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Binge-Watching in Times of COVID-19: A Longitudinal Examination of

Changes in Affect and TV Series Consumption Patterns During Lockdown

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Psychology of Popular Media
Binge-Watching in Times of COVID-19: A Longitudinal Examination of
Changes in Affect and TV Series Consumption Patterns During Lockdown
Vera Sigre-Leirós, Joël Billieux, Christine Mohr, Pierre Maurage, Daniel L. King, Adriano Schimmenti, and Maèva Flayelle
Online First Publication, February 24, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000390

CITATION
Sigre-Leirós, V., Billieux, J., Mohr, C., Maurage, P., King, D. L., Schimmenti, A., & Flayelle, M. (2022, February 24). Binge-
Watching in Times of COVID-19: A Longitudinal Examination of Changes in Affect and TV Series Consumption Patterns
During Lockdown. Psychology of Popular Media. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000390
 Psychology of Popular Media
© 2022 American Psychological Association
ISSN: 2689-6567 https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000390

Binge-Watching in Times of COVID-19: A Longitudinal Examination of

Changes in Affect and TV Series Consumption Patterns During Lockdown

Vera Sigre-Leirós1, Joël Billieux1, Christine Mohr1, Pierre Maurage2, Daniel L. King3,
Adriano Schimmenti4, and Maèva Flayelle1
1
Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne
2
Louvain Experimental Psychopathology Research Group, Psychological Sciences Research Institute, UCLouvain
3
College of Education, Psychology, and Social Work, Flinders University
4
Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, Kore University of Enna
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns have had major negative effects on individuals’ mental health and psy-
chological well-being. Isolated at home, people may engage in recreational activities such as binge-watch-
ing (i.e., viewing multiple episodes of a TV series in 1 session) as a strategy to regulate emotional states.
This is the first longitudinal study assessing changes in TV series viewing patterns during the first
COVID-19 lockdown and examining whether binge-watching was associated with changes in positive
and negative affect throughout this period. TV series viewing practices and motivations, binge-watching
behaviors, psychopathological symptoms, and affective states were jointly assessed through a 6-week lon-
gitudinal online survey at 3 time points (i.e., T1, T2, and T3), in Belgium, France, and Switzerland.
Results showed significant increases in individuals’ watching habits (e.g., higher daily time spent viewing,
expansion of coviewing practices). Results from the longitudinal analyses principally showed that male
gender and social motives for TV series watching predicted a decrease in negative affect levels. A prob-
lematic binge-watching pattern characterized by loss of control was the single predictor of an increase in
negative affect over time. These findings suggest that TV series watching patterns effectively increased
during the first COVID-19 lockdown. Watching TV series for social motives emerged as a protective fac-
tor, whereas problematic binge-watching seemed to act as a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy
throughout these unprecedented circumstances.

Public Policy Relevance Statement

This is the first large-scale longitudinal study specifically designed to explore the impact of TV series
viewing practices on individuals’ affective states during the first COVID-19 lockdown. TV series
consumption patterns significantly increased over this period. Problematic binge-watching character-
ized by loss of control seemed to act as a maladaptive strategy to regulate emotional states, whereas
watching TV series for social motives emerged as a protective factor in the lockdown context.

Keywords: COVID-19, lockdown, binge-watching, TV series, emotion regulation

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has greatly routines, mental health, and well-being (Pfefferbaum & North, 2020;
affected human life worldwide. Lockdown restrictions and social dis- Polizzi et al., 2020; Saladino et al., 2020; Salari et al., 2020; Serafini
tancing measures generated significant effects on individuals’ normal et al., 2020). A recent meta-analysis of mainly Chinese studies

and Joël Billieux designed the study. Maèva Flayelle created and disseminated
Vera Sigre-Leirós https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1788-3909 the online survey. Maèva Flayelle ran the statistical analyses. Maèva Flayelle,
Joël Billieux https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7388-6194 Vera Sigre-Leirós, and Joël Billieux interpreted the results. Vera Sigre-Leirós
Pierre Maurage https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0197-0810 wrote the initial draft of the article, under the supervision of Maèva Flayelle.
Daniel L. King https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1762-2581 Joël Billieux, Daniel L. King, Pierre Maurage, Adriano Schimmenti, and
Adriano Schimmenti https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5181-2648 Christine Mohr reviewed the initial draft and actively participated in writing
Maèva Flayelle https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2941-6926 the final draft. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.
Pierre Maurage is funded by the Belgian Fund for Scientific Research Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Vera
(FRS-FNRS, Belgium). The authors report no conflict of interest. The data Sigre-Leirós, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Quartier
that support the findings of this study are openly available via the Open UNIL-Mouline, Bâtiment Géopolis, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
Science Framework at https://osf.io/gk7u2/. Maèva Flayelle, Pierre Maurage, Email: [email protected]

1
 2 SIGRE-LEIRÓS ET AL.

reported a high prevalence of stress (36%), poor sleep quality (34%), definition of binge-watching, which greatly varies according to
anxiety (26%), and depression (24%) among the general population three subcomponents: (a) a quantity based-index, namely, the num-
during this pandemic period (Krishnamoorthy et al., 2020). Prolonged ber of episodes or programs considered; (b) the characterization of
exposure to stress derived from such a major health crisis is also asso- the content, varying from the same TV series to miscellaneous pro-
ciated with an inability to cope with negative emotional states and grams; and (c) a time pattern, including different timeframes of TV
trauma (Saladino et al., 2020). In addition, previous outbreaks, such viewing. Nevertheless, binge-watching can be broadly defined as
as the 2003 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (Brooks et the practice of seeing multiple episodes of TV series in a unique
al., 2020; Hawryluck et al., 2004; Reynolds et al., 2008; Serafini et session (Flayelle, Maurage, et al., 2020). Recent studies provided
al., 2020), demonstrated a stronger psychological impact on people evidence about its heterogeneous nature, which may reflect, on the
who were quarantined, which included posttraumatic stress symptoms one hand, a positive experience that may drive intensive but healthy
and negative feelings (e.g., fear, confusion, frustration, and anger). involvement (i.e., nonproblematic binge-watching, associated with
COVID-19 lockdowns have radically transformed many indi- positive emotions and needs satisfaction) and, on the other hand, an
viduals’ daily routines and habits. With people spending signifi- excessive behavior denoting problematic engagement (i.e., prob-
cantly more time at home, the use of digital technology (e.g., lematic binge-watching, associated with loss of control and nega-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

