DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

MID LA UNION CAMPUS

City of San Fernando, La Union
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
(EDUC 101)

RIZA AGUSTINA A. COSTALES

LAILANIE B. SORIANO
DANIEL P.ONG
NIÑO D. ESTOLAS

1st Semester SY 2020-2021

 COURSE OUTLINE
IN
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
(EDUC 101)

 COURSE DESCRIPTION
This is a three-unit course which consists of five (5) modules. The Child
and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles focuses on child
and adolescent development with emphasis on contemporary research and
theory on biological, cognitive, language, social and emotional
dimensions of development and learning. Further, this includes
factors that affect the progress of development of the learners and
appropriate pedagogical principles.

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. define basic concepts on development;

2. express clear understanding on the issues on child
development;
3. discriminate the dimensions and stages of development
and identify developmental tasks for each
developmental stage;
4. compare and draw a distinction among the human
development theories;
5. organize and synthesize the development theories and
related contemporary researches;
6. demonstrate understanding of pedagogical theories that
are applicable for each developmental level; and
7. reflect on and articulate their own views on how children
develop based on contemporary research findings.
 COURSE REQUIREMENTS
1. Class attendance as scheduled
2. Active class participation through mutually agreed
platform
3. Prescribed activities indicated in the learning module
4. Midterm and Final Examinations
5. Prompt submission of course requirements
6. Compliance with other requirements aligned to flexible blended
learning modality

 GRADING SYSTEM
Class Standing = 60% (30% Assignment/Online Activity + 30% Quiz)
Midterm/Final Exam = 40%
Midterm/Final Grade = Class Standing + Midterm/Final Exam
Final Grade = Midterm Grade (40%) + Final Term Grade (60%)


Module I
COURSE CONTENT

PRINCIPLES OF AND ISSUES ON DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Basic Concepts
Lesson 2 Principles of Development
Lesson 3 Issues on Child Development

Module II BIOLOGICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Prenatal
Lesson 2 Physical and Motor
Lesson 3 Brain Development
Lesson 4 Factors Affecting Development: Maternal Nutrition, Child
Nutrition, Early Sensory Stimulation

Module III LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Language Acquisition
Lesson 2 Bilingual Language Development
Lesson 3 Emergent and Early Literacy, Reading Development and
Performance
Lesson 4 Factors Affecting Development: Early Language
Stimulation, Literate Communities and
Environment, Story Reading

Module IV COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Theories of Cognitive Development

Lesson 2 Individual Differences

Lesson 3 Factors Affecting Development: Genetic and Biological,

Early Stimulation, Instruction, Social
Interactions

Lesson 4 Review of Contemporary Researches and Related Articles

Module V SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Theoretical Perspectives

Lesson 2 Socialization and the Development of Moral Reason,

Attitudes and Beliefs

Lesson 3 Factors Affecting Development

Lesson 4 Review of Contemporary Researches and Related Articles

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 MODULE 1
PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Basic Concepts in Child and

Adolescent

Lesson 2 Principles of Development

Lesson 3 Issues on Child Development

 MODULE I
PRINCIPLES OF
DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
This module presents the basic concepts in child growth and
development. The discussion differentiates the constructs of growth from
that of development. It presents facts and dispels the myths when it
comes to child development. Also, the lessons explore into the factors
that may affect the growth and development of a child. Knowing the
principles of growth and development would be a valuable tool in
pedagogy to optimize the teaching-learning process.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lessons, the students should be able to:
1. define child and other basic concepts that are associated to child
and adolescent learning and learning principles;
2. illustrate the influence of nature and nurture in growth and
development;
3. characterize distinctively the stages infancy, early childhood,
middle childhood, adolescence and adulthood;
4. identify the specific developmental tasks of the child and
adolescent learners and their educational implications;
5. write educational implications on varied contexts of child and
adolescent development.
DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited
from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output as
assigned in the Google Classroom.

LESSON 1

Basic Concepts
Growth and Development

You probably have heard the terms growth and development used
interchangeably. In concept however, these two terms are different. The
reason though for the misconception of them being used to mean the
same thing is that neither growth nor development takes place
independently; meaning, when there is growth, there is development and
vice versa.

