Module 3: World Religions From Southeast Asia

The Indian subcontinent is home to a rich tapestry of religious traditions, with Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and Sikhism being the most prominent and influential. These religions, which share common
roots and have evolved in tandem over millennia, offer a unique window into the diverse spiritual and
cultural landscape of India. This module aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the historical
development, core beliefs, and practices of these four major Indian religions. We will explore the
intricate interplay between these traditions, delving into their similarities and differences, and
examining how they have shaped and been shaped by the broader context of Indian society and culture.
By gaining a deeper understanding of the foundational principles and historical trajectories of Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, readers will be better equipped to appreciate the richness and
complexity of the Indian religious tradition as a whole.

Historical Overview
Indus River Valley Civilization
The Indus River Valley Civilization, one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, emerged in what is now
present-day Pakistan and northwest India. It thrived around the fertile Indus River and its tributaries,
and is renowned for its remarkable advancements in technology, trade, and urban planning. This ancient
civilization was primarily centered around two major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which
prospered between approximately 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE.

Despite the abundance of archaeological evidence, the religious practices of the Indus Valley Civilization
remain largely enigmatic due to the absence of deciphered written records. Artifacts such as the
Pashupati seal, however, suggest the presence of a complex belief system. This seal portrays a male
figure in a yoga-like posture, surrounded by animals, hinting at a possible connection to later religious
traditions. Another captivating seal from this civilization features a multi-faced shaman figure, which
some scholars interpret as an early representation of the Hindu god Brahma.

Around 1500 BCE, the Aryan Migration took place, as a group of Indo-European peoples migrated into
the Indian subcontinent. They brought with them novel religious ideas and practices, most notably the
Vedic religion, which revolved around the Vedas—a collection of ancient sacred texts. These texts would
eventually form the foundation of Hinduism, one of the world's major religions.

Determining the religious practices of India before the establishment of Hinduism is challenging, given
that the language of the Indus Valley Civilization remains undeciphered. Nevertheless, genetic research
indicates a continuity of population between the Indus Valley Civilization and the subsequent Vedic
period, which suggests a potential link between the two. Moreover, some scholars postulate that the
Indus Valley Civilization's religion had a significant influence on the development of Hinduism and other
South Asian religions.
The collapse of the Indus River Valley Civilization marked a significant turning point in South Asian
history, paving the way for the emergence of the Vedic Age. The exact reasons for the decline of this
once-thriving civilization remain a matter of debate among scholars, with theories ranging from climate
change, particularly prolonged droughts and shifts in monsoon patterns, to tectonic events causing
changes in river courses, or even invasions by outside forces. As the Indus Valley Civilization
disintegrated, its urban centers were abandoned, and its people dispersed, possibly assimilating into
various regional cultures. This period of transition eventually gave rise to the Vedic Age, which saw the
arrival of the Indo-Aryans and the development of the Vedic religion that would later evolve into
Hinduism. As such, the collapse of the Indus River Valley Civilization served as a crucial turning point,
shaping the religious and cultural landscape of the Indian subcontinent for centuries to come.

Spotlight on the Aryan Migration

The Aryan Migration remains a contentious topic in South Asian history, subject to debate among
scholars. Some posit that Aryans were foreign invaders who introduced new religious ideas and
practices, while others contend they were indigenous to the region and engaged in peaceful settlement.
Linguistic evidence plays a crucial role in both theories. Max Mueller, a 19th-century scholar, argued
that the Sanskrit language, foundational to many South Asian languages, originated from the Proto-
Indo-European language spoken in Central Asia, suggesting that Aryans were Indo-European migrants
who brought Sanskrit and the Vedic religion to the subcontinent. Conversely, other scholars propose
that the Vedic language and culture predated the Aryans, who assimilated into the existing culture, as
evidenced by linguistic similarities between the Vedic language and the languages of the Indus Valley
Civilization. Regardless of the theory, the Aryan Migration profoundly impacted the religious and
cultural landscape of South Asia, with the Vedic religion giving rise to Hinduism and shaping the region's
social structure through practices such as ritual sacrifice, deity worship, and the caste system.

The Vedic Age in India

During the Vedic Age (1500 BCE to 900 BCE) in India, the foundations of Hinduism were established as
religious and social life evolved. This period was characterized by a sacrificial priestly system, as depicted
in the Vedas—the collection of ancient sacred texts that serve as the backbone of Hindu beliefs.

The Vedic religion featured a pantheon of gods who were considered autonomous beings. To
communicate with these gods, one needed to go through the priesthood, as they possessed the
knowledge and authority required to perform sacrificial rituals. The religious system during this era was
predominantly transactional rather than relational, which meant that individuals could not establish
personal relationships with the gods. Instead, they relied on the priests to mediate between the divine
and human realms through sacrificial ceremonies.

In the Vedic Age, the pantheon of gods played a crucial role in the religious practices and beliefs of the
people, with deities invoked during sacrificial rituals and believed to govern various aspects of the
natural world and human life. Among the prominent gods of this period were Indra, the king of the gods
and the god of thunder and war, revered for protection, victory, and rain; Agni, the god of fire, who
played a vital role in Vedic rituals as the messenger between humans and gods and was associated with
the warmth of the hearth and the transformative power of fire; Varuna, the god of water and the
celestial ocean, as well as the upholder of moral law (rita), who was considered the guardian of cosmic
order; and Surya, the sun god, responsible for the cycle of day and night, symbolizing life, energy, and
fertility, and worshipped for his life-giving properties and role in sustaining the world. The religion of the
Vedic Age was highly polytheistic, with each deity holding specific powers and responsibilities, and the
sacrificial rituals performed by the priests aimed to maintain a harmonious relationship between the
gods and the human world.

During this period, the caste system was present, though it was largely based on skin color. This social
hierarchy divided people into different classes or "varnas," which determined their social standing,
occupation, and ritual status. The caste system influenced the concept of dharma, or one's duty, which
in the Vedic Age was primarily centered around making sacrifices. By performing their dharma,
individuals fulfilled their societal roles and contributed to the maintenance of cosmic order.

In summary, the Vedic Age in India laid the groundwork for the emergence of Hinduism, with the Vedas
providing crucial insights into the religious and social life of the time. The sacrificial priestly system, the
transactional nature of the relationship between humans and gods, and the early caste system based on
skin color were all integral aspects of this period, shaping the development of Hinduism and Indian
society over time.

Upanishadic Age
The Upanishadic Age marked a significant shift in religious thought and practices from the earlier Vedic
Age. While the Vedic Age focused on sacrificial rituals and the pantheon of gods, the Upanishads
introduced a more philosophical and introspective approach to religion. Key concepts such as karma,
dharma, and samsara became more individualized, emphasizing personal actions and responsibility in
the pursuit of spiritual liberation (moksha). The Upanishads also introduced the idea of Brahman, the
ultimate reality, and Atman, the individual soul, asserting that the realization of their unity could lead to
spiritual enlightenment.