smartphone apps, video games, and social technologies such as tive outcomes such as impaired sleep quality and daily functioning,
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Zoom, Meet, or Teams) has become instrumental for social con- or emotional distress; Brookes & Ellithorpe, 2017; De Feijter et al.,
nection, information, and entertainment (Boursier et al., 2020; 2016; Exelmans & Van den Bulck, 2017; Flayelle, Canale, et al.,
Giardina et al., 2021; Király et al., 2020; Saladino et al., 2020; 2019; Flayelle, Maurage, 2020; Starosta et al., 2019; Steins-Loeber
Wiederhold, 2020). From the beginning of the pandemic, global et al., 2020; Tóth-Király et al., 2017).
streaming services (e.g., Netflix, Hulu, Disney Plus) recorded a In this regard, understanding the specific motivations underlying
significant increase in subscriptions. Netflix subscriptions, for TV series viewing may be critical for differentiating between
example, rose from 167 million in late 2019 to 193 million in July problematic and nonproblematic binge-watching. Although some
2020 (Gruber, 2020; Moody, 2020). The average daily time spent studies have supported the role of hedonistic motivations such as
watching TV in the United States increased by 2.5 hr in 2019 to enjoyment and entertainment in fostering binge-watching (Pittman
3.9 hr between March and April 2020 (Gruber, 2020). The same & Sheehan, 2015; Rubenking & Bracken, 2021; Shim & Kim,
trend was observed for other Internet-based activities, including 2018; Flayelle, Canale, et al., 2019; Starosta et al., 2019), others
video gaming (Arkenberg, 2020; Hawkins, 2020; Xu et al., 2021), have evidenced rather eudaemonic motivations such as personal
cybersex (Dubé et al., 2020), or online gambling (The European enrichment or information seeking (Flayelle, Canale, et al., 2019;
Business Review, 2020). Merrill & Rubenking, 2019; Starosta et al., 2019). Moreover,
In this context of social isolation, it has also been suggested that binge-watching may also be driven by compensatory-based
digital technology use may be particularly aimed at improving or motives such as dealing with loneliness (Sung et al., 2015; Star-
maintaining personal well-being (Riva et al., 2020). The high osta et al., 2019) or escaping from everyday problems (Panda &
availability, accessibility, and affordability of entertainment devi- Pandey, 2017; Starosta et al., 2019). Relatedly, coping/escapism
ces may foster the emergence of prolonged patterns of TV series motivation was associated with problematic binge-watching
viewing in such a containment context, that is, binge-watching. (Flayelle, Canale, et al., 2019; Ort et al., 2021). Nevertheless,
This media viewing practice (further described in the following based on Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) transactional model of
text) was given special attention. coping, Halfmann and Reinecke (2021) suggested that, in a partic-
Capitalizing on prior evidence and existing theories about the pos- ularly stressful situation, binge-watching may constitute an effec-
itive impact of media use on individuals’ well-being (Reinecke & tive source of relaxation and stress reduction (thus, a form of
Oliver, 2017; Reinecke et al., 2011), this study constitutes the first adaptive emotion-focused coping), which may primarily contrib-
longitudinal investigation of the relationship between TV series con- ute to the restoration of general coping resources and thus promote
sumption patterns and subjective well-being (i.e., individuals’ affec- efficient problem-focused coping. Hence, the same authors pro-
tive states) during the first COVID-19 lockdown. In the current posed binge-watching as a form of escapist entertainment use,
study, we decided to focus on subjective well-being (i.e., hedonic stressing its functional nature as a potentially adaptive coping
well-being), which involves the evaluation of life conditions in terms strategy (Halfmann & Reinecke, 2021). Accordingly, questioning
of satisfaction, happiness, and balance between positive and negative the (adaptive or maladaptive) coping function of binge-watching
affect, rather than on psychological well-being (i.e., eudaimonic behaviors during a challenging context such as the COVID-19
well-being), which relates to personal growth and human potential lockdown is of particular relevance.
for effectively engaging with the challenges of life (Keyes et al.,
2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001). We made this choice because most stud- Available Evidence on TV Viewing Practices During
ies conducted in the COVID-19 context focus on subjective well- Stay-at-Home Orders
being and assessed constructs such as self-reported affective states
or emotional distress (Salari et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). From the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, experts
warned about the potential risks associated with the escalation
Binge-Watching: Current Definition and Related of some online behaviors, such as gambling, video gaming, por-
nography viewing, or TV series watching (Király et al., 2020).
Motivations
Since then, the available literature on binge-watching during the
In the first systematic literature review conducted on the topic, COVID-19 lockdown has expanded. A descriptive study in
Flayelle, Maurage, et al. (2020) pointed out the lack of a consensus Southeast Asian countries showed that 73.7% of the sample (N
 BINGE-WATCHING IN TIMES OF COVID-19 3

= 548) reported a significant increase in TV/Internet engage- and enhancing positive emotions), thereby enhancing individuals’
ment during the first COVID-19 lockdown (Dixit et al., 2020). (subjective) well-being as a form of escapist entertainment use
Among the main motivations for binge-watching were notably (Halfmann & Reinecke, 2021).
the need to pass time and escape boredom, to relieve stress and
loneliness, and to stay updated. Participants also reported some The Present Study
concerns about the consequences of their current higher involve-
ment in binge-watching, with 30.3% fearing that they would The aim of the present study was, therefore, twofold: (a) to
become “addicted” to TV series (Dixit et al., 2020). Relying on assess changes in TV series viewing patterns (e.g., viewing fre-
an Italian community sample, a recent cross-sectional study quency and intensity, TV series watching motivations, patterns of
showed that during the first COVID-19 lockdown, people spent engagement) during the first COVID-19 lockdown across French-
significantly more time watching TV series; this was particu- speaking European countries and (b) to test whether problematic
larly observed among women (Boursier et al., 2021). Binge- and nonproblematic binge-watching behaviors predict changes in
watching behaviors (both problematic and nonproblematic) negative and positive affect (i.e., subjective well-being) through-
were predicted by anxiety symptoms and escapism motives, out this period. This is the first large-scale longitudinal study spe-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