Growth refers to the quantitative changes in size which include

physical changes in height, weight, size, and internal organs among
others. During infancy and childhood, the body, at a steady rate, becomes
larger, taller and heavier. To denote these physical changes, the term
growth is used. Growth also involves changes in body proportions as well
as in overall stature and weight. The term growth therefore, indicates an
increase in bodily dimensions. But the rate of growth differs from one part
of the body to the other.

Development, by contrast, refers to the qualitative changes that

take place simultaneously with the quantitative changes of growth. It may
be defined as a progressive series of orderly, coherent changes. Such
changes signals the different stages of an individual’s life span from origin
to maturity. Life span development deals with important common
developmental stages that human beings pass through: birth, infancy,
adolescence, adulthood, old age and finally death. Thus, development
may be explained as the series of overall changes in an individual due to
the emergence of the modified structures and functions that are the
outcome of the interactions and exchanges between the individual as an
organism and its environment.

Areas of Growth and Development

Now that we are clear with these

Let’s have a look two concepts, it is safe to use the two
see, shall we? terms together (but not interchangeable)
without mixing up the meanings that
Development is a progressive series they refer to. Proceeding therefore,
of orderly and coherent changes that human growth and development are
take place among individuals. Take observed in four areas:
note of the terms: progressive,
series, coherent. 1. Physical Growth. The most
obviously visible is physical
Development as progressive suggest growth. We notice that children
a directional movement forward and
grow in height and weight over the
not backward. Thus, an individual
develops from childhood to maturity years. We also notice a change in
and not the other way around. their appearance particularly,
when they reach the age of
A series implies one happens after puberty. Along with physical
the other; such as when you count growth of children is the
from one to ten. Four only pops up development of their physical
after three. In the same manner that abilities during their progression
a child does not run first before towards adulthood, including
learning to crawl. crawling, walking, running, writing
etc.
Coherent means logical and clear.
Would it be logical if the child runs
2. Psychological
first before learns to walk? That is
and Cognitive.
why in teaching, we also teach Children also develop
following the principles psychologically and cognitively as
of
development: we teach the basic their brains absorb more
operations in math (addition before information through their
subtraction) before teaching them interactions with their
multiplication and division.
environment and learn to use
Coherence also suggests consistency these information. Just like
and consequently, predictability. For walking and talking, children have
instance, at the 14 months , the baby
should be sitting up and learning to
to learn how to think on purpose
walk. If the child cannot even sit up and to process or organize
independently, then there must be information that comes to them
something wrong with the child’s from the environment. They must
development. learn how to solve problems, to
talk, and to complete mental tasks
such as remembering names,
phone numbers, or using computers and gadgets.

3. Social and emotional. Children grow socially and emotionally. They

learn how to interact, play, work, and live with other people such as
family, friends, teachers, and employers. They learn how to
 understand both their own feelings and that of others’ emotions.
They also learn ways of dealing with strong emotions. In order to
function well as independent adults, children must develop a sense
of self-esteem as they go through the long process of figuring out
what shape their identity will take. They develop a sense of morality
as they learn the difference between right and wrong.

4. Sexuality and Gender Identity: Children also develop sexually and

form a gender identity. This development is unique because it spans
developments across the other physical, psychological, and social
channels. Early on, children learn how their bodies work and look
and what it means to be a boy or a girl; they learn how boys and
girls are different. As they grow older and enter adolescence and
puberty, they continue to learn how their bodies work sexually and
how to responsibly handle their sexuality so as to balance their
sexual desires and appropriate behavior. They continue to decide
for themselves what it means to be masculine or feminine
throughout their lifespan.

Forces that Influence Human Growth and Development

Human development is complex and a unique phenomenon for each
individual. There are however, some commonalities and patterns of these
development across people. Among the observed, are four interactive
forces that combine to shape human development. These are:

1. Biological forces. These include all genetic and health related

factors that influence the development of a child. They provide raw
materials (in case of genetics) and set boundary conditions (in the
case of one’s health) for development. Prenatal development, brain
maturation, puberty, menopause, facial expression and change in
cardio-vascular functioning, diet, and exercises are the some
example of biological forces.