The creation of the Upanishadic texts is often attributed to disaffected priests and sages who sought
deeper spiritual understanding beyond the ritualistic practices of the Vedic Age. These thinkers began
exploring the nature of reality and the self, leading to the development of the Upanishads' profound
philosophical teachings. It was during this time that other religious movements, such as Jainism and
Buddhism, also emerged in response to the perceived shortcomings of the Vedic religious system.

However, it is important to note that the Vedic system did not disappear. Instead, it remained the
dominant religious system in India, coexisting with and continuing to influence emerging religious and
philosophical traditions. The Upanishadic Age, therefore, represents a period of religious and
philosophical diversification and evolution, which significantly contributed to the rich tapestry of Indian
religious thought.

Spotlight on the Upanishadic Belief System

In the Upanishadic Age, the concepts of karma, dharma, yoga, and samsara took on deeper,
interconnected meanings in relation to the Brahman, the ultimate reality. Karma, understood as the
consequences of one's actions, could be gained or lost based on ethical choices and adherence to one's
dharma, or duty, which was now more individualized than in the Vedic Age. Dharma in this period was
tied to personal responsibilities in life, based on factors such as age, gender, and social status, and
fulfilling one's dharma contributed to spiritual progress.

The Brahman, in this context, is the all-pervading, invisible force that constitutes the ultimate reality,
transcending time, space, and all forms of existence. The Atman, the individual soul or essence, is
considered to be a reflection of the Brahman within each person. The primary spiritual goal in this era
was to overcome the illusion of individuality and selfhood to realize the unity of the Atman with the
Brahman. This realization, achieved through practices like yoga and meditation, would lead to spiritual
liberation or moksha.

Shedding the sense of individuality is a challenging task, often requiring multiple lifetimes for one to
fully grasp and internalize the profound interconnectedness of all existence. This is where the concept of
samsara, or the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, comes into play. As individuals progress spiritually
through their actions (karma) and adherence to their dharma, they accumulate experiences and
knowledge across lifetimes, gradually drawing closer to the ultimate realization of unity with the
Brahman, culminating in liberation from the cycle of samsara.

The Rise of Buddhism and Jainism—The Upanishadic Age

During the Upanishadic Age, two significant religious movements emerged as alternatives to the
prevailing religious systems: Buddhism and Jainism. Both were founded by charismatic leaders who
offered unique paths to enlightenment, emphasizing personal spiritual practice and ethical conduct.

Buddhism
Siddhartha Gautama, who would later become the Buddha, was born in the 5th century BCE in Lumbini,
located in present-day Nepal. He was a prince, born into the Shakya clan, and his father was the ruler of
a small kingdom. According to legend, his birth was accompanied by various miraculous signs, and it was
prophesied that he would either become a great king or a great spiritual leader.

As Siddhartha grew up, he lived a life of luxury within the confines of his father's palace, shielded from
the harsh realities of the world outside. He married a princess named Yasodhara, and they had a son,
Rahula. However, in his late twenties, Siddhartha ventured beyond the palace walls and encountered
the "Four Sights" that would forever change his life: an old man, a sick person, a corpse, and a
wandering ascetic. These encounters forced him to confront the reality of suffering and the
impermanence of life.

Determined to find a way to end human suffering, Siddhartha renounced his royal life and began his
spiritual quest. He studied under various spiritual teachers and practiced extreme asceticism for six
years. However, neither of these approaches led him to the truth he sought. Eventually, he turned to
meditation, and while sitting under a Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, he attained enlightenment at the age of
35. It was then that he became the Buddha, "the awakened one."

After his enlightenment, the Buddha spent the remaining 45 years of his life traveling throughout the
region, teaching his doctrine to a diverse audience, including kings, commoners, and even outcasts. He
established a monastic community, the Sangha, to preserve and spread his teachings after his death.
The Buddha's teachings revolved around the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, which
provided a practical and accessible path to spiritual awakening and liberation from the cycle of samsara.

The Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, present-day India. His final words to his
followers were to continue seeking the truth and to maintain their own spiritual practice. The legacy of
the Buddha's teachings has continued to evolve and spread, shaping the development of Buddhism as a
major world religion.

Jainism
Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana, was the 24th and last Tirthankara in Jainism, a spiritual leader
who attained omniscience and established the Jain religion's principles. Born in the 6th century BCE in
present-day Bihar, India, Mahavira was the son of King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala, members of the
royal Kshatriya class. Like the Buddha, Mahavira's birth was accompanied by auspicious signs, and it was
foretold that he would become a great spiritual leader.

Growing up in luxury, Mahavira received a comprehensive education and excelled in various subjects,
including the arts and martial skills. At the age of 30, following the death of his parents, he renounced
his princely life and embarked on a spiritual journey. He became an ascetic, practicing severe austerities,
fasting, and meditation in his quest for spiritual enlightenment.

After 12 years of rigorous asceticism, Mahavira achieved omniscience, also known as kevala jnana, at
the age of 42. He became the 24th Tirthankara, a spiritual leader who has conquered the cycle of birth
and death and serves as a bridge for others to cross the ocean of samsara. Tirthankaras are considered
to be the founding figures of Jainism, each one revitalizing the Jain doctrine during their time.

For the next 30 years, Mahavira traveled extensively throughout the Indian subcontinent, teaching the
principles of Jainism and attracting a substantial following, including both laypeople and ascetics. He
emphasized the importance of non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-
attachment, which formed the Five Great Vows. By adhering to these principles and engaging in spiritual
practices, Mahavira taught that individuals could purify their souls and ultimately attain liberation
(moksha).

Mahavira passed away at the age of 72 in Pavapuri, present-day Bihar, India. His teachings were
preserved by his followers and later compiled into sacred texts known as the Agamas. Over time, Jainism
evolved into a distinct religious tradition, with Mahavira's life and teachings serving as the foundation
for its core beliefs and practices.

Gita Age

Caption: Durga festival by Sonika Agarwal on Unsplash

The Gita Age (400 BCE to 400 CE) marked another significant phase in the evolution of Indian religion, as
it witnessed the synthesis of Vedic and Upanishadic ideas into a more coherent and accessible system.
The Bhagavad Gita, a key text from this period, played a crucial role in integrating various religious
concepts and practices.

During the Gita Age, the caste system became more closely tied to spiritual concepts of karma and
dharma. The belief that an individual's actions in their current life would determine their future births
and caste status became more prominent. This further entrenched the caste system, as it justified the
social hierarchy in terms of spiritual development and divine order.

