following excess-3 codes for decimal digits −

Decimal Digit BCD Code Excess-3 Code

0 0000 0011

1 0001 0100

2 0010 0101

3 0011 0110

4 0100 0111

5 0101 1000
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Decimal Digit BCD Code Excess-3 Code

6 0110 1001

7 0111 1010

8 1000 1011

9 1001 1100

The codes 0000 and 1111 are not used for any digit.
Example −Convert decimal number 23 to Excess-3 code.
So, according to excess-3 code we need to add 3 to both digit in the decimal number
then convert into 4-bit binary number for result of each digit. Therefore,
= 23+33=56 =0101 0110 which is required excess-3 code for given decimal number 23.
Example −Convert decimal number 15.46 into Excess-3 code.
According to excess-3 code we need to add 3 to both digit in the decimal number then
convert into 4-bit binary number for result of each digit. Therefore,
= 15.46+33.33=48.79 =0100 1000.0111 1001 which is required excess-3 code for
given decimal number 15.46.
Converting into Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) codes
One should note that to given Excess-3 code, the equivalent decimal number can be
determined by splitting number into 4-bit group starting from least significant for integer
part and from leftmost digit for fractional part. Then subtract 0011 (=3) from each f our-
bit group that will be binary decimal digit (BCD) form of that number. Now you can also
convert this BCD code into decimal number by converting each 4-bit group into decimal
digit.
Example − Convert Excess-3 code 1001001 into BCD and decimal number.
So, grouping 4-bit for each group, i.e., 0100 1001 and subtract 0011 0011 from given
number. Therefore,
= 0100 1001 -0011 0011 =0001 0110
So, binary coded decimal number is 0001 0110 and decimal number will be 16.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Self-complementary property
Excess-3 code is non-weighted and self complementary code. A self
complementary binary codes are always compliment themselves. The complement of a
binary number can be obtained from that number by replacing 0’s with 1’s and 1’s with
0’s. The sum of binary number and its complement is always equal to decimal 9. In
other words, the 1’s complement of an excess-3 code is the excess-3 code for the
9’s complement of the corresponding decimal number.
For example, the excess-3 code for decimal number 5 is 1000 and 1’s complement of
1000 is 0111, which is excess-3 code for decimal number 4, and it is 9’s complement of
number 5.

Advantages of Excess-3 Codes

These are following advantages of Excess-3 codes,

 These are unweighted binary decimal codes.

 These are self-complementary codes.
 These use biased representation.
 The codes 0000 and 1111 are not used for any digit which is an advantage for
memory organization as these codes can cause fault in transmission line.
 It has no limitation, and it considerably simplifies arithmetic operations.
 It is particularly significant for arithmetic operations as it overcomes shortcoming
encountered while using 8421 BCD code to add two decimal digits whose sum
exceeds
ASCII CODE.

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the most

common character encoding format for text data in computers and on the
internet. In standard ASCII-encoded data, there are unique values for 128
alphabetic, numeric or special additional characters and control codes.

ASCII characters may be represented in the following ways:

 as pairs of hexadecimal digits -- base-16 numbers, represented as 0 through 9 and A

through F for the decimal values of 10-15;

 as three-digit octal (base 8) numbers;

 as decimal numbers from 0 to 127; or

SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

 as 7-bit or 8-bit binary

For example, the ASCII encoding for the lowercase letter "m" is represented in the following
ways:

Character Hexadecimal Octal Decimal Binary Binary (8 bit)

(7 bit)

m 0x6D /155 109 110 0110 1101

1101

ASCII characters were initially encoded into 7 bits and stored as 8-bit characters with the most
significant bit -- usually, the left-most bit -- set to 0.

Why is ASCII important?

ASCII was the first major character encoding standard for data processing. Most modern
computer systems use Unicode, also known as the Unicode Worldwide Character Standard. It's a
character encoding standard that includes ASCII encodings.

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) adopted ASCII as a standard for internet data when
it published "ASCII format for Network Interchange" as RFC 20 in 1969. That request for
comments (RFC) document standardized the use of ASCII for internet data and was accepted as
a full standard in 2015.

ASCII encoding is technically obsolete, having been replaced by Unicode. Yet, ASCII characters
use the same encoding as the first 128 characters of the Unicode Transformation Format 8, so
ASCII text is compatible with UTF-8.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

PARITY CODE
The parity code is used for the purpose of detecting errors during the transmission of
binary information. The parity code is a bit that is included with the binary data to be
transmitted.