For instance: Sometimes, there are things about our physical

appearance that are already predetermined by our genetics like our
height, skin color, hair color or even our weight so that no matter
how much we try (e.g. losing weight), if we have already reached
the maximum set by our genetics, we can no longer improve or
increase them any further.

2. Psychological forces . Such factors include all internal perceptual,

cognitive, emotional and personality factors that affect the
development of a child. Intelligence, self confidence, honesty and
self esteem are examples of psychological factors.

For instance: Emotional maturity is an example of a psychological

force. We often hear people
 3. Socio-cultural forces . Among these forces include interpersonal,
societal, cultural and ethical factors that affect the development of
a child. This is important to know that how people and environment
interact with each other. The family, peers, coworkers and social
institutions and culture influence development. Poverty is the
example for socio cultural forces.

For instance: “Tell me who your friends are and I will tell you who
you are” or “Birds of the same feather, flock together” are old
sayings that illustrate how social conditions, culture and
environmental forces affect human development. The social
interactions and the kind of culture that we grew up in have
significant impact to our development.

4. Life cycle forces . These forces reflect differences in how the same
event affects people of different ages. Each individual is a product
of a unique combination of these forces. No two individuals even in
the same family experience these forces in the same way.

For instance: We all go through the life cycle stages but our
experiences differ from one another. For example, having children,
illness or death can be experienced by everyone but on different
degrees or magnitude.

TASK
HOW MUCH I’VE GROWN

Accomplish the table below by writing your thoughts on the corresponding

subject when you were in your early teens and your thought on them now.

Early Teens Now

Thoughts about
relationships
Experiences I found most
valuable

What I value

Plans and goals

How I spend my time

Skills and Interest

Important decisions I
made
LESSON 2
Principles of Development

Principles in Human Development

As was discussed in the previous lesson, human development involves
change. These changes occur during each stage of development and each
stage has predictable characteristics. It can also be said that
development is a product of biological maturity which is automatic and
irreversible. Human development is based on certain principles. These
include the following:
1. Continuity. Development is a continuous process which proceeds
from conception to death. Changes happen from the child’s early
years of life until maturity. Even after maturity has been reached,
development does not end. Changes continue which lead to the
period of life known as senescence or old age. These changes
continue until death ends the life cycle.

2. Sequentiality. Human development, like all other living

creatures, follows a pattern. This pattern is common to all human
individuals. In prenatal development, while the child is still forming
inside the womb of the mother, a genetic sequence appears or
occurs at fixed intervals with certain characteristics. The directional
sequence of development during both prenatal (before birth) and
postnatal (after birth) may either be from head to foot
(cephalocaudal pattern of development) or from central axis to the
extremities (proximodistal pattern).

All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to

the next; thus, a sequence. This is evident in the milestones of
children like infants stand before they walk, draw circles before they
make squares. There are evidences however, that even though
development is continuous, there is evidence that at different
stages certain characteristics stand out or are more prominent than
others.

3. Generality to Specificity. Development proceeds from general to

specific. In all areas of development, general activity always
precedes specific activity. For instance, the fetus moves its whole
body but is incapable of making specific responses. In early
postnatal life, infants wave their arms randomly. They can make
such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them. In
language, from genetic sounds emerge words and then specific
sentences with meaning. With respect to emotional behavior infants
approach strange and unusual objects with some sort of a general
 fear response. Later, their fears become
more specific and elicit different kinds of
behavior, such as crying, turning away and
hiding or pretending to be not afraid.