The Brahman, the ultimate reality and the source of all existence, was now understood to manifest itself
in personal form through various gods. This enabled a more devotional approach to religious practice,
allowing individuals to form personal relationships with these divine manifestations.
During the Gita Age, the concepts of karma and dharma evolved, becoming more distinct and shaping
the spiritual understanding and practices of the time. Karma, originally referring to ritual actions
performed in the Vedic period, took on a broader meaning, encompassing all actions and their
consequences that determined an individual's future life circumstances, including their caste and status
in the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). Dharma, on the other hand, referred to the set of duties,
responsibilities, and moral obligations an individual had to fulfill based on their caste, age, gender, and
personal circumstances. While dharma was previously associated with making sacrifices and maintaining
cosmic order in the Vedic period, it now represented a more individualized path guiding one's actions in
daily life. The Bhagavad Gita emphasized the importance of adhering to one's dharma and performing
selfless actions (karma yoga) without attachment to the fruits of those actions. By fulfilling their dharma
and engaging in karma yoga, individuals could gradually purify themselves, accumulate merit, and
progress on the path to spiritual liberation (moksha). In this way, the Gita Age developed a more
intricate understanding of the relationship between karma and dharma, integrating these concepts into
the broader spiritual framework of Hinduism.

The story of Krishna and Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita exemplifies the blending of Vedic and Upanishadic
ideas. In this narrative, Krishna, an avatar of the god Vishnu, serves as Arjuna's charioteer and spiritual
guide during a great battle. As Arjuna faces a moral dilemma, Krishna imparts wisdom on the nature of
dharma, karma, and the path to liberation.

Krishna teaches Arjuna that he must fulfill his dharma as a warrior and engage in the battle, but he must
do so without attachment to the results of his actions. This selfless action, known as karma yoga, is one
of the key concepts in the Bhagavad Gita. Additionally, Krishna reveals the unity of the Atman and
Brahman, emphasizing the importance of recognizing one's true identity as part of the ultimate reality.

The Bhagavad Gita thus integrates the ritualistic elements of the Vedic tradition with the philosophical
insights of the Upanishads, creating a new, synthesized religion that would greatly influence the
development of Hinduism and its various sects in the centuries to come.

The Growth and Expansion of Buddhism and Jainism—The Gita Age

During the Gita Age, Buddhism and Jainism experienced significant growth and development, expanding
their influence and establishing themselves as prominent religious traditions in South Asia. As the
spiritual landscape of the region evolved, these two religions continued to refine their doctrines and
practices, offering alternative paths to spiritual fulfillment that resonated with a diverse range of
followers.
 Caption: Buddha statue in the dark by Mattia Faloretti on Unsplash

During the Gita Age, Buddhism not only developed into distinct schools of thought but also spread
beyond India, thanks in large part to the patronage and support of the Mauryan King Ashoka. King
Ashoka, who ruled much of the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE, converted to Buddhism after
witnessing the horrors of war during his conquests. Deeply affected by the suffering he saw, Ashoka
became a devoted follower of the Buddha's teachings and sought to promote them throughout his
empire.

Ashoka sent missionaries to various parts of India and beyond, establishing monasteries and building
stupas (monuments containing relics of the Buddha) to facilitate the spread of Buddhism. The king's
patronage helped solidify Buddhism as a major religious force in India, and his efforts to promote the
faith beyond its borders laid the groundwork for its expansion across Asia.

The Silk Road, a network of trade routes that connected the East and the West, played a crucial role in
the dissemination of Buddhism beyond India. As Buddhist merchants, monks, and pilgrims traveled
along these routes, they brought their religion with them, sharing its teachings and practices with
people in Central Asia, China, Korea, and Japan. As Buddhism spread, it adapted to the diverse cultures
and societies it encountered, leading to the development of new forms and variations of the faith.

During the Gita Age, Buddhism developed into distinct schools of thought, with the two main branches,
Theravada and Mahayana, emerging during this period. Theravada Buddhism, also known as the "School
of the Elders," focused on the attainment of individual enlightenment (Nirvana) through strict
adherence to the Buddha's teachings and the practice of meditation. Mahayana Buddhism, on the other
hand, emphasized the ideal of the Bodhisattva, a compassionate being who seeks to attain
enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings. This new approach made Buddhism more accessible
to a wider audience, as it encouraged followers to engage in compassionate acts and altruistic practices,
even as laypeople.

As Buddhism spread beyond India and along the Silk Road, it encountered new cultures and societies,
leading to the development of various forms and variations of the faith. For instance, in China, the
emergence of Pure Land Buddhism focused on the devotional worship of the Amitabha Buddha and the
aspiration to be reborn in his Western Pure Land, a celestial paradise free from suffering. Meanwhile, in
Japan, the Zen school of Buddhism developed, emphasizing the practice of meditation and the
cultivation of direct, personal insight into the nature of reality.

The spread of Buddhism beyond India during the Gita Age can be attributed to the patronage of King
Ashoka, the impact of the Silk Road, and the adaptability of the religion as it encountered new cultures
and societies. This expansion and diversification of Buddhism contributed to its enduring influence and
rich diversity as a global religious tradition.

Jainism

Caption: Golden Buddha statue at temple by Shivam Tiwari on Unsplash

Jainism experienced significant growth and development during the Gita Age, as the teachings of
Mahavira were systematized, interpreted, and expanded upon by subsequent generations of thinkers,
scholars, and spiritual leaders. Central to the Jain faith was the emphasis on nonviolence (ahimsa), self-
discipline, and spiritual purification through rigorous ascetic practices. These values were upheld by Jain
monastic communities, which multiplied in number and influence across the Indian subcontinent.

These monastic communities played a crucial role in the dissemination and preservation of Jain
teachings, providing guidance, education, and support to lay followers who sought to live in accordance
with the principles of Jainism. They also contributed to the development of Jain literature and
philosophy, which helped to further refine and elaborate the religion's core tenets.

During this period, Jainism's emphasis on individual responsibility, ethical behavior, and the pursuit of
spiritual liberation resonated with the evolving spiritual climate in India, attracting followers from
various social strata, including merchants, artisans, and farmers. The religion's inclusive nature, which
transcended the boundaries of caste and social status, made it an appealing option for those who
sought a spiritual path that was less rigidly hierarchical than the dominant Vedic traditions.
Consequently, Jainism continued to expand its reach and establish itself as a significant and enduring
religious tradition during the Gita Age.

The Indian Religions in the Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages (400 CE to 1500 CE), Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism experienced significant
transformations, shaped by social, political, and cultural changes in India and the surrounding regions.

Hinduism underwent a period of synthesis and reorganization during the Middle Ages, as various
regional sects and traditions were integrated into a more coherent religious framework. The rise of
devotional movements, known as Bhakti, saw the increasing importance of personal devotion and a
direct relationship with deities, such as Vishnu, Shiva, and their various incarnations. The worship of
goddesses, like Durga and Kali, also gained prominence, reflecting the diverse and evolving nature of
Hinduism. Temples became important centers of religious and social life, acting as focal points for
worship, education, and community gatherings. Additionally, the composition and dissemination of
Puranic texts, which expanded upon and reinterpreted earlier Vedic and Upanishadic teachings, helped
solidify the Hindu religious canon and reinforced the significance of the caste system and dharma.