The inclusion of a parity bit will make the number of 1’s either odd or even. Based on the
number of 1’s in the transmitted data, the parity code is of two types.

 Even parity code

 Odd parity code

In even parity, the added parity bit will make the total number of 1’s an even number. If
the added parity bit make the total number of 1’s as odd number, such parity code is said
to be odd parity code.

Let us consider the 4-bit message(1011) to be transmitted. Adding 1 to the message will
make the total number of 1’s in the message to be an even number. Hence it is called as
even parity.

For the same message, adding 0 with the transmitted message will make the total
number of 1’s to be an odd number. Hence it is called as odd parity. It is shown in the
example below.

Message with Message with Even

4-bit message
Odd parity Parity
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Message with Message with Even

4-bit message
Odd parity Parity

0000 00001 00000

0001 00010 00011

0010 00100 00101

0011 00111 00110

0100 01000 01001

0101 01011 01010

0110 01101 01100

0111 01110 01111

SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

1’S COMPLEMENT OF A BINARY NUMBER:

There is a simple algorithm to convert a binary number into 1’s complement. To get 1’s
complement of a binary number, simply invert the given number. You can simply
implement logic circuit using only NOT gate for each bit of Binary number input.
Implementation of logic circuit of 4-bit 1’s complement is given as following below.

Example-1: Find 1’s complement of binary number 10101110.

Simply invert each bit of given binary number, so 1’s complement of given number will
be 01010001.
Example-2: Find 1’s complement of binary number 10001.001.
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, so 1’s complement of given number will
be 01110.110.
Example-3: Find 1’s complement of each 3 bit binary number.
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, so 1’s complement of each 3 bit binary
number will be,

Binary number 1’s complement

000 111

001 110

010 101

011 100

100 011

101 010

110 001
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Binary number 1’s complement

111 000

Uses of 1’s Complement Binary Numbers:

There are various uses of 1’s complement of Binary numbers, mainly in signed Binary number
representation and various arithmetic operations for Binary numbers, e.g., additions,
subtractions, etc.
1’s Complementation in Signed Binary number Representation:
1’s complement binary numbers are very useful in Signed number representation. Positive
numbers are simply represented as Binary number number. There is nothing to do for positive
binary number. But in case of negative binary number representation, we represent in 1’s
complement. If the number is negative then it is represented using 1’s complement. First
represent the number with positive sign and then take 1’s complement of that number.
Example: Let we are using 5 bits register. The representation of -5 and +5 will be as follows:

+5 is represented as it is represented in sign magnitude method. -5 is represented using the

following steps:
(i) +5 = 0 0101
(ii) Take 1’s complement of 0 0101 and that is 1 1010. MSB is 1 which indicates that number is
negative.
MSB is always 1 in case of negative numbers.
Range of Numbers: For k bits register, positive largest number that can be stored is ( 2 (k-1) -
1) and negative lowest number that can be stored is -( 2 (k-1) -1).
Note that drawback of this system is that 0 has two different representation one is -0 (e.g., 1
1111 in five bit register) and second is +0 (e.g., 0 0000 in five bit register).
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Lets see arithmetic operations: Subtractions and Additions in 1’s complement binary numbers.
Subtractions by 1’s Complement:
The algorithm to subtract two binary number using 1’s complement is explained as following
below:

 Take 1’s complement of the subtrahend

 Add with minuend
 If the result of above addition has carry bit 1, then add it to the least significant bit (LSB)
of given result
 If there is no carry bit 1, then take 1’s complement of the result which will be negative
Note that subtrahend is number that to be subtracted from the another number, i.e., minuend.
Example (Case-1: When Carry bit 1): Evaluate 10101 - 00101
According to above algorithm, take 1’s complement of subtrahend 00101, which will be 11010,
then add both of these. So, 10101 + 11010 =1 01111 . Since, there is carry bit 1, so add this to
the LSB of given result, i.e., 01111+1=10000 which is the answer.
Example (Case-2: When no Carry bit): Evaluate 11110 with 1110
According to above algorithm, take 1’s complement of subtrahend 11110, which will be 00011.
Then add both of these, So, 11001 + 00011 =11100 . Since there is no carry bit 1, so take 1’s
complement of above result, which will be 00011, and this is negative number, i.e, 00011, which
is the answer.
Similarly, you can subtract two mixed (with fractional part) binary numbers. Note that you
always add Carry bit the the least significant bit (LSB) of the result, whenever you get carry bit
1. LSB of fractional binary number is last (rightmost) bit of mixed or fractional binary numbers.
Additions by 1’s Complement:
There are difference scenario for addition of two binary numbers using 1’s complement. These
are explained as following below.
Case-1: Addition of positive and negative number when positive number has greater
magnitude:
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