4. Differentiality. The rate of development is

not the same for every individual. Boys and
girls have different development rates. Also,
each part of the body has its own particular
growth rate. Development does not occur at
an even pace. There are periods of great
intensity and equilibrium and there are
periods of imbalance. Developmental
changes do not always go forward in a
straight line. While the development of
different physical and mental traits is
continuous, it is never uniform. Since the
body has to attain its adult proportions,
inequalities in rates occur. The feet, hands
and nose, for example, reach maximum
development early in adolescence, while the
lower part of the face and the shoulders
develop more slowly. Mental abilities like
verbal, numerical, spatial, etc., develop at
different ages. Creative imagination
develops rapidly in childhood and reaches its
peak in early adolescence. Reasoning
develops slowly. Rote memory and memory
for concrete objects and facts develop more
quickly than memory for the abstract. The point to remember here
is that all these changes in individuals are not uniform. These
changes occur at different rates.

Two Approaches to Human Development

One approach to human development is the traditional point of view
where it is believed that an individual will show extensive change from
birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late
old age. This is the traditional approach.
Another approach is the life-span approach, where human
development is described to be the following:
1. Development is lifelong. This belief implies two separate
aspects. First is the suggestion that development extends across
the entire life span. There is no suggestion that development
reaches a peak and then stops or declines during adulthood or old
age. Second, development may involve processes which are not
present at birth but emerge throughout the life span. No
developmental stage dominates development. An example here
 would be the psychological orientations of adults at different points
in their development. Gains and losses in development occur
throughout the life cycle.

⮚ Notice that through various stages of your life you were able to
gain and developed skills and abilities and you will continue to
develop and acquire them as you grow. When one ability
perhaps decreases , an individual may cope by developing a way
to cope. For instance, as individuals grow older and lose some
muscular strength making an active lifestyle challenging, they
develop other ways of physical activities that would not
compromise their health.

2. Development is multidimensional. This refers to the fact that

development cannot be described by a single criterion such
development on in the physical dimension. Development occurs in
the biological, cognitive and socio-emotional domains of the
individual.

3. Development is multidirectional. There is no single, normal

path that development takes. Development is comprised of
multiple abilities which take different directions, showing different
types of change or constancy. Some dimensions or aspects of
development may be increasing while others are declining or not
changing.

4. Development is plastic. Plasticity refers to the variability within

individuals to make possible for a particular behavior or
development. For example, infants who have a hemisphere of the
brain removed shortly after birth (as a treatment for epilepsy) can
recover the functions associated with that hemisphere as the brain
reorganizes itself and the remaining hemisphere takes over those
functions. A key part of the research agendas in developmental
psychology is to understand the nature and the limits of plasticity in
various domains of functioning. Development can be modified by
life circumstances to some extent. Plasticity involves the degree to
which characteristics change or remain stable.

⮚ Another case would be this: if development is not plastic, then a

man who lost his legs would be immobile until he dies. But such
is not the case. We have come across cases where a man who
lost his legs developed other means to become mobile like using
a wheel chair and being able to develop stronger muscles on his
arms to aid himself in mobility. What about the cases where
children born without hands used their feet instead for tasks
normally done by the hands.

5. Development is contextual. Development varies across the

different contexts in which the individual grows. It occurs in the
 context of a person’s biological make-up, physical environment,
social, historical and cultural contexts.
⮚ For instance, children who live along the seashore would likely
be good at swimming and more or less physically light weight. If
he were an ordinary fisherfolk, would most likely be developing
skills that would allow him to survive both his social and physical
environment.

6. Development is multidisciplinary. That is, the sources of age-

related changes do not lie within the domain of only one discipline,
say psychology alone. Rather, an understanding of human
development will be achieved only by research conducted from the
perspective of disciplines such as sociology, linguistics,
anthropology, neuroscience and medicine. For instance, sociology
helps us understand development of individuals in terms of their
social interactions and relationships. Linguistics help us understand
the language development of individuals.

7. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation.

Growth, maintenance and regulation are three goals of human
development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental
stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late
adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while
maintenance and regulation take the center stage.

8. Development is embedded in history: Development is also

historically situated and is always influenced by historical
conditions. The historical time period in which we grow up affects
our development. Children born or are living in areas where there
is war or famine would probably have a stunted growth
development and even their cognitive and psychological
development will be affected.