Buddhism experienced both growth and decline during the Middle Ages. The religion continued to
spread beyond India, reaching regions such as China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia, where it took on
new forms and adapted to local cultures. This period saw the flourishing of Buddhist art, architecture,
and literature, as well as the development of important philosophical schools, such as Madhyamaka and
Yogacara. However, in India, Buddhism began to decline due to a combination of factors, including the
resurgence of Hinduism, the decline of patronage from rulers, and invasions from Central Asia that
disrupted the monastic institutions.

Jainism, while remaining a smaller religious tradition compared to Hinduism and Buddhism, continued
to maintain a significant presence in India during the Middle Ages. The Jain community remained deeply
committed to the principles of nonviolence, asceticism, and spiritual liberation, which were upheld by a
network of monastic institutions and lay followers. Jainism also made important contributions to Indian
art, architecture, and literature during this period, with the construction of ornate temples and the
composition of religious and philosophical texts. The religion continued to appeal to a wide range of
followers, from merchants to intellectuals, and maintained its distinct identity in the face of competition
from other religious traditions.

Spotlight on the Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat, located in present-day Cambodia, stands as a remarkable example of the religio-cultural
exchange between Hinduism and Buddhism during the Middle Ages. Constructed in the first half of the
12th century by the Khmer King Suryavarman II, Angkor Wat was initially dedicated to the Hindu god
Vishnu. Its intricate architecture, featuring a massive temple complex adorned with bas-reliefs,
sculptures, and other artistic representations, reflects the influence of Indian culture on the Khmer
Empire.

However, over time, Angkor Wat underwent a transformation from a Hindu temple to a Buddhist
religious center. As Buddhism gained prominence in Southeast Asia, the religious and cultural landscape
of the region shifted. By the end of the 12th century, the Khmer Empire experienced a transition toward
Mahayana Buddhism under the rule of King Jayavarman VII, who was a devout Buddhist. Consequently,
Angkor Wat's role evolved to accommodate Buddhist worship, and the temple complex became home
to both Hindu and Buddhist imagery.

This fusion of religious traditions at Angkor Wat highlights the fluidity and adaptability of religious and
cultural practices during the Middle Ages. As Hinduism and Buddhism interacted and influenced one
another, Angkor Wat stood as a testament to the complex interplay of these faiths and their shared
artistic, architectural, and philosophical heritage. The temple complex remains an iconic symbol of the
rich religious history and cultural exchange that characterized this period.
The Birth of Sikhism

Caption: Group of Sikh men sitting beneath a tree by Surinder Pal Singh on Unsplash

Sikhism emerged in the 15th century as a distinct religious tradition in the Indian subcontinent. The
founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak, was born in 1469 in present-day Pakistan. Nanak was deeply influenced
by both Hinduism and Islam, the two dominant religious traditions in the region. The Mughal Dynasty,
founded by Babur in 1526, ruled much of the Indian subcontinent, and its Islamic beliefs had a profound
impact on the religious landscape of India. Guru Nanak's spiritual quest led him to envision a faith that
integrated elements from both Hinduism and Islam, emphasizing the unity of God and the equality of all
human beings.

Guru Nanak's teachings were compiled in the form of hymns, which laid the foundation for Sikhism. His
message centered on the belief in one universal God, who is present in all creation and can be directly
experienced through meditation and devotion. He rejected the caste system and the idea of ritual
purity, advocating instead for the equality of all people regardless of their social background. Nanak
emphasized the importance of honest living, sharing with others, and remembering God at all times.

Sikhism developed under the guidance of ten successive Gurus, with Guru Nanak being the first. Each
Guru contributed to the evolution of the faith, shaping its doctrine, practices, and institutions. The third
Guru, Guru Amar Das, played a crucial role in institutionalizing the faith, establishing new centers of
learning and promoting the teachings of Sikhism.

The fifth Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, also had a particularly significant impact on Sikh history. He compiled the
Adi Granth, the sacred scripture of Sikhism, which includes hymns composed by the Gurus as well as
those from various Hindu and Muslim saints. Guru Arjan Dev also oversaw the construction of the
Golden Temple in Amritsar, which became the spiritual and cultural center of the Sikh community.
Together, the contributions of Guru Amar Das and Guru Arjan Dev solidified the foundations of Sikhism
and helped to shape its distinctive identity.

Caption: The golden temple in Amritsar by Kit Suman on Unsplash

The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, further solidified the identity and structure of the Sikh faith. In
1699, he established the Khalsa, an order of initiated Sikhs committed to upholding the principles of the
faith and defending it against persecution. Guru Gobind Singh introduced a code of conduct and
distinctive physical symbols, known as the Five Ks, that define the identity of the Khalsa and the larger
Sikh community.

The relationship between the Sikh community and the Mughal Empire was complex and, at times,
fraught with tension. While the early Gurus enjoyed cordial relations with some Mughal emperors, later
Gurus, particularly Guru Arjan Dev and Guru Gobind Singh, faced persecution and conflict. These
challenges shaped the development of Sikhism, instilling a strong sense of resilience and martial spirit
within the faith.

The teachings of the ten Gurus were eventually consolidated into the Guru Granth Sahib, the eternal
Guru and the central religious scripture of Sikhism. The Guru Granth Sahib serves as the ultimate
spiritual guide for Sikhs, containing the divine wisdom imparted by the Gurus and emphasizing the
importance of meditation, moral conduct, and spiritual growth.
The Indian Religions in the Modern Era

Caption: Sikh Antiterror March in Punjab by Surinder Pal Singh on Unsplash

Since the 16th century, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism have continued to evolve and adapt
to new cultural, social, and political contexts, both within the Indian subcontinent and beyond. As the
religious landscape of India and the surrounding regions transformed, these traditions faced new
challenges and opportunities, shaping their beliefs, practices, and institutions in complex and dynamic
ways.

In the case of Hinduism, the arrival of European colonial powers in India during the 16th century had a
profound impact on the development of the faith. The British, in particular, wielded significant influence
through their policies and administration, which often favored Western ideas and values over
indigenous traditions. This led to a period of introspection and reform within Hinduism, as scholars and
religious leaders sought to respond to the challenges posed by colonial rule.

A key development in Hinduism during this period was the emergence of various reform movements,
which aimed to address social and religious issues within the faith. These movements, such as the
Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Ramakrishna Mission, sought to reinterpret Hindu teachings in light of
modern knowledge and values, emphasizing the importance of social equality, education, and spiritual
growth. These efforts contributed to the revitalization of Hinduism and helped to counter the negative
stereotypes propagated by colonial powers.

Buddhism, too, experienced significant changes during this period. As European colonial powers
expanded their influence in Asia, they encountered various forms of Buddhism in countries such as Sri
Lanka, Burma, and Thailand. These encounters led to renewed interest in and study of the Buddhist
tradition, particularly among European scholars. This scholarly engagement, in turn, contributed to the
revival of Buddhism in its traditional heartland of India, where it had largely declined since the 12th
century.
A pivotal figure in the modern revival of Buddhism in India was B.R. Ambedkar, a social reformer and
leader of the marginalized Dalit community. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism as a means of social
emancipation and spiritual liberation, leading millions of his followers to convert to the faith. This mass
conversion movement, known as the Neo-Buddhist movement, represented a significant development
in the history of Buddhism, as it sought to reclaim the faith's egalitarian and emancipatory spirit.