When positive number has greater magnitude, then take simply 1’s complement of negative
number and the end-around carry of the sum is added to the least significant bit (LSB).
Example: Add 1110 and -1101.
So, take 1’s complement of 1101, which will be 0010, then add with given number.
So, 1110+0010=1 0000 , then add this carry bit to the LSB, 0000+1=0001 , which is the
answer.
Note that if the register size is big then fill the same value of MSB to preserve sign magnitude
for inputs and output.
Case-2: Addition of positive and negative number when negative number has greater
magnitude:
When the negative number has greater magnitude, then take 1’s complement of negative number
and add with given positive number. Since there will not be any end-around carry bit, so take 1’s
complement of the result and this result will be negative.
Example: Add 1010 and -1100 in five-bit registers.
Note that there are five-bit registers, so these new numbers will be 01010 and -01100.Now take
1’s complement of 01100 which will be 10011 and add 01010+10011=11101 . Then take 1’s
complement of this result, which will be 00010 and this will be negative number, i.e., -00010,
which is the answer.
Case-3: Addition of two negative numbers:
You need to take 1’s complement for both numbers, then add these 1’s complement of numbers.
Since there will always be end-around carry bit, so add this again to the MSB of result. Now,
take 1’s complement also of previous result, so this will be negative number.
Alternatively, you can add both negative number directly, and get this result which will be
negative only.
Example: add -1010 and -0101 in five bit-register.
These five bit numbers are -01010 and -00101. Add complements of these numbers,
10101+11010 =1 01111 . Since, there is a carry bit 1, so add this to the LSB of result, i.e.,
01111+1=10000 . Now take the 1’s complement of this result, which will be 01111 and this
number is negative, i.e, -01111, which is answer.
Note that end-around-carry-bit addition occurs only in 1’s complement arithmetic operations
but not in 2’s complement arithmetic operations.

TWO’S COMPLEMENT 2’s complement of binary number is 1’s complement of given number
plus 1 to the least significant bit (LSB). For example 2’s complement of binary number 10010 is
(01101) + 1 = 01110.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

2’s Complement of a Binary Number

There is a simple algorithm to convert a binary number into 2’s complement. To get 2’s
complement of a binary number, simply invert the given number and add 1 to the least
significant bit (LSB) of given result. Implementation of 4-bit 2’s complementation
number is given as following below.
Example-1 − Find 2’s complement of binary number 10101110.
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, which will be 01010001. Then add 1 to the LSB
of this result, i.e., 01010001+1=01010010 which is answer.
Example-2 − Find 2’s complement of binary number 10001.001.
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, which will be 01110.110 Then add 1 to the LSB
of this result, i.e., 01110.110+1=01110.111 which is answer.
Example-3 − Find 2’s complement of each 3 bit binary number.
Simply invert each bit of given binary number, then add 1 to LSB of these inverted numbers,

Binary number 1’s complement 2’s complement

000 000 (+0) and 111 (−0) 000

001 110 111

010 101 110

011 100 101

100 011 100

101 010 011

110 001 010

111 000 001

SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Uses of 2’s Complement Binary Numbers

Characteristics of 2’s compliment no.s:

1. There is one unique zero

2. 2‘s comp of 0 is 0
3. The leftmost bit can‘t be used to express a quantity . it is a 0 no. is +ve.
4. For an n-bit word which includes the sign bit there are (2 n-
1-1) +veintegers, 2 n-1 –ve integers & one 0 , for a total of
2n uniquestates.
5. Significant information is containd in the 1‘s of the +ve no.s & 0‘s of the
_ve no.s
6. A _ve no. may be converted into a +ve no. by finding its 2‘s comp.