Akin to this also is the belief that biological and environmental

influences that are associated with history that are common to
people of a particular generation (example: Depression, The AIDS
epidemic, COVID 19 Pandemic ) also influences development.
9. Normative age graded influences. Biological and environmental
influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group
(example: Childhood, Puberty) also influences development

10.Non-normative events. Unusual occurrences that have a major

impact on an individual’s life; the occurrence, the pattern, and
sequence of these events are not applicable to most individuals
(e.g. Death of a parent at young age, getting a serious illness,
winning a lottery).

TASK
Task: Given the different principles of development that have been
presented in this lesson, write a reflection paper of not more than 300
words of how you should treat your students when you become a teacher
yourself.

LESSON 3

Issues on Child Development

Continuity and Discontinuity

In the course of studying child development, experts along this field
have raised and examined certain issues. Among these issues is the
question whether development is continuous or discontinuous. The
controversy is whether development occurs in stages marked by age-
specific periods or not.
Developmental psychologists who profess the continuous model
describe development as a relatively smooth process, without sharp or
distinct stages, through which an individual must go through.
Development therefore, is viewed as a process of gradual accumulation of
a behavior, skill, or knowledge.
Among the theorists of who believe in the continuous model include
social learning theorists (Bandura, 1989) and information-processing
theorists (Bjorkland, 1987 & Klahr, 1989). These experts explain
development without reference to the stage concept. They view
development as a gradual accumulation of minute or small changes and
they do not see any basis for dividing development into stages.
On the opposite pole of this argument are those who hold the view
that developmental change is characterized as discontinuous in nature.
Developmentalists who follow the discontinuous model believe that
children go through various developmental stages defined by reorganizing
changes.
Accumulation of developmental change is not a matter of
adding one new skill after another; rather, these BTW
developmental changes cause the rules of the system to
change or to reorganize. Developmental
stage refers to the
For instance, a child, having an organized system of time elapsing
space as just clinging to a furniture. However at 13 between any two
months old, the child discovers that he can let go of sequential
furniture and toddle across the living room. The child’s developmental
rules for the system of movement in space changes changes that
irreversibly. As soon as the child knows that he can now reorganize the
walk across the room, there is no stopping him from
system.
walking to other spaces in the house.
At a more advanced level, a five-year-old discovers that a few
cookies can be numbered as one, two, three and so on. The child’s mental
system for conceptualizing quantity is completely reorganized. This is the
stage where the child learns to count. So, he can now compare the
cookies he has with that of his brother by counting the cookies. His
system of quantity is reorganized to the notion of more and less. If he has
three cookies and his brother has five then his brother has more cookies.
This is what it means to ‘reorganize the system’
Theorists who believe in the discontinuous model where
developmental changes occur in stages include Sigmund Freud (1939)
who proposed that personality emerges in a sequence of five
developmental stages organized around different aspects of sexual
functioning. (You shall learn these theories later on when we will discuss
the different theories of development)
Jean Piaget (1983), on the other hand, proposed that cognitive
development emerges in a series of four sequential stages organized
around distinctive forms of thinking and problem solving.

Stability and Change

Another issue that developmental psychologists debate on is
whether development is best characterized by stability. For instance,
does a behavior or trait that has been developed become permanent?
When a child is shy, will the child be shy throughout his life or could a
degree of this shyness fluctuate across the life span?

Nature vs. Nurture

When we speak of nurture in this context, we are referring to the
innate, inherent or inborn characteristics or features of an individual. We
refer to the genetic make-up or hereditary features of the person. Nature,
on the other hand, refer to the environment or surroundings of the
individual. These could be the physical environment like place of
residence , geographical location and physical terrain or social
environment such as the people in the home, community and society as a
whole.
Nature versus nurture then, debates whether a behavior developed
by the child is due to hereditary or environmental factors. The debate
over the influence or contribution of heredity and the environment is one
of the oldest issues in psychology. This debate concerns the relative
degree to which heredity and learning affect the behavior of the
individual. Both genetic traits and environmental circumstances are
involved in an individual’s development, although the amount of influence
the two has is not clearly evident. In fact it may be stated that the
individual and his or her circumstances decide how much of the behavior
is influenced by heredity factors and how much by environmental factors.
Today, most psychologists believe that it is an interaction between these
two forces that causes development. Some aspects of development are
distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of puberty can
be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