thereby suggesting the role of TV series watching as a recovery

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

cifically designed to explore the impact of TV series viewing

strategy in such a specific context (Boursier et al., 2021). In a practices on individuals’ subjective well-being during such a con-
similar vein, findings from a recent study conducted in Germany text of social isolation.
corroborated a significant increase in different online activities’
frequency, including video streaming consumption, especially
Method
in women (Lemenager et al., 2021).
Relatedly, Rubenking and Bracken (2021) examined the evolu-
tion of media viewing practices among U.S university students Participants and Procedure
between 2015 and 2020 and found that together with serial view-
An online survey was disseminated among 1,356 TV series
ing (i.e., self-paced viewing of narrative content over time), binge-
viewers (69.2% females) aged between 18 and 79 years (M =
watching frequency significantly increased over this 5-year period
35.74; SD = 14.67) in French-speaking countries (i.e., Belgium,
(as traditional appointment TV series viewing decreased consider-
France, and Switzerland) following the implementation of the first
ably), with a peak at the height of COVID-19 stay-at-home meas-
lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic1. To monitor changes
ures. In the same line, Arend et al. (2021) showed that pandemic-
related confinements in Germany and Austria were positively in viewing practices and affect throughout this lockdown, we
related to watching TV and social media consumption, particularly invited participants to answer the online questionnaire every 2
in younger people. weeks until the lifting of lockdown measures. The design of our
In view of prior studies reporting positive associations between longitudinal study thus consisted of a panel study (i.e., we collected
binge-watching and both positive (e.g., viewing enjoyment) and repeated measures from the same sample at different points in time
negative (e.g., depression and anxiety) affective states (Ahmed, for 6 weeks). Therefore, along with the initial assessment (i.e., T1:
2017; Granow et al., 2018; Merrill & Rubenking, 2019; Tefertiller n = 1,356), we ended up with two additional assessments (i.e., T2:
& Maxwell, 2018; Tukachinsky & Eyal, 2018), the assumption n = 346; T3: n = 115) until the final date2 of recruitment (i.e., May
that binge-watching behaviors centrally involve emotion-regula- 18, 2020). We recruited participants by means of advertisements
tion mechanics has emerged (Flayelle, Maurage, et al., 2019; among various TV series’ fan communities (e.g., “films and TV se-
Rubenking & Bracken, 2021). In this regard, the mood manage- ries’ fans”, “best movies and TV shows”) on social networks (i.e.,
ment theory (Zillmann, 1988a, 1988b, 2000) is a sound theoretical Facebook). They were informed about the aims of the research pro-
framework to account for binge-watching as an emotion-regula- ject and gave their consent before starting the survey. Inclusion cri-
tion process. In line with the mood management theory, media teria were as follows: being at least 18 years old, being a native
content selection could be driven by the hedonistic purpose of French speaker, and having regularly watched TV series over the
mood regulation (i.e., enhancing positive affect and diminishing past 6 months.
negative affect; Reinecke & Oliver, 2017). Available research has Table 1 displays participants’ characteristics over the three mea-
extended this perspective, evidencing that beyond enjoyment and surement times. Along with sociodemographic information, hous-
mood regulation, media consumption may also have broader posi- ing characteristics and general life circumstances were also
tive effects on psychological rejuvenation and well-being (Rei- assessed to document participants’ specific life context while they
necke & Oliver, 2017; Reinecke et al., 2011). Nevertheless, such were confined at home. Globally, these features were stable across
an effect could be dependent on self-control skills (Eden et al., the three samples. Between 59% and 61% lived in town, the vast
2018; Hoffmann et al., 2017; Schnauber-Stockmann et al., 2018):
majority (i.e., between 80% and 83%) reporting having available
for example, ego-depleted individuals (i.e., individuals presenting
outdoor space and having no children at home (i.e., between 69%
lower available cognitive resources to exert self-control) showed a
tendency to negatively evaluate entertainment use as a procrastina- 1
tion form, which may elicit feelings of guilt and negatively impact As the dissemination of the online survey started on April 2, 2020,
participants had been experiencing lockdown for at least 2 weeks (COVID-
stress recovery and well-being (Reinecke et al., 2014). 19 containment measures officially took place on March 17, 2020, in
Against this background, it is possible that continued TV series France, March 18, 2020, in Belgium, and March 16, 2020, in Switzerland).
consumption in a pandemic lockdown context may serve as a 2
COVID-19 containment measures gradually ended starting May 11,
means to regulate emotional states (i.e., reducing negative emotions 2020, in France and Switzerland, and May 18, 2020, in Belgium.
 4 SIGRE-LEIRÓS ET AL.

Table 1
Participants’ Characteristics Across Samples
T1 T2 T3
Sociodemographic variables n = 1,356 n = 346 n = 115
Age (year), M (SD) 35.74 (14.67) 35.85 (14.81) 38.19 (15.42)
Range 18
79 18
77 18
76
Gender
Male 30.2% (n = 409) 33.8% (n = 117) 33% (n = 38)
Female 69.2% (n = 938) 65.3% (n = 226) 65.2% (n = 75)
Other 0.6% (n = 9) 0.9% (n = 3) 1.7% (n = 2)
Education
High school degree 18.4% (n = 249) 14.5% (n = 50) 9.6% (n = 11)
Bachelor degree 37.4% (n = 507) 39% (n = 135) 36.5% (n = 42)
Master degree 36.9% (n = 500) 40.1% (n = 139) 47% (n = 54)
Doctoral degree 7.4% (n = 100) 6.4% (n = 22) 7% (n = 8)
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Professional status
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Student 31.9% (n = 433) 31.5% (n = 109) 28.7% (n = 33)