Jainism, though a minority faith, continued to maintain a strong presence in India during this period. The
Jain community remained committed to the core principles of nonviolence, spiritual purification, and
ethical conduct. As India modernized and industrialized, Jains played a significant role in the country's
economic development, particularly in trade and commerce. This success, coupled with their
commitment to education and philanthropy, allowed the Jain community to exert considerable
influence within Indian society.

The Jain faith also experienced internal reform movements during this period, which sought to address
the challenges posed by modernity. Reformers within the Jain tradition emphasized the importance of
lay participation in religious life, social service, and the promotion of education and gender equality.
These efforts helped to revitalize Jainism and ensure its continued relevance in the modern world.

Sikhism, which emerged as a distinct religious tradition in the 15th century, underwent various
challenges and transformations from the 16th century onward. The Sikhs faced persecution under the
Mughal Empire, leading to the militarization of the community and the establishment of the Khalsa.
Following the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Sikhs formed their own political power through the Sikh
Empire led by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. This empire, lasting from the early 19th century until its
annexation by the British in 1849, allowed for political consolidation, cultural flourishing, and religious
tolerance.

With the arrival of the British and the subsequent annexation of the Sikh Empire, the Sikh community
faced new challenges but maintained its distinct religious and cultural identity. As India moved toward
independence, the Sikh community actively participated in the struggle for freedom. Post-
independence, Sikhism continued to evolve and adapt to India's changing socio-political landscape,
contributing significantly to the development of modern India in various fields. The Sikh community has
also focused on preserving and promoting their religious and cultural heritage, both within India and
among the growing Sikh diaspora worldwide.

In conclusion, the period from the 16th century to the present has witnessed significant developments
in the religious traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Each of these faiths has faced
unique challenges and opportunities as they interacted with the changing cultural, social, and political
contexts of India and beyond. Through a process of adaptation, reform, and revitalization, these
traditions have demonstrated their enduring relevance and vitality, contributing to the rich tapestry of
human spiritual expression.
Overview of Beliefs and Practices
Sacred Texts in the Indian Religious Tradition

Caption: Illustration of a Hindu Brahman reading from the Vedas by Scott Cason on Midjourney

Hinduism
In Hinduism, the sacred texts form the basis of religious, philosophical, and spiritual understanding. The
most ancient and revered texts are the Vedas, which include hymns, rituals, and philosophical
discourses. Subsequent texts, such as the Upanishads, expound on the spiritual and metaphysical
aspects of the Vedas. Other important texts include the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, two epic
poems that embody the ideals of dharma, heroism, and devotion. The Bhagavad Gita, a part of the
Mahabharata, serves as a guide to personal spirituality and the pursuit of dharma. Throughout history,
these texts have been studied, interpreted, and transmitted by generations of scholars and
practitioners, shaping the diverse landscape of Hindu thought and practice.
Buddhism
In Buddhism, the sacred texts, known as the Tripitaka or "Three Baskets," consist of the Vinaya Pitaka
(rules of monastic discipline), the Sutta Pitaka (discourses of the Buddha), and the Abhidhamma Pitaka
(philosophical and psychological analysis). These texts, written in Pali or Sanskrit, are the foundation of
the Buddhist tradition and serve as guides for ethical conduct, meditation, and the attainment of
enlightenment. Over time, various schools of Buddhism developed their own sets of texts, such as the
Mahayana Sutras, which elaborate on the teachings of the historical Buddha and introduce new
concepts and practices.

Jainism
Jainism has a rich textual tradition that encompasses various aspects of the faith, including ethics,
philosophy, cosmology, and history. The most important texts are the Agamas, which contain the
teachings of Mahavira and his predecessors, the Tirthankaras. The Agamas have been divided into two
main groups: the Digambara and Svetambara canons. Both sets of texts emphasize the importance of
nonviolence, truthfulness, and self-discipline as the path to spiritual liberation. Jain scriptures also
include commentaries, treatises, and narrative works that explore various aspects of Jain doctrine and
practice.

Sikhism
Sikhism's primary sacred text is the Guru Granth Sahib, a compilation of hymns, prayers, and teachings
of the Sikh Gurus, as well as selected writings of Hindu and Muslim saints. This scripture serves as the
spiritual, ethical, and social guide for Sikhs and is treated with the utmost reverence. The Guru Granth
Sahib is unique in its inclusivity, reflecting the foundational principles of Sikhism, which emphasize the
unity of God and the equality of all human beings.

The role and place of sacred texts in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share some similarities,
such as serving as the basis for religious beliefs, ethical conduct, and spiritual practices. However, they
also differ in terms of their composition, scope, and interpretation. While the Hindu texts encompass a
vast range of subjects, the Buddhist and Jain scriptures tend to focus more on the teachings of their
respective founders and the path to spiritual liberation. The Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, is
distinct in its emphasis on the unity of God and the inclusion of writings from diverse religious traditions.
Ultimately, the sacred texts of these four religions reflect the richness and complexity of the Indian
religious tradition, providing guidance and inspiration for countless followers across the centuries.

The Nature of the Divine in the Indian Religions

Hinduism
In Hinduism, the understanding of the Divine is multifaceted and deeply interconnected with the
concept of Brahman, the ultimate reality that pervades all existence. Hindus believe in a vast pantheon
of gods and goddesses, each embodying different aspects of the Divine. These deities, such as Vishnu,
Shiva, and Devi, serve as manifestations of the underlying reality of Brahman, allowing devotees to
connect with the Divine through worship, devotion, and contemplation. At the same time, the concept
of Atman, the innermost self or soul, represents the individual's connection to the Divine. The ultimate
goal in Hinduism is to realize one's true nature as Atman and transcend the illusion of separateness to
merge with the Divine.

Buddhism
Buddhism, in contrast, does not posit a supreme being or creator god. Instead, the focus is on the
teachings of the Buddha, who is considered an enlightened human being rather than a divine figure. The
Buddha's teachings emphasize the impermanence and interconnectedness of all phenomena, as well as
the potential for all sentient beings to attain enlightenment (Nirvana) by following the Noble Eightfold
Path. Some forms of Mahayana Buddhism, such as Pure Land and Vajrayana, incorporate celestial beings
called Bodhisattvas, who embody the virtues of compassion and wisdom and serve as guides on the
path to enlightenment. However, the ultimate goal in Buddhism is not union with a divine reality but
rather the realization of one's inherent Buddha-nature and the cessation of suffering.