2’s Complementation in Signed Binary number Representation

Positive numbers are simply represented as simple Binary representation. But if the number is
negative then it is represented using 2’s complement. First represent the number with positive
sign and then take 2’s complement of that number.
Range of Numbers −For k bits register, positive largest number that can be stored is (2(k-1)-1)
and negative lowest number that can be stored is -(2(k-1)).
The advantage of this system is that 0 has only one representation for -0 and +0. Zero (0) is
considered as always positive (sign bit is 0) in 2’s complement representation. Therefore, it is
unique or unambiguous representation.

Lets see arithmetic operations: Subtractions and Additions in 2’s complement binary numbers.

Subtractions by 2’s Complement

The algorithm to subtract two binary number using 2’s complement is explained as following
below −
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

 Take 2’s complement of the subtrahend

 Add with minuend
 If the result of above addition has carry bit 1, then it is dropped and this result will be
positive number.
 If there is no carry bit 1, then take 2’s complement of the result which will be negative
Note that subtrahend is number that to be subtracted from the another number, i.e., minuend.
Also, note that adding end-around carry-bit occurs only in 1’s complement arithmetic
operations but not 2’s complement arithmetic operations.
Example (Case-1: When Carry bit 1) −Evaluate 10101 - 00101
According to above algorithm, take 2’s complement of subtrahend 00101, which will be 11011,
then add both of these. So, 10101 + 11011 =1 10000. Since, there is carry bit 1, so dropped this
carry bit 1, and take this result will be 10000 will be positive number.
Example (Case-2: When no Carry bit) −Evaluate 11001 - 11100
According to above algorithm, take 2’s complement of subtrahend 11110, which will be 00100.
Then add both of these, So, 11001 + 00100 =11101. Since there is no carry bit 1, so take 2’s
complement of above result, which will be 00011, and this is negative number, i.e, 00011, which
is the answer.
similarly, you can subtract two mixed (with fractional part) binary numbers.
ADDITIONS BY 2’S COMPLEMENT −
There are different scenario for addition of two binary numbers using 2’s complement. These
are explained as following below.
Case-1 − Addition of positive and negative number when positive number has greater
magnitude:
When positive number has greater magnitude, then take simply 2’s complement of negative
number and carry bit 1 is dropped and this result will be positive number.
Example −Add 1110 and -1101.
So, take 2’s complement of 1101, which will be 0011, then add with given number.
So, 1110+0011=1 0001, and carry bit 1 is dropped and this result will be positive number, i.e.,
+0001.
Note that if the register size is big then use sign extension method of MSB bit to preserve sign of
number.
Case-2 − Addition of positive and negative number when negative number has greater
magnitude −
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

When the negative number has greater magnitude, then take 2’s complement of negative number
and add with given positive number. Since there will not be any end-around carry bit, so take 2’s
complement of the result and this result will be negative.
Example −Add 1010 and -1100 in five-bit registers.
Note that there are five-bit registers, so these new numbers will have 01010 and -01100. Now
take 2’s complement of 01100 which will be 10100 and add 01010+10100=11110. Then take
2’s complement of this result, which will be 00010 and this will be negative number, i.e., -
00010, which is the answer.
Case-3 − Addition of two negative numbers −
You need to take 2’s complement for both numbers, then add these 2’s complement of numbers.
Since there will always be end-around carry bit, so it is dropped. Now, take 2’s complement also
of previous result, so this will be negative number.
Alternatively, you can add both of these Binary numbers and take result which will be negative
only.
Example − add -1010 and -0101 in five bit-register.
These five bit numbers are -01010 and -00101. Add 2’s complements of these numbers,
10110+11011 =1 10001. Since, there is a carry bit 1, so it is dropped. Now take the 2’s
complement of this result, which will be 01111 and this number is negative, i.e, -01111, which
is answer.
Note that 2’s complement arithmetic operations are much easier than 1’s complement because of
there is no addition of end-around-carry-bit.

BINARY CODED DECIMAL ADDITION (BCD ADDITION)

The addition of BCD numbers is slightly different from binary addition. Here, the rules
of binary addition are partially applicable only to the individual 4-bit groups. The BCD
addition, is thus carried out by individually adding the corresponding 4-bit groups
starting from the LSB side and if there is a carry to the next group, or if the result
belongs to any of the 6 illegal states than we add 610(0110) to the sum term of that
group and resulting carry is added in the next group.