Active worker 57.6% (n = 780) 57.8% (n = 200) 60.9% (n = 70)
Unemployed 4.1% (n = 56) 4.3% (n = 15) 3.5% (n = 4)
Retired 6.4% (n = 87) 6.4% (n = 22) 7% (n = 8)
Country of residence
Belgium 51.8% (n = 702) 59.2% (n = 205) 54.8% (n = 63)
France 26.8% (n = 363) 19.7% (n = 68) 18.3% (n = 21)
Switzerland 21.3% (n = 289) 21.1% (n = 73) 27% (n = 31)
T1 T2 T3
Housing characteristics n = 1,356 n = 346 n = 115
Residence area
In town 59% (n = 800) 60.4% (n = 209) 60.9% (n = 70)
In the countryside 41% (n = 556) 39.6% (n = 137) 39.1% (n = 45)
Surface area (in square meters)
,30 3.4% (n = 46) 2.6% (n = 9) 2.6% (n = 3)
.30
60 10.8% (n = 146) 11.8% (n = 41) 7.8% (n = 9)
.60
90 20.4% (n = 277) 19.4% (n = 67) 20% (n = 23)
.90
120 22.9% (n = 310) 20.2% (n = 70) 27% (n = 31)
.120
150 19.4% (n = 263) 19.4% (n = 67) 17.4% (n = 20)
.150 23.2% (n = 314) 26.6% (n = 92) 25.2% (n = 29)
Number of rooms
1
2 3.5% (n = 48) 2.9% (n = 10) 1.7% (n = 2)
3
4 15% (n = 203) 17% (n = 59) 16.6% (n = 19)
5
6 23.3% (n = 311) 18.8% (n = 65) 17.4% (n = 20)
.6 58.6% (n = 794) 61.3% (n = 212) 64.3% (n = 74)
Outdoor space availability
Yes 81.3% (n = 1,102) 82.9% (n = 287) 80% (n = 92)
No 18.7% (n = 254) 17.1% (n = 59) 20% (n = 23)
T1 T2 T3
Life circumstances during lockdown n = 1,356 n = 346 n = 115
Presence of children at home
All day 26.5% (n = 360) 22.5% (n = 78) 20% (n = 23)
Part of the day or less 4.6% (n = 62) 3.5% (n = 12) 4.3% (n = 5)
Not applicable 68.9% (n = 934) 74% (n = 256) 75.7% (n = 87)
Workload
Decreasing 38.4% (n = 521) 39.9% (n = 138) 45.2% (n = 52)
Identical 38.2% (n = 518) 38.1% (n = 132) 38.3% (n = 44)
Increasing 23.4% (n = 317) 22% (n = 76) 16.5% (n = 19)

and 76%). In addition, between 52% and 59% of the participants Measures
were residing in Belgium.
The current study was conducted in accordance with the Decla- Sociodemographic Information and Life Circumstances
ration of Helsinki, and participants did not receive any compensa- At the first testing session (T1), the online survey included a
tion for their participation. All data and survey items are available series of questions that assessed sociodemographic variables,
via the Open Science Framework (https://osf.io/gk7u2/ [https://doi participants’ housing characteristics (e.g., surface area in square
.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/GK7U2]). All questionnaires included in meters, number of rooms), and general life situation (e.g., having
the survey are related to the current study. children at home) during lockdown. In addition, we evaluated
 BINGE-WATCHING IN TIMES OF COVID-19 5

how much time people spent at home before and during the Gaudreau et al., 2006), a 20-item measure of positive and negative
lockdown. affect. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(not at all) to 5 (very much), with higher scores representing more
TV Series Watching-Related Practices, Motivations, and intense affective states. Sample items of all the scales used in this
Engagement study along with the internal reliability of each test scores are
At T1, we asked participants to evaluate (a) TV series viewing reported in Table 2.
patterns, (b) TV series watching motivations, and (c) binge-watch-
ing behaviors since entering the lockdown and how this evaluation Statistical Analyses
differed from before the lockdown (i.e., at T1, participants IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows Version 24 (IBM Corp,
reported prior and current TV series viewing habits). We asked 2016) was used to conduct all statistical analyses. As the first step,
this set of variables again at the second (T2) and third (T3) testing descriptive statistics were computed. Changes arising from the first
sessions, with the past 2 weeks as a reference point (i.e., at T2 and lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic were then examined
T3, participants were asked to report their TV series viewing hab- through paired-sample t tests for dependent samples to compare
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

its over the last 2 weeks). TV series watching patterns were rated (a) time spent at home, (b) TV series watching patterns, (c) TV se-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

through a series of items that evaluated viewing frequency, aver- ries watching motivations, and (d) binge-watching behaviors
age time spent watching, number of episodes seen during a typical before and during lockdown. By subtracting the mean score before
viewing session, and whether participants practiced coviewing, lockdown from the mean score during lockdown, we could derive
that is, watching TV series with others, be it in their physical or an indicator of change (i.e., DM or %), with positive scores indi-
virtual presence (screen synchronization, e.g., Netflix Party). cating an increase and negative scores a decrease. Spearman’s cor-
We assessed TV series watching motivations and binge-watch- relations3 were used to explore the magnitude of the relationships
ing behaviors with previously validated scales. TV series watching between the study variables.
motivations were assessed with the French version of the Watch- As the second step, we performed a series of multiple hierarchi-
ing TV Series Motives Questionnaire (Flayelle, Canale, et al., cal regression analyses. All the analyses included sociodemo-
2019; Flayelle, Castro-Calvo, et al., 2020), a 22-item scale that graphic features (i.e., age, gender), psychopathological symptoms,
includes four dimensions: coping/escapism, emotional enhance- TV series watching motivations, and adaptive and maladaptive
ment, enrichment, and social. Items are rated on a 4-point Likert engagement in binge-watching (reflected by the Binge-Watching
scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (to a great extent). Higher av- Engagement and Symptoms Questionnaire subscales engagement
erage scores on each subscale denote greater levels of motivation and loss of control, respectively) consecutively set as predictors.
for TV series watching. We first set positive and negative affect levels reported at T1, as
Binge-watching engagement and symptoms of problematic binge- dependent variables; then, we set the change in positive and nega-
watching were assessed by using the French version of the Binge- tive affect at T2 (i.e., D positive and negative affect4) as dependent
Watching Engagement and Symptoms Questionnaire (Flayelle, variables; finally, we set the change in positive and negative affect
Canale, et al., 2019; Flayelle, Castro-Calvo, et al., 2020). This 40- at T3 (i.e., global D positive and negative affect5) as dependent
item scale measures engagement in binge-watching and markers of variables, with the same grouping of predictors. This data analytic
problematic binge-watching across seven dimensions (i.e., engage- strategy allowed us to capitalize on the highest possible sample
ment, positive emotions, desire/savoring, pleasure preservation, size for each measurement time.
binge-watching, dependency, and loss of control). Items are rated on
a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4
Results
(strongly agree). In this study, we used two subscales, namely,
engagement (to assess high but nonproblematic engagement in TV
series viewing) and loss of control (to assess problematic binge- Descriptive Statistics
watching and related negative outcomes), as they constitute the most Table 3 displays descriptive statistics, along with effect sizes
suitable indicators of the dual nature of binge-watching behavior and significance levels for changes before and during the COVID-
(functional and dysfunctional, respectively; Flayelle, Canale, et al., 19 lockdown at the first assessment moment (T1). We found a
2019; Flayelle, Castro-Calvo, et al., 2020). Higher average scores on
each subscale express higher levels of engagement in binge-watch- 3
Spearman’s correlations were used because of the non-normal
ing and problematic binge-watching. distribution of data.
4
Psychopathological Symptoms and Affect To compute an index of change in positive affect at T2, we calculated
“D Positive affect” according to the following formula: Positive affect T2
Psychopathological symptoms and positive/negative affect were
Positive affect T1 (positive values indicate an increase in positive affect,
whereas negative values indicate a decrease in positive affect). To compute
evaluated at each testing session, with the past 2 weeks as the ref- an index of change in negative affect at T2, we applied the same calculation
erence time frame. Psychopathological symptoms (i.e., depression, approach as for “D Positive affect.”
anxiety, and somatization) were measured via the French version 5
To compute a global index of change in positive affect, we calculated
of the Brief Symptom Inventory (Derogatis, 2016), an 18-item “global D Positive affect” according to the following formula: (Positive
self-report tool with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at affect T2
Positive affect T1) þ (Positive affect T3
Positive affect T2)/2
(positive values indicate an increase in positive affect, whereas negative
all) to 4 (very much). Higher scores imply more pronounced psy- values indicate a decrease in positive affect).To compute a global index of
chopathological symptoms severity. Affect was evaluated with the change in negative affect, we applied the same calculation approach as for
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (original French version; “global D Positive affect.”
 6 SIGRE-LEIRÓS ET AL.