Jainism
Jainism emphasizes the importance of individual effort and self-discipline in attaining this state, as well
as the recognition of the inherent divinity of all living beings. To be sure, in Jainism, there is a clear
distinction between Jina and Tirthankara. A Jina is an individual who has attained enlightenment by
overcoming the cycle of birth and rebirth, achieving liberation from the material world. The term "Jina"
itself means "conqueror," as these enlightened beings have conquered their passions and attachments,
thus attaining spiritual freedom. On the other hand, a Tirthankara is a "ford maker," a special type of
enlightened being who paves the way for others to attain spiritual liberation. Tirthankaras are akin to
Bodhisattvas in Buddhism, as they guide and inspire others on their spiritual journey. While there have
been many Jinas throughout history, Jainism recognizes 24 Tirthankaras, with Mahavira being the last of
them. Each Tirthankara establishes a new religious order and serves as a source of wisdom and guidance
for Jains.

Sikhism
Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak, emphasizes the belief in a single, formless, and eternal god, known as
Waheguru, who is both immanent and transcendent. The teachings of the Sikh Gurus, as recorded in the
Guru Granth Sahib, provide guidance on how to cultivate a personal relationship with the Divine through
devotion, service, and the remembrance of God's name. Sikhism rejects the worship of idols and the
concept of multiple gods and goddesses, focusing instead on the unity of the Divine and the equality of
all human beings.

The understanding of the Divine in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism varies considerably,
reflecting the diversity and richness of the Indian religious tradition. Hinduism posits a complex,
multifaceted understanding of the Divine, with multiple deities serving as manifestations of the ultimate
reality. Buddhism, on the other hand, does not focus on a Supreme Being but rather on the potential for
enlightenment within each individual. Jainism offers a concept of the Divine as the liberated and
omniscient nature of the Jinas, while Sikhism centers on the belief in a single, formless, and eternal god.
Despite these differences, all four religions share an emphasis on the individual's journey toward
spiritual realization and the potential to transcend the limitations of the human condition.

Creation in the Indian Religions

Caption: Representation of the Creator god Purusha from the Rig Veda by Scott Cason on Midjourney

Hinduism
In Hinduism, the concept of creation is closely tied to the cyclical nature of the universe, which
undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation, and dissolution. The Hindu scriptures contain various
accounts of creation, each reflecting different aspects of this process. One prominent account from the
Rigveda describes the cosmic sacrifice of the primal being, Purusha, from whose dismembered body the
various elements of the universe emerged. Another account from the Upanishads posits that the
universe originated from the unmanifested Brahman, which manifested itself as the cosmos through the
vibrations of the sacred syllable Om. In Hindu cosmology, the god Brahma is associated with the act of
creation, while Vishnu and Shiva represent the forces of preservation and destruction, respectively.

Buddhism
Buddhism does not offer a definitive account of the origin of the universe, as the Buddha focused on the
nature of human suffering and the path to liberation rather than cosmological speculations. Instead,
Buddhist cosmology describes the cyclical nature of existence, with sentient beings undergoing
countless rebirths in different realms based on their karma. The universe is said to be in a constant state
of flux, expanding and contracting over immense periods of time. Some Buddhist scriptures discuss the
concept of a "beginningless time," suggesting that the cycle of birth and death has no ultimate starting
point.

Jainism
Jainism also does not provide a definitive account of creation, as the religion emphasizes the eternal
nature of the universe and the cycles of time. According to Jain cosmology, the universe is uncreated
and has existed eternally, without the need for a creator deity. Time is divided into endlessly repeating
cycles, each consisting of an ascending and descending phase. During the ascending phase, human
beings progress morally and spiritually, while during the descending phase, they experience moral and
spiritual decline. The universe and all living beings within it are subject to this eternal cycle of change
and transformation, reflecting the Jain emphasis on the interdependence and interconnectedness of all
existence.

Sikhism
Sikhism, in contrast to the other Indian religious traditions, offers a more monotheistic perspective on
the origins of the universe. The Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, begins with the Mool Mantra, a
statement of belief in the eternal, formless, and self-existent nature of God, known as Waheguru.
Sikhism teaches that God created the universe and all living beings, but the exact nature of this creative
process is not detailed in Sikh scripture. The focus is on the unity and omnipotence of the Divine, as well
as the importance of cultivating a personal relationship with God through devotion, service, and ethical
living.

In summary, the Indian religious traditions offer a diverse array of perspectives on the concept of
creation and universal origins. Hinduism presents various accounts of creation that emphasize the
cyclical nature of the universe and the role of the gods in this process. Buddhism and Jainism, in
contrast, do not provide definitive creation stories, instead focusing on the eternal and cyclical nature of
existence. Sikhism offers a monotheistic perspective on the origins of the universe, attributing its
creation to the eternal and formless God, Waheguru. These varying perspectives reflect the rich and
diverse tapestry of Indian religious thought and its emphasis on the individual's journey toward spiritual
understanding and realization.
Afterlife in the Indian Religions

Caption: Buddhists pay homage to the Big Buddha in AngThong Province by Rutpratheep Nilpechr on
Unsplash

Hinduism
In Hinduism, the concept of the afterlife is closely tied to the belief in the cycle of birth and rebirth
(samsara) and the law of karma. According to Hindu beliefs, the soul (Atman) passes through a series of
births and deaths, with each life being determined by the actions (karma) performed in previous lives.
The ultimate goal of a Hindu is to break free from this cycle and attain spiritual liberation (moksha),
which involves merging with the divine essence, Brahman. Different Hindu traditions offer various paths
to achieve moksha, such as through knowledge (jnana yoga), selfless action (karma yoga), or devotion
(bhakti yoga). After death, a person's soul may temporarily reside in one of the various heavenly or
hellish realms, depending on their karma, before taking another birth in the cycle of samsara.
Buddhism
Buddhism shares with Hinduism the concepts of samsara and karma, but its understanding of the
afterlife is shaped by the Buddha's teachings on the impermanent and interconnected nature of
existence. Instead of an eternal soul, Buddhism posits the concept of an ever-changing stream of
consciousness that continues from one life to the next, driven by one's actions and desires. The ultimate
goal in Buddhism is to attain enlightenment (Nirvana), which involves the cessation of suffering and the
end of the cycle of birth and rebirth. Different Buddhist traditions offer various methods to achieve
Nirvana, such as meditation, mindfulness, and the practice of compassion. Like Hinduism, Buddhism also
describes a range of heavenly and hellish realms that beings can experience between lives, based on
their karma.

Jainism
Jainism shares similarities with both Hinduism and Buddhism in its understanding of the afterlife, with
the concepts of samsara, karma, and spiritual liberation (moksha or kevala) playing central roles. In
Jainism, the soul (jiva) is believed to be encumbered by karmic matter, which binds it to the cycle of
birth and rebirth. The ultimate goal for a Jain is to achieve spiritual liberation by purifying the soul of
karmic matter through strict adherence to nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness, and other ethical
principles, as well as the practice of asceticism. Upon attaining moksha, the liberated soul rises to the
highest level of the universe, known as Siddhashila, where it exists eternally in a state of perfect
knowledge and bliss.