Example: Perform BCD Addition of 6 and 7

Solution
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

BCD representation of 6 is given as 0110 and for 7 it is 0111.

When we add 6 and 7 in BCD, we get 1101 which is an invalid state therefore, we
add 0110 (6) to the sum to get correct result which is 0001 0011 (13).

wex

Example 2: Perform BCD Addition of 8765 and 3943

Solution
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

BCD representation of 8765 is given as 1000 0111 0110 0011 and for 3943 it is 0011
1001 0100 0011.

Firstly, we will perform a normal binary addition of two numbers now we

see 1100 and 1010 which are illegal states also the third group of 4-bits from LSB side
i.e., 0000 has a carry 1 to the next group. So, for correction, we have to add 0110 to all
three groups. Thus, we get the correct result as 0001 0010 0111 0000 1000 which is
equivalent to (12708)10 in decimal number system and this is what we get on
adding (8765)10 + (3943)10 = (12708)10. Hence, our result is also verified.

LOGIC GATE

A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that take inputs
and produces a single logic output.

Computers are made up of logic gates. Logic gates take information coming in and output
different information depending on what type of gate they are.

TRUTH TABLE AND LOGIC GATES

SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Truth Table

A truth table is a representation of all possible combinations of Input values and their result in a
tabular format. If the result of a logical expression of logical statement is always true or 1, it is
known as Tautology. If the result expression or logical statement is always false or 0, it is known
as Fallacy.

A B C Decimal Equivalent
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 2
0 1 1 3
1 0 0 4
1 0 1 5
1 1 0 6
1 0 1 7

The number of rows in a truth table is calculated as 2 n where n is the total number of variables.
Therefore if there are three variables A, B and C, then the possible values will be 23 = 8
combinations. It can be represented a follows:

Thus, for n variable, the number of possible combinations of inputs will be 2 n, which are binary
representations of the Integer from 0 to (2 n-1).

The logical operators are:

i) NOT or Negation: The operator is unary operator because it operates on single

variable. This operator is also called complement and the symbol for this is '~' or '-' or '' '.
Thus, if the letter x stands for a logical statement then the statement ~ a or a' means
complement of x. The table clearly shows that if x is True, x' is False, x' is True.

X X'
0 1
1 0
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

ii) AND (Conjunction) Operator: This operator operates on two or more operands on
two or more operands. AND operator is used to perform logical multiplication and the
symbol for AND operator is dot (' . ').

X X' F
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

iii) OR (Disjunction) Operator: OR operator is used to perform logical Addition and

the symbol for OR operator is '+' plus.

X X' F
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
iv)NAND
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

v)NOR
vi)EX-OR
vii)EX-NOR

Logic Gates

A gate is a circuit which takes one or more inputs and generate only one output. A gate is a
digital circuit because it can take only two values, i.e. either high or low. Logic gates use the
binary operators AND, OR and NOT There are three fundamental logic gates which are as
follows:
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

AND Gate

AND Gate works on two or more inputs which result in a single output. When all the inputs are 1
or high, then the output is 1 otherwise the output is 0.

OR Gate

OR Gate works on two or more inputs which result in a single output. When any of the input
signals is 1, the output signal is 1 and if all input signal is 0, the output signal will be 0.

NOT Gate

NOT gate works on a single input signal and generates a single output signal. The output state is
a negation or complement of an input signal which is denoted by (') NAND Gate, Logic NOT
NAND Gate

This gate is the combination of AND or NOT gate. The NAND gate has two or more input but
only one output. It produces output 1 when any of the input is 0.

NOR Gate

The NOR gate (negated OR) gives an output of 1 only if both inputs are 0, it gives 0
otherwise. For n-input gate if all inputs are 0 then it gives 1 otherwise 0.

XOR Gate– The XOR gate gives an output of 1 if either both inputs are different, it
gives 0 if they are same. For n-input gate if the number of input 1 are odd then it gives
1 otherwise 0.

XNOR Gate The XNOR gate (negated XOR) gives an output of 1 if both inputs are
same and 0 if they are different. For n-input gate if the number of input 1 are even
then it gives 1 otherwise odd.

Universal Logic Gates – Out of the eight logic gates discussed above, NAND and
NOR are also known as universal gates since they can be used to implement any
digital circuit without using any other gate. This means that every gate can be created
by NAND or NOR gates only. Implementation of three basic gates using NAND and
NOR gates is shown below –
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be used to detect and correct
the errors that can occur when the data is moved or stored from the sender to the
receiver.