Table 2
Questionnaire Variables Evaluated in the Online Survey
Questionnaire Scale Example of item Reliability coefficient (a)
Watching TV Series Motives
Questionnaire
Social “I watch TV series to relate to others more easily, because TV .68
series give me something to discuss”
Emotional Enhancement “I watch TV series to be captivated and experience extraordinary .75
adventures by proxy”
Enrichment “I watch TV series to develop my personality and broaden my .76
views”
Coping/Escapism “I watch TV series to escape reality and seek shelter in fictional .80
worlds”

Binge-Watching Engagement
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and Symptoms Questionnaire

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Engagement “Watching TV series is one of my favorite hobbies” .85

Positive emotions “Watching TV series is a cause for joy and enthusiasm in my .78
life”
Desire/savoring “I look forward to the moment I will be able to see a new episode .84
of my favorite TV series”
Pleasure Preservation “I worry about getting spoiled” .62
Binge-Watching “When an episode comes to an end, and because I want to know .84
what happens next, I often feel an irresistible tension that
makes me push through the next episode”
Loss of Control “I sometimes try not to spend as much time watching TV series, .84
but I fail every time”
Dependency “I get tense, irritated or agitated when I can’t watch my favorite .77
TV series”

Brief Symptom Inventory-18

Depression “Feeling no interest in things” .82
Anxiety “Feeling tense” .85
Somatization “Trouble getting breath” .76

Positive Affect and Negative

Affect Schedule
Negative affect “Afraid” .87
Positive affect “Enthusiastic” .86
Note. Internal reliability coefficients (a) were obtained in the current sample (T1; n = 1,356).

significant increase for all variables related to both home confine- (i.e., emotional enhancement and coping–escapism motives,
ment (e.g., time spent at home increased by 47%) and TV series engagement, binge-watching, dependency, and loss of control).
watching patterns (e.g., time spent viewing per working day nearly Negative affect was significantly and positively associated with all
doubled; slightly more than one episode was additionally seen in psychopathological symptom domains (i.e., depression, anxiety,
one session). Regarding motivations to watch TV series, partici- and somatization), whereas positive affect was significantly and
pants reported a higher motivation for enhancing and coping with negatively correlated to depression symptoms.
their emotional states (i.e., enhancement and coping/escapism) We report the results from the two hierarchical regression analy-
through watching TV series during lockdown. They also reported ses at T1 in Table 5. The first analysis showed that only age pre-
a higher extent of engagement in TV series watching (i.e., engage- dicted an increase in positive affect at Step 1 (b = .13, p , .01). At
ment) and, in contrast, more symptoms of problematic binge- Step 2, age (b = .08, p , .01) and psychopathological symptoms
watching (i.e., binge-watching, dependency, and loss of control). (b =
.27, p , .01) predicted an increase and a decrease in posi-
tive affect level, respectively. With the inclusion of TV series
Analyses at T1 watching motivations at Step 3, age (b = .12, p , .01), emotional
The intercorrelations between age, gender, changes in TV series enhancement (b = .13, p , .01) and enrichment motives (b = .25,
watching motivations and binge-watching engagement variables p , .01) predicted an increase in positive affect, whereas psycho-
(i.e., D scores), and psychopathological symptoms and affect, as pathological symptoms (b =
.20, p , .01) and coping/escapism
assessed at T1 (N = 1,356), are presented in Table 4 (medium and motive (b =
.25, p , .01) predicted a decrease in positive affect.
large correlations are highlighted in bold). Globally, increases in The same trend was observed at Step 4, with problematic binge-
affect-based motivations to watch TV series were significantly and watching (i.e., loss of control; b =
.13, p , .01) also appearing
positively associated with increases in binge-watching engagement as a significant predictor of a decrease in positive affect.
variables. We found low correlations between negative and posi- The second analysis revealed that age (b =
.20, p , .01) pre-
tive affect and the different increased indicators of binge-watching dicted a decrease in negative affect at Step 1, whereas female
 BINGE-WATCHING IN TIMES OF COVID-19 7