Active or Passive Developing Organism

Are children actively involved in their own development? This is the
question in this issue. Some theorists portray children as essentially
passive in their development. In this view, children do not initiate
behavior or spontaneously act upon the environment. In this perspective
then, some developmentalists see development as the accumulation of
learned associations between environmental stimuli and responses.
Since the child is passively involved, he would just be absorbing and
responding to what he encounters in his surroundings – like a sponge that
just absorbs.
Other theories portray children as active agents in their own
development. In this perspective, children selectively and spontaneously
involve themselves with specific aspects of the environment and alter the
environment in ways that affect the nature of their experience. For
instance, a child who develops an interest and aptitude for motor skills
may begin to select activities that involve a lot of physical activities that
will further enhance and develop his motor skills. Some examples of these
activities can be joining a sports team and practicing. Thus from the
moment of conception, each individual must be understood as an active
force in development, affecting the environment as much as he or she is
influenced by that environment.
It appears that there is no simple resolution regarding this issue
whether children are active or passively involved in their development.
Both seem valid. Children appear to actively affect some developmental
changes, such as acquiring language and social skills. Of course, when it
comes to the biological changes that take place among children, they may
be considered as passively involved since they only respond to their
genetics or how the environment nurtures them.
 Thus, to comprehensively explain the complexity of human
development , we need the explanation of theories that include both
passive and active involvement of the child in developmental change.

Critical Period in Development

Is there a critical period in the development of the individual. Some
developmentalists believe that children go through critical periods or
sensitive phases, during which certain forms of experience have very
specific effects on development. If the experience occurs either before or
after but not during the critical period, those effects will not take place.
The notion therefore of critical period suggests that ‘timing is everything’.
The notion of critical periods has been used to describe both risks
and opportunities for development. For instance, ethological theory has
suggested that the first two years of life provide the best opportunities to
establish a strong bond in the relationship between the child and their
caregivers. Thus, parents who provide sensitive and responsive
caregiving will foster a healthy attachment relationship between them and
their toddlers. In contrast, psychoanalytic theorists proposed that
traumatic experiences in early childhood will have devastating effects on
the development of the individual’s personality.
Other developmentalists however, find little evidence of critical
periods in human development. Among linguists however, Lenneberg who
proposed the critical period hypothesis in language acquisition states that
the brain of children at their pre- pubescent stage still retain its plasticity
making them learn or acquire language easily. It has been observed
however, that this is true when it comes to phonation or getting the
accent. One evidence are Filipino migrants who migrated to the United
States of America. Notice that those who went to America who wre
already in their adult years still retain their Filipino accent no matter how
they fluently speak the English language, there is still the traces of their
first language. However , those who migrated before their puberty
especially children, have acquired the American accent when they speak
English. That is why it is a bit challenging really, to offer a seminar
workshop to adults to speak with an American or a British accent.

TASK

Position Paper. Pick three (3) issues and choose your position of the
arguments. Discuss your position and cite evidences to prove your point.

REFERENCES
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Duchesne, Susan (2016). Educational Psychology for Learning and

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development-e41415385.html

Geary, David C. & Daniel B. Berch eds. (2016). Evolutionary Perspectives

on Child Development and Education [e-book]. Retrieved from
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development-and-education-e190133098.html

Jacobs, Amanda (2020, December 3). 5 Main areas if child development

[web log]. Retrieved from https://skoolzy.com/blogs/news/5-main-
areas-of-child-development-1

Keefer, Kateryna, James D.A. Parker, & Donald Saklofske (2018).