Sikhism
Sikhism's understanding of the afterlife is shaped by its monotheistic beliefs and the teachings of the 10
Sikh Gurus. Sikhism teaches that the soul undergoes a series of births and deaths based on its actions
(karma), with the ultimate goal being to break free from this cycle and merge with God, much like the
Hindu concept of moksha. However, Sikhism emphasizes the importance of cultivating a personal
relationship with God (Waheguru) through devotion, service, and ethical living as the means to achieve
spiritual liberation. Sikh scripture does not provide detailed descriptions of heavenly or hellish realms;
instead, the focus is on living a virtuous life and aligning oneself with the divine will.

In conclusion, the Indian religious traditions share some common concepts concerning the afterlife, such
as the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara), karma, and spiritual liberation (moksha or Nirvana). However,
each tradition offers unique perspectives on these concepts and provides different paths to achieve the
ultimate goal of spiritual liberation. While Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism all emphasize various forms
of spiritual practice, knowledge, and ethical conduct, Sikhism places a stronger emphasis on devotion
and personal relationship with God.
Rituals and Practices in the Indian Religions

Caption: Large group of Buddhist monks sitting on the ground by Iván Tejero on Unsplash

Hinduism
Puja: Puja is a Hindu ritual of worship and devotion, performed to honor and connect with a deity
or divine aspect. It typically involves offering flowers, incense, food, and other items while
reciting prayers or mantras. The purpose of puja is to express devotion and gratitude, purify
the mind, and receive blessings from the divine.

Sandhyavandanam: Sandhyavandanam is a daily ritual performed by Hindus, usually Brahmins,

during the transitional periods of dawn, noon, and dusk. It involves the recitation of specific
mantras and prayers, purification rituals, and meditation. The practice is meant to maintain
spiritual discipline, enhance concentration, and seek divine blessings.

Aarti: Aarti is a ritual performed in homes and temples to honor and express devotion to a deity. It
involves waving a lamp with burning incense or camphor in a circular motion in front of the
deity's image or idol, accompanied by the singing of devotional songs. Aarti symbolizes the
removal of darkness and ignorance, bringing light and wisdom into one's life.

Buddhism
Prostrations: Prostrations are a common ritual in Buddhism, where practitioners physically express
their reverence, humility, and devotion by bowing and touching their forehead to the ground.
This practice helps to overcome pride and develop an attitude of humility and gratitude.
 Chanting: Chanting of sutras, mantras, or the Buddha's name is a widespread practice in
Buddhism. It is believed to have various benefits, such as purifying the mind, developing
concentration, and generating positive energy or merit.

Offerings: Buddhists make offerings of food, water, flowers, incense, and other items to Buddha
statues, stupas, or in front of an altar in their homes. These offerings symbolize the
practitioner's generosity, renunciation, and aspiration to attain enlightenment.

Spotlight on the Buddhist Mandala Ritual

The Mandala ritual is an important practice in Tibetan Buddhism and other Vajrayana traditions,
involving the creation, meditation, and dissolution of a mandala as a means of spiritual transformation
and enlightenment. The ritual generally consists of several steps:

Creation: The creation of a mandala is a meticulous and intricate process, often carried out by
skilled monks. In the case of a sand mandala, they use colored sand to form precise geometric
patterns and symbolic images, which can take several days or even weeks to complete. The act
of creating the mandala is considered a meditative practice in itself, requiring immense
concentration, patience, and skill.

Consecration and Meditation: Once the mandala is complete, it is consecrated through prayers,
chants, and various ritualistic activities. The mandala then serves as a visual aid and focus for
meditation, helping practitioners to contemplate the interconnectedness of all phenomena,
the nature of impermanence, and the ultimate goal of enlightenment. By meditating on the
mandala, individuals can develop a deeper understanding of Buddhist teachings and cultivate
qualities such as compassion, wisdom, and inner peace.

Dissolution: After a period of meditation and ritual, the mandala is dissolved, symbolizing the
impermanent nature of all phenomena and the illusory quality of the material world. In the
case of a sand mandala, the sand is carefully swept away, and the collected sand is often
dispersed in a nearby body of water as a means of extending the blessings and positive energy
generated during the ritual.

The Mandala ritual serves as a powerful reminder of the impermanence of life, the interconnectedness
of all beings, and the need for spiritual practice to attain enlightenment.

Jainism
Pratikramana: Pratikramana is a daily Jain ritual that involves self-reflection, confession of any
harm caused to living beings, and seeking forgiveness. This practice helps to purify the soul,
develop self-awareness, and maintain a non-violent, compassionate lifestyle.
 Samayika: Samayika is the practice of equanimity, during which Jains meditate and focus on the
spiritual aspects of life, striving to remain calm and undisturbed by worldly matters. It is
typically performed twice a day, in the morning and evening, for a duration of 48 minutes.

Chaitya Vandana: Chaitya Vandana is a ritual performed in Jain temples, involving the recitation of
prayers, hymns, and mantras in praise of the Tirthankaras. It helps to develop devotion,
gratitude, and spiritual connection with the Tirthankaras.

Sikhism
Nitnem: Nitnem is the daily practice of reciting specific hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib, the
Sikh holy scripture. These hymns, known as the "Five Banis," are recited at specific times
throughout the day and are meant to instill spiritual discipline, enhance focus, and foster a
close relationship with the divine.

Kirtan: Kirtan is the devotional singing of hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib, often accompanied
by musical instruments. This practice helps to create a sense of community, develop devotion,
and deepen one's connection with the divine.

Ardas: Ardas is a collective Sikh prayer that is recited during gatherings, ceremonies, or personal
worship. It involves invoking the guidance and blessings of the Gurus, expressing gratitude, and
seeking strength and support.

Holy Days and Festivals in the Indian Religions

Hinduism
Diwali: Diwali, also known as the Festival of Lights, is one of the most significant Hindu festivals. It
is celebrated to honor the victory of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, and good
over evil. The festival typically involves lighting oil lamps, bursting fireworks, and sharing
sweets and gifts with family and friends. Diwali also marks the return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya
after defeating the demon king Ravana.

Holi: Holi is a vibrant and joyful festival that celebrates the arrival of spring and the triumph of
good over evil. The festival involves the throwing of colored powders and water at each other,
singing, dancing, and indulging in sweets. Holi also commemorates the legend of the demoness
Holika and the devotion of the young devotee Prahlada to Lord Vishnu.

Navratri: Navratri is a nine-day festival dedicated to the worship of the goddess Durga and her
various forms. The festival involves fasting, prayers, dancing, and the performance of various
rituals to seek the blessings of the goddess for protection, prosperity, and spiritual growth.
Navratri concludes with the celebration of Dussehra, which symbolizes the victory of Lord
Rama over the demon king Ravana.
Buddhism
Vesak: Vesak is the most significant Buddhist festival, celebrating the birth, enlightenment, and
death (Parinirvana) of the Buddha. It is observed with prayers, meditation, making offerings to
the Buddha, and engaging in acts of generosity, such as giving alms to the poor and releasing
captive animals.