Table 3
Changes in Presence at Home, TV Series Viewing Patterns, and Related Motivations and Engagement Before and During the First
COVID-19 Lockdown (T1; n = 1,356)
Variable Range Prelockdown M (SD) During lockdown M (SD) d t DM or percentage
Home confinement
Teleworking days per week 0
7 1.49 (2.10) 3.75 (2.57) 0.88
32.45 þ2.26***
Time spent at home (in %) 0
100 41.3 (21.51) 88.3 (20.74) 1.71
63.01 þ47%***
TV series viewing patterns
Frequency 1
4 3.01 (0.89) 3.42 (0.84) 0.55
20.42 þ0.41***
Time spent viewing/working per day (in min) 0
900 90.48 (78.64) 175.33 (149.89) 0.72
26.34 þ93.78%***
Time spent viewing per day off (in min) 0
900 121.11 (105.28) 184.26 (150.23) 0.57
21.14 þ52.14%***
Number of episodes 1
7 2.09 (1.16) 3.23 (1.79) 0.74
27.40 þ1.14***
Coviewing (N = 1; Y = 2) 1
2 1.39 (0.49) 1.46 (0.50) 0.15
5.35 þ0.07***
Watching TV Series Motives Questionnaire
Social 1
4 1.27 (0.42) 1.27 (0.44) 0.00
1.01 0.00
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Emotional enhancement 1
4 2.64 (0.71) 2.66 (0.72) 0.10
4.74 þ0.02***
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Enrichment 1
4 2.20 (0.74) 2.20 (0.75) 0.01
0.87 0.00

Coping–escapism 1
4 1.85 (0.62) 1.99 (0.69) 0.37
16.13 þ0.14***
Binge-Watching Engagement and Symptoms Questionnaire
Engagement 1
4 1.78 (0.63) 1.85 (0.64) 0.26
9.78 þ0.07***
Positive emotions 1
4 2.29 (0.70) 2.29 (0.71) 0.01 0.28 0.00
Desire/savoring 1
4 2.56 (0.78) 2.57 (0.80) 0.02
0.66 þ0.01
Pleasure preservation 1
4 1.85 (0.77) 1.84 (076) 0.07 2.58
0.01*
Binge-watching 1
4 1.94 (0.73) 2.01 (.78) 0.17
6.10 þ0.07***
Dependency 1
4 1.34 (0.49) 1.36 (0.52) 0.08
3.08 þ0.02**
Loss of control 1
4 1.57 (0.62) 1.59 (0.66) 0.07
2.73 þ0.02**
* p , .05. ** p , .01. *** p , .001.

gender predicted its increase (b = .10, p , .01). At Step 2, psycho- Longitudinal Analyses
pathological symptoms (b = .73, p , .01) predicted an increase in
negative affect, whereas age remained as the single predictor of a
Analyses at T2
decrease in negative affect (b =
.07, p , .01). With the inclusion Results from the two hierarchical regression analyses at T2 are
of TV series viewing motivations at Step 3, psychopathological reported in Table 6. The first analysis showed that only psychopa-
symptoms (b = .69, p , .01), emotional enhancement (b = .06, p thological symptoms predicted a decrease in positive affect at
, .05), and coping/escapism motives (b = .06, p , .01) signifi- Steps 2 (b =
.16, p , .01), 3 (b =
.15, p , .01), and 4 (b =
cantly predicted an increase in negative affect. Finally, these
.15, p , .01). The second analysis revealed that only psychopa-
results remained stable after the inclusion of problematic (i.e., loss thological symptoms predicted an increase in negative affect at
of control) and nonproblematic (i.e., engagement) indicators of Steps 2 (b = .15, p , .01), 3 (b = .16, p , .01), and 4 (b = .16,
binge-watching behavior at Step 4. p , .01).

Table 4
Correlations Between Age, Gender, Changes in TV Series Watching Motivations and Binge-Watching Engagement Variables,
Psychopathological Symptoms, and Affect (T1; n = 1,356)
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. Age —
2. Gendera
.26** —
3. D Emotional enhancement 2.07** .04 —
4. D Coping–escapism
.15*** .05 .34*** —
5. D Engagement
.14*** .05* .30*** .44*** —
6. D Pleasure preservation .03 .02 .23*** .08** .34*** —
7. D Binge-watching
.11*** .04 .35*** .44*** .71*** .32*** —
8. D Dependency
.01 .02 .23*** .32*** .56*** .42*** .55*** —
9. D Loss of control
.04 .03 .26*** .45*** .68*** .28*** .70*** .51*** —
10. Depression 2.27*** .09** .12*** .22*** .13***
.02 .10*** .10*** .14*** —
11. Anxiety
.17*** .15** .15*** .20*** .07** .01 .08** .08** .11*** .63*** —
12. Somatization
.13*** .11** .12*** .13*** .10*** .02 .08** .05 .08** .40*** .57*** —
13. Negative affect
.24*** .15** .15*** .20*** .09** .00 .08** .08** .11*** .56*** .76*** .49*** —
14. Positive affect .15***
.04
.05
.10*** 2.07**
.03
.07*
.08**
.10*** 2.41***
.20***
.12***
.14*** —

Note. Medium and large correlations are highlighted in bold. Male gender was coded as 1 while female gender was coded as 2.
a
Pearson point-biserial correlations.
* p , .05. ** p , .01. *** p , .001.
 8 SIGRE-LEIRÓS ET AL.

Table 5
Linear Regressions Predicting Positive and Negative Affect at T1 During the First COVID-19 Lockdown (T1 Sample; n = 1,356)
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Variable DR2 b p DR2 b p DR2 b p DR2 b p
Positive affect
0.02 0.07 0.09 0.02
Age 0.130 .000 0.079 .004 0.119 .000 0.102 .000
Gender (M = 1; F = 2)
0.005 .846 0.017 .518 0.027 .285 0.030 .239
Psychopathological symptoms — — 20.270 .000 20.201 .000 20.195 .000
Motivations
Social — — — —
0.011 .688 0.009 .748
Emotional enhancement — — — — 0.125 .000 0.136 .000
Enrichment — — — — 0.246 .000 0.261 .000
Coping/escapism — — — — 20.254 .000 20.184 .000
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Binge-watching variables
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Engagement — — — — — —
0.052 .123

Loss of control — — — — — — 20.129 .000
Negative affect
0.06 0.50 0.01 0.01
Age 20.203 .000 20.067 .000
0.033 .093
0.038 .057
Gender (M = 1; F = 2) 0.096 .000 0.035 .059 0.030 .109 0.030 .102
Psychopathological symptoms — — 0.725 .000 0.689 .000 0.690 .000
Motivations
Social — — — — 0.025 .212 0.030 .131
Emotional enhancement — — — — 0.055 .014 0.060 .011
Enrichment — — — — 0.004 .860 0.008 .701
Coping/escapism — — — — 0.062 .009 0.080 .002
Binge-watching variables
Engagement — — — — — —
0.019 .449
Loss of control — — — — — —
0.031 .186
Note. Regression coefficients are standardized. Significant results are highlighted in bold.