Redundant bits – Redundant bits are extra binary bits that are generated and added to
the information-carrying bits of data transfer to ensure that no bits were lost during the
data transfer. The number of redundant bits can be calculated using the following
formula:
2^r ≥ m + r + 1
where, r = redundant bit, m = data bit
Suppose the number of data bits is 7, then the number of redundant bits can be calculated
using: = 2^4 ≥ 7 + 4 + 1 Thus, the number of redundant bits= 4
Parity bits. A parity bit is a bit appended to a data of binary bits to ensure that the total
number of 1’s in the data is even or odd. Parity bits are used for error detection. There are
two types of parity bits:

1. Even parity bit: In the case of even parity, for a given set of bits, the number of 1’s
are counted. If that count is odd, the parity bit value is set to 1, making the total count
of occurrences of 1’s an even number. If the total number of 1’s in a given set of bits
is already even, the parity bit’s value is 0.
2. Odd Parity bit – In the case of odd parity, for a given set of bits, the number of 1’s
are counted. If that count is even, the parity bit value is set to 1, making the total
count of occurrences of 1’s an odd number. If the total number of 1’s in a given set of
bits is already odd, the parity bit’s value is 0.

Algorithm of Hamming code: Hamming Code is simply the use of extra parity bits to
allow the identification of an error.
1. Write the bit positions starting from 1 in binary form (1, 10, 11, 100, etc).
2. All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity bits (1, 2, 4, 8, etc).
3. All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its bit position in
binary form.
a. Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the least significant position (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc).
b. Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit (2, 3, 6, 7,
10, 11, etc).
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

c. Parity bit 4 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit (4–7, 12–15,
20–23, etc).
d. Parity bit 8 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the fourth position from the least significant bit bits (8–15,
24–31, 40–47, etc).
e. In general, each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of the
parity position and the bit position is non-zero.
5. Since we check for even parity set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of ones in the
positions it checks is odd.
6. Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is even.

Determining the position of redundant bits – These redundancy bits are placed at
positions that correspond to the power of 2.
As in the above example:
 The number of data bits = 7
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

 The number of redundant bits = 4

 The total number of bits = 11
 The redundant bits are placed at positions corresponding to power of 2 that is 1, 2, 4,
and 8

 Suppose the data to be transmitted is 1011001, the bits will be placed as follows:

Determining the Parity bits:

 R1 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the least significant position. R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

 To find the redundant bit R1, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s
in all the bit positions corresponding to R1 is an even number the value of R1 (parity
bit’s value) = 0
 R2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit. R2:
bits 2,3,6,7,10,11

 To find the redundant bit R2, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s
in all the bit positions corresponding to R2 is odd the value of R2(parity bit’s
value)=1
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

 R4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit. R4: bits
4, 5, 6, 7

1. To find the redundant bit R4, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s
in all the bit positions corresponding to R4 is odd the value of R4(parity bit’s value) =
1
2. R8 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary
representation includes a 1 in the fourth position from the least significant bit. R8: bit

8,9,10,11
SYLLABUS Unit 1: Introduction to Number System and Logic Gates: Number Systems- Binary,
Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; Codes- Grey, BCD,Excess-3, ASCII, Parity; Binary Arithmetic- Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication, Division using Sign Magnitude,1’s compliment, 2’s compliment, BCD
Arithmetic; Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR.

 To find the redundant bit R8, we check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s
in all the bit positions corresponding to R8 is an even number the value of R8(parity
bit’s value)=0. Thus, the data transferred is:

Error detection and correction: Suppose in the above example the 6th bit is changed
from 0 to 1 during data transmission, then it gives new parity values in the binary
number:

For all the parity bits we will check the number of 1’s in their respective bit positions.
For R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11. We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 4
and that’s even so we get a 0 for this.
For R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11 . We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 5
and that’s odd so we get a 1 for this.
For R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7 . We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 3 and
that’s odd so we get a 1 for this.
For R8: bit 8,9,10,11 . We can see that the number of 1’s in these bit positions are 2 and
that’s even so we get a 0 for this.
The bits give the binary number 0110 whose decimal representation is 6. Thus, bit 6
contains an error. To correct the error the 6th bit is changed from 1 to 0.