Asalha Puja: Asalha Puja commemorates the Buddha's first sermon after attaining enlightenment,
known as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, which set the Wheel of Dharma in motion. The
festival involves attending sermons, meditation, and making offerings at temples. It also marks
the beginning of the annual three-month Buddhist Rains Retreat (Vassa).

Uposatha: Uposatha is observed on the full moon, new moon, and quarter moon days in the
traditional Buddhist calendar. It is a day of intensified religious practice, including meditation,
listening to sermons, and observing the Eight Precepts. The Uposatha days serve as a time for
spiritual reflection and renewal.

Jainism
Mahavir Jayanti: Mahavir Jayanti is the most important Jain festival, celebrating the birth of
Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara. The day is marked by processions, prayers, and the
recitation of holy scriptures. Devotees also engage in acts of charity and visit Jain temples to
pay homage to Mahavira.

Paryushana: Paryushana is an eight-day period of fasting, prayer, and self-reflection for Jains. It is a
time to focus on spiritual growth, seek forgiveness for past wrongdoings, and practice
nonviolence and compassion. The festival concludes with Samvatsari, a day of forgiveness,
when Jains ask for and grant forgiveness to others.

Diwali: While Diwali is commonly associated with Hinduism, it is also celebrated by Jains as the day
when Mahavira attained Nirvana, or liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Jains observe
Diwali by lighting lamps, offering prayers, and engaging in acts of charity.

Sikhism
Vaisakhi: Vaisakhi is a major Sikh festival, commemorating the creation of the Khalsa by Guru
Gobind Singh in 1699. It is also a harvest festival, marking the beginning of the new agricultural
year in the Punjab region. Vaisakhi is celebrated with processions, singing of hymns, and the
sharing of food with the community. It is a time for Sikhs to reaffirm their commitment to the
principles of their faith and to remember the sacrifices made by their ancestors.

Gurpurab: Gurpurab is a series of festivals celebrating the birth anniversaries of the 10 Sikh Gurus.
The most significant among them are the birthdays of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, and
Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru. Gurpurab celebrations involve prayers, singing of hymns,
 and sharing meals in the langar (community kitchen) at the Gurdwara. It is a time to reflect on
the teachings of the Gurus and to strengthen one's commitment to the values of Sikhism.

Hola Mohalla: Hola Mohalla is a Sikh festival that takes place annually around the time of Holi, the
Hindu festival of colors. It was initiated by Guru Gobind Singh as a way to showcase the martial
skills of the Sikh community and to remind Sikhs of their duty to protect the weak and uphold
justice. Hola Mohalla celebrations involve mock battles, martial arts demonstrations, horse
riding displays, and the singing of hymns. It is a time for Sikhs to come together and celebrate
their martial heritage and collective strength.

Purpose in the Indian Religious Traditions

Caption: A Buddhist statue stationed within a garden of Lotus flowers by Sarah Ball on Unsplash

Hinduism
In Hinduism, the concept of purpose, or the ultimate goal of human life, is often framed in terms of the
four Purusharthas: Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire), and Moksha (liberation). The
pursuit of these interconnected goals aims to provide a balanced and meaningful life for the individual.
Dharma represents the ethical and moral duties that one must fulfill in accordance with their caste, age,
and personal circumstances. Artha and Kama involve the pursuit of material success and the fulfillment
of personal desires, respectively, within the bounds of Dharma. Moksha, the ultimate goal of Hinduism,
signifies spiritual liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara) and the attainment of union
with the Divine.

Buddhism
In Buddhism, the ultimate purpose of human life is to achieve enlightenment (Nirvana), a state of
spiritual liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). The Buddhist path toward Nirvana is
guided by the understanding and practice of Dharma, which encompasses the teachings of the Buddha
and the universal truths governing existence. Central to the Buddhist worldview is the concept of
Anatta, or "no-self," which sets it apart from Hinduism's belief in an eternal soul (Atman).

To attain this goal, followers are guided by the Four Noble Truths, which outline the nature of suffering
and the path to liberation, and the Noble Eightfold Path, which provides a practical framework for
ethical conduct, mental development, and spiritual practice. By cultivating wisdom, ethical behavior,
and mental discipline, Buddhists strive to eradicate ignorance, craving, and aversion—the root causes of
suffering—and ultimately attain Nirvana. The emphasis on Anatta and the interconnectedness of all
beings in Buddhism creates a distinct approach to spiritual development, contrasting with the Hindu
emphasis on realizing the unity between Atman and Brahman.

Jainism
The primary purpose in Jainism is to achieve spiritual liberation (Kevala Jnana) and become a Jina, a
perfected soul free from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). Jains believe that every living being
possesses an eternal soul (Jiva) that accumulates karmic particles based on its actions, which determine
its future birth and status. By adhering to the principles of nonviolence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya),
non-stealing (asteya), chastity (brahmacharya), and non-possessiveness (aparigraha), Jains seek to purify
their souls, free themselves from karmic bondage, and ultimately attain spiritual liberation.

Central to the Jain path of spiritual progress are the Three Jewels: right faith (Samyak Darshana), right
knowledge (Samyak Jnana), and right conduct (Samyak Charitra). By cultivating these virtues, Jains strive
to attain the ultimate goal of becoming a Jina and experiencing spiritual liberation. The Three Jewels
provide a comprehensive framework for understanding and practicing the Jain faith, guiding followers
on their journey toward spiritual perfection.

Sikhism
In Sikhism, the purpose of life is to realize and develop a deep connection with God, referred to as
Waheguru, through devotion, service, and the remembrance of His name (Naam Simran). Sikhs believe
that human life is a unique opportunity for spiritual growth, allowing one to break free from the cycle of
birth and rebirth (samsara) and merge with God. The Sikh path emphasizes the importance of living an
honest, humble, and socially responsible life while maintaining a constant awareness of the Divine
presence. By following the teachings of the Guru Granth Sahib and embracing the principles of equality,
compassion, and selflessness, Sikhs strive to attain spiritual liberation (Mukti) and unity with God.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the study of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism provides a fascinating insight into
the diverse religious landscape of the Indian subcontinent. While these traditions have distinct histories,
beliefs, and practices, they are also deeply interconnected, often sharing philosophical concepts, ethical
principles, and ritual elements. By examining these four major Indian religions in concert with one
another, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the ways in which they have shaped and been shaped by
Indian society and culture throughout history. Moreover, understanding the commonalities and
differences between these faiths can help foster greater interreligious dialogue and cooperation, both
within India and around the world. As we continue to explore the rich tapestry of religious traditions
that have emerged from the Indian subcontinent, it is essential to appreciate the profound impact they
have had on the lives of millions of people and the unique spiritual insights they offer.
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Florida State College at Jacksonville. (2023). REL2300: World Religions.

OpenAI. "Conversation with ChatGPT." ChatGPT, OpenAI, 13, April 2023. Personal communication.