Emotional Intelligence in Education [e-book]. Retrieved from
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e187884929.html

Kemin Qi (2019, February 11). Challenges in early childhood

development. Retrieved from https://jamanetwork.
com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2724383

Moore, Kristin Anderson (2016, October 12). Five of the biggest and most
ignored issues facing today’s children. Retrieved from
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todays-children
Reardon, Denise (2018). Early years teaching and learning 3 rd ed. London:
SAGE Publications
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development/
Sanders, Matthew R. & Alina Morawska (2018). Handbook of Parenting
and Child Development Across the Life span [e-book]. Retrieved
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development-across-the-lifespan-e187222617.html

Saxton, Matthew (2018). Child Language: Acquisition and Development

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acquisition-and-development-e187543462.html

Sibnath, Deb (2018). Positive Schooling and Child Development [e-book].

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monitor child development. Retrieved from
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undp.org/ en/content/advancing-human-development-theory-and-
practice

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London: Sage Publications

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e168606082.html

MODULE II
 Lesson 1 Prenatal
Lesson 2 Physical and Motor
2.1 Infancy
2.2 Early, Middle and Late Childhood
2.3 Puberty and Adolescence

Lesson 3 Brain Development

Lesson 4 Factors Affecting Development:
Maternal Nutrition, Child Nutrition, and
Early Sensory Stimulation
4.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

MODULE II
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION
 This module presents the stages of human growth and
development. Developmental psychologists often divide our development
into three areas namely physical development, cognitive development,
and psychosocial development. According to the Mirroring Erikson’s
stages, lifespan development is divided into different stages that are
based on age. We will discuss these stages in this module

OBJECTIVES
After studying the module, you should be able to:
1. Understand the stages of prenatal development and recognize the
importance of prenatal care
2. Explain how the developing embryo and fetus may be harmed by
the presence of hazards and describe what a mother can do to
reduce risk.
3. Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs
from infancy through childhood to adolescence.
4. Understand the stages or processes of brain development.
5. Discuss different factors affecting development in terms of Maternal
Nutrition, Child Nutrition, and Early Sensory Stimulation

DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited
from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output as
instructed via Google Classroom.

Lesson 1
Prenatal
Prenatal Development
How did you come to be who you are? From beginning as a one-cell
structure to your birth, your prenatal development occurred in an orderly
and delicate sequence. Prenatal development refers to the process in
which a baby develops from a single cell after conception into an embryo
and later a fetus.
The average length of time for prenatal development to complete is
38 weeks from the date of conception. During this time, a single-celled
prenatalnicot develops in a series of stages into a full-term baby. The
three primary stages of prenatal development are the germinal stage, the
embryonic stage, and the fetal stage.
Let’s take a look at what happens to the developing baby in each of
these stages.

Stages of Prenatal Development

1. Germinal Period (Weeks 1-2)

A mother and father’s DNA is passed on to the child at the moment of

conception. Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a
zygote. A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a
sperm and egg merge. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at
this point. During the first week after conception, the zygote divides and
multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells,
then eight cells, and so on. Mitosis is the process of cell division. As the
cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and
body parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself
to the lining of the mother’s uterus.

Details of Germinal Period

a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – The sperm and egg chromosome
unite.
b. 36 hours – The fertilized ovum, zygote divides into two cells.
c. 2 days – The two cells becomes four cells.
d. 3 days – The four cells become a small compact ball 16-32 cells.
e. 4 days – There is now a hollow ball of 64-128 cells.
f. 4 to 5 days – the inner cell mass called blastocyst is still free in
the uterus.
g. 6 to 7 days – The blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus.
h. 11-15 days – The blastocyst invades into uterine wall of uterus and
becomes implanted in it. This is called implantation.
 2. Embryonic Period (Weeks 3-8)

The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight
weeks after conception. After implantation, the cells continue to rapidly
divide and differentiation occurs, it is a clusters of cells begin to take on
different functions. A gastrulation leads to the formation of three distinct
layers called germ layers: the outer layer (ectoderm), the middle layer
(mesoderm), and the inner layer (endoderm). As the embryo develops,
each germ layer differentiates into different tissues and structures. For
example, the ectoderm eventually forms skin, nails, hair, brain, nervous
tissue and cells, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, tooth enamel, and other
tissues. The mesoderm develops into muscles, bones, heart tissue, lungs,
reproductive organs, lymphatic tissue, and other tissues. The endoderm
forms the lining of lungs, bladder, digestive tract, tongue, tonsils, and
other organs. The process of differentiation takes place over a period of
weeks with different structures forming simultaneously.
Events during Embryonic Stage