Analyses at T3 watched during a single session, daily time spent viewing and cov-
iewing practices all significantly increased. For example, daily
We present results from the two hierarchical regression analyses time spent viewing per working day and per day off increased
at T3 in Table 7. The first analysis revealed that only psychopatho- 93.8% and 52.1%, respectively. Therefore, participants reported
logical symptoms predicted a decrease in positive affect at Steps 2 significantly more engagement in TV series watching since the
(b =
.28, p , .01), 3 (b =
.32, p , .01), and 4 (b =
.32, p , implementation of spatial distancing measures, and this trend was
.01). The second analysis showed that psychopathological symp- observed whether we considered the whole initial sample at T1 (i.
toms (b = .23, p , .05) also predicted an increase in negative e., n = 1,356) or only the T3 sample (i.e., n = 115)6.
affect at Step 2. With the inclusion of TV series watching motiva- Our results are in line with previous research showing a general
tions at Step 3, social (b =
.31, p , .01) and coping–escapism increase in TV series watching during the COVID-19 pandemic
(b = .39, p , .01) motives predicted a decrease and an increase in (Boursier et al., 2021; Dixit et al., 2020; Rubenking & Bracken,
negative affect, respectively. Finally, both male gender (b =
.23, 2021). They also corroborate the higher consumption of streaming
p , .05) and social motive (b =
.29, p , .01) significantly pre- content recorded during this period, as reflected by the significant
dicted a decrease in negative affect, whereas problematic binge- growth in streaming services subscriptions worldwide (Gruber,
watching (loss of control; b = .25, p , .05) was the single predic- 2020; Moody, 2020). More broadly, the same trend was observed
tor of an increase in negative affect at Step 4. for other online and digital activities during the pandemic, includ-
ing video gaming (Arkenberg, 2020; Hawkins, 2020), cybersex
(Dubé et al., 2020), and online gambling (The European Business
Discussion
Review, 2020).
In the present study, we assessed how the first COVID-19 pan- Interestingly, when we examined potential drivers of the
demic lockdown has influenced TV series viewing behaviors and increase in TV series watching, we found that only affect-based
whether binge-watching (in its adaptive or maladaptive forms) motivations for TV series watching (i.e., first and essentially,
might have constituted an effective means of emotion regulation
6
throughout this health crisis situation. We also analyzed the data by focusing on the participants who
Compared with prepandemic practices, we found significant completed the three assessments (T1, T2, and T3) of the longitudinal panel
study (n = 115). These results, as well as further results regarding gender-
changes in TV series watching patterns during the first lockdown.
related analyses, are available as supplementary material in the Open
As people spent significantly more time at home (including work- Science Framework at: https://osf.io/gk7u2/ (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF
from-home arrangements), viewing frequency, number of episodes .IO/GK7U2).
 BINGE-WATCHING IN TIMES OF COVID-19 9

Table 6
Linear Regressions Predicting Changes in Positive and Negative Affect at T2 During the First COVID-19 Lockdown (Longitudinal
Data, T2; n = 346)
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Variable DR 2
b p DR 2
b p DR 2
b p DR 2
b p
D Positive affect
0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01
Age 0.040 .488 0.015 .792
0.002 .969 0.003 .962
Gender (M = 1; F = 2) 0.042 .458 0.058 .307 0.052 .374 0.028 .638
Psychopathological symptoms — — 20.159 .004 20.154 .008 20.152 .009
Motivations
Social — — — —
0.049 .530
0.097 .233
Emotional enhancement — — — — 0.080 .264 0.017 .829
Enrichment — — — — 0.015 .857
0.011 .898
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Coping/escapism — — — —
0.067 .414
0.134 .142

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Binge-watching variables
Engagement — — — — — — 0.066 .550
Loss of control — — — — — — 0.152 .161
D Negative affect
0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01
Age
0.077 .175
0.054 .345
0.069 .250
0.063 .292
Gender (M = 1; F = 2)
0.080 .160
0.095 .095
0.091 .117
0.112 .062
Psychopathological symptoms — — 0.151 .006 0.161 .006 0.160 .006
Motivations
Social — — — — 0.042 .586 0.003 .968
Emotional enhancement — — — —
0.029 .684
0.069 .379
Enrichment — — — —
0.005 .951
0.007 .939
Coping/escapism — — — —
0.074 .362
0.101 .266
Binge-watching variables
Engagement — — — — — —
0.034 .757
Loss of control — — — — — — 0.152 .159
Note. Regression coefficients are standardized. Among the predictors, psychopathological symptoms, motivations, and binge-watching variables refer to
the values reported at the second assessment (T2). Significant results are highlighted in bold.

coping–escapism, and then, to a lesser extent, emotional enhance- These first results seem, therefore, to corroborate the hypothesized
ment) were higher during lockdown compared with participants’ role of binge-watching as a potentially dysfunctional coping strat-
prelockdown situation. In a period of uncertainty and emotional egy to deal with negative affect (Flayelle, Maurage, et al., 2019;
distress, TV series watching thus seemed to provide a way for Tukachinsky & Eyal, 2018).
individuals to improve their mood and/or temporarily escape from At T2, only psychopathological symptoms predicted lower lev-
the stressful situation, hence being an emotion-regulation strategy els of positive affect on the one hand, and higher levels of negative
(Flayelle, Maurage, et al., 2019; Tukachinsky & Eyal, 2018). Our affect on the other hand, thus emphasizing the particular impact of
findings also indicated that symptoms of problematic binge-watch- the stressful lockdown context on psychological adjustment and
ing increased during the first lockdown. We may therefore distress on individual’s subjective well-being.
hypothesize that, in the context of forced isolation at home, con- Finally, the results from the longitudinal analysis at T3 indi-
stant convenient access to streaming content per se might contrib- cated that psychopathological symptoms predicted lower positive
ute to excessive and problematic engagement in binge-watching affect throughout the confinement period. In turn, being a male
behavior, thereby corroborating the role of contextual and environ- and having social motivations for TV series watching (i.e., fueling
mental factors in this specific pattern of involvement (Flayelle et relationships with others through TV series) predicted a decrease
al., 2017). in negative affect over time, potentially constituting protective fac-
Concerning the relationship between TV series viewing prac- tors for negative emotional states experienced during the first
tices and subjective well-being over time, specifically at T1, age, COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. This result is in line with recent
emotional enhancement and enrichment motives predicted an data showing a positive relationship between female gender and
increase in positive affect, whereas psychopathological symptoms, anxiety symptoms (and thus negative affect) during the COVID-19
coping–escapism motives and problematic binge-watching (i.e., pandemic (García-Fernández et al., 2021; Hou et al., 2020; Özdin
loss of control) predicted a decrease in positive affect. In addition, & Bayrak Özdin, 2020). Moreover, in a period of forced isolation,
psychopathological symptoms, emotional enhancement, and cop- socially driven TV series watching may effectively allow individu-
ing/escapism motives predicted an increase in negative affect. als to maintain social connections, which may also be interpreted in
Among these initial findings (i.e., at T1), it is particularly interest- the frame of the contextual increase of coviewing practices shown
ing to note the impact of coping–escapism motivation in decreas- in the current sample. Conversely, maladaptive involvement in TV
ing positive affect and increasing negative affect, respectively. series watching (assessed through items that measure loss of control
 10 SIGRE-LEIRÓS ET AL.

Table 7
Linear Regressions Predicting Changes in Positive and Negative Affect During the First COVID-19 Lockdown (Longitudinal Data, T3;
n = 115)
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Variable DR 2
b p DR 2
b p DR 2
b p DR 2
b p
D Positive affect
0.01 0.07 0.03 0.01
Age 0.009 .927
0.057 .566
0.087 .440
0.074 .510
Gender (M = 1; F = 2) 0.103 .297 0.154 .115 0.173 .094 0.181 .092
Psychopathological symptoms — — 20.277 .005 20.321 .006 20.317 .006
Motivations
Social — — — —
0.128 .241
0.164 .149
Emotional enhancement — — — —
0.118 .335
0.181 .172
Enrichment — — — —
0.017 .893
0.019 .880
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Coping/escapism — — — — 0.120 .378 0.064 .699

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Binge-watching variables
Engagement — — — — — — 0.006 .962
Loss of control — — — — — — 0.168 .213
D Negative affect
0.01 0.05 0.16 0.04
Age 0.004 .969 0.059 .559 0.083 .430 0.065 .531
Gender (M = 1; F = 2)
0.038 .698
0.081 .413
0.168 .085 20.230 .021
Psychopathological symptoms — — 0.231 .021 0.037 .734 0.033 .758
Motivations
Social — — — — 20.312 .003 20.294 .006
Emotional enhancement — — — — 0.166 .150 0.237 .055
Enrichment — — — — 0.014 .907 0.057 .625
Coping/escapism — — — — 0.387 .003 0.275 .072
Binge-watching variables
Engagement — — — — — —
0.169 .177
Loss of control — — — — — — 0.254 .036
Note. Regression coefficients are standardized. Among the predictors, psychopathological symptoms, motivations, and binge-watching variables refer to
the values reported at the final assessment (T3). Significant results are highlighted in bold.

and negative consequences resulting from problematic binge- to a general pattern observed in longitudinal studies (Laurie et al.,
watching) was the single predictor of increased negative affect 1999; Watson & Wooden, 2009). The study’s highly educated
throughout the lockdown. The current pattern of longitudinal sample (e.g., 36.9% of the participants had a master degree) also
results therefore follows the tendency observed at the initial limits the generalizability of our findings. Further research is rec-
assessment time point (i.e., at T1), with a significant increase in ommended to explore the role of other individual characteristics
symptoms of problematic binge-watching and primarily nega- (e.g., personality traits, emotion regulation strategies) in changes
tive reinforcement motivation (i.e., coping–escapism) during in emotional states in the context of pandemic confinement. In
lockdown. Not only is this finding consistent with previous liter- addition, given that the present data were collected during the first
ature showing that such leisure activity may generate loss of lockdown (i.e., at the beginning of the pandemic), it would be
control over watching time and thereby negative outcomes and interesting to examine whether this pattern of results is maintained
emotional distress (De Feijter et al., 2016; Devasagayam, 2014; in the long term, for example, after 1 year of social distancing
Riddle et al., 2018), but it is also in line with the hypothesized restrictions. Finally, as the current study was restricted to French-
role of problematic binge-watching as a maladaptive means of speaking European countries, there is a need to examine potential
coping to face negative affect (Flayelle, Maurage, et al., 2019; differences across different cultural contexts.
Tukachinsky & Eyal, 2018). In this regard, the seemingly “dis- Overall, the present longitudinal study showed that in French-
proving” observation that the coping–escapism motivation only speaking European countries, TV series watching behaviors
approached statistical significance (i.e., p = .07) in predicting were effectively amplified during the first COVID-19 lockdown.
change in negative affect at the final step of the regression may Concomitantly, stay-at-home mandates also led to an increased
most probably be explained by the T3 lower sample size or by the problematic binge-watching pattern that the current findings
very nature of the current dependent variable (i.e., negative affect in show are best understood as a potential dysfunctional coping
a more general sense), although coping usually involves psychopa- strategy during this period. Watching TV series for social
thological parameters (e.g., depression, anxiety). motives, however, emerged as a protective factor throughout
Limitations of the present study included the use of self-report this health crisis situation, thus highlighting the potential value
measures to collect data, which are prone to biases (e.g., social and utility of virtual gatherings (e.g., Netflix Party) to reduce
desirability). Moreover, the sample size significantly diminished isolation and help overcome the emotional distress caused by
from T1 (i.e., n = 1,356) to T3 (i.e., n = 115), which corresponds social distancing interventions.
 BINGE-WATCHING IN TIMES OF COVID-19 11

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