a. Week 3 - Beginning development of the brain, heart, blood cells,

circulatory system, spinal cord, and digestive system.
b. Week 4- Beginning development of bones, facial structures, and
limbs (presence of arm and leg buds); continuing development of
the heart (which begins to beat), brain, and nervous tissue.
c. Week 5 - Beginning development of eyes, nose, kidneys, and lungs;
continuing development of the heart (formation of valves), brain,
nervous tissue, and digestive tract.
d. Week 6 - Beginning development of hands, feet, and digits;
continuing development of brain, heart, and circulation system.
e. Week 7 - Beginning development of hair follicles, nipples, eyelids,
and sex organs (testes or ovaries); first formation of urine in the
kidneys and first evidence of brain waves.
f. Week 8 - Facial features more distinct, internal organs well
developed, the brain can signal for muscles to move, heart
development ends, external sex organs begin to form.

3. Fetal Stage ( Weeks 9-40 )

Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage. When an

embryo becomes a fetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimeters
(1.2 inches) in length from crown to rump and weighs about 3 grams (0.1
ounce). By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks
gestation, he or she may be 50 centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms
(7.3 pounds). Although all of the organ systems were formed during
embryonic development, they continue to develop and grow during the
fetal stage.
Features of Fetal Development

a. Weeks 9 to 12 - The fetus reaches approximately 8 cm. (3.2 in.) in

length; the head is approximately half the size of the fetus. External
features such as the face, neck, eyelids, limbs, digits, and genitals
are well formed. The beginnings of teeth appear, and red blood cells
begin to be produced in the liver. The fetus is able to make a fist.
b. Weeks 13 to 15 - The fetus reaches approximately 15 cm. (6 in.) in
length. Fine hair called lanugo first develops on the head; structures
such as the lungs, sweat glands, muscles, and bones continue to
develop. The fetus is able to swallow and make sucking motions.

c. Weeks 16 to 20 - The fetus reaches approximately 20 cm. (8 in.) in

length. Lanugo begins to cover all skin surfaces, and fat begins to
develop under the skin. Features such as finger and toenails,
eyebrows, and eyelashes appear. The fetus becomes more active,
and the mother can sometimes begin to feel fetal movements at
this stage.

d. Weeks 21 to 24 - The fetus reaches approximately 28.5 cm. (11.2

in.) in length and weighs approximately 0.7 kg (1 lb. 10 oz.). Hair
grows longer on the head, and the eyebrows and eye lashes finish
forming. The lungs continue to develop with the formation of air sac
(alveoli); the eyes finish developing. A startle reflex develops at this
time.
e. Weeks 25 to 28 - The fetus reaches approximately 38 cm. (15 in.) in
length and weighs approximately 1.2 kg (2 lb. 11 oz.). The next few
weeks mark a period of rapid brain and nervous system
development. The fetus gains greater control over movements such
as opening and closing eyelids and certain body functions. The
lungs have developed sufficiently that air breathing is possible.

f. Weeks 29–32: The fetus reaches approximately 38–43 cm. (15–17

in.) in length and weighs approximately 2 kg (4 lb. 6 oz.). Fat
deposits become more pronounced under the skin. The lungs
remain immature but breathing movements begin. The fetus's
bones are developed but not yet hardened.

g. Weeks 33 to 36 - The fetus reaches approximately 41–48 cm. (16–

19 in.) in length and weighs 2.6–3.0 kg (5 lb. 12 oz. to 6 lb. 12 oz.).
Body fat continues to increase, lanugo begins to disappear, and
fingernails are fully grown. The fetus has gained a high degree of
control over body functions.
h. Weeks 36 to 38 - The fetus reaches 48–53 cm. (19–21 in.) in length
is considered to be full-term by the end of this period. Lanugo has
mostly disappeared and is replaced with thicker hair on the head.
 Fingernails have grown past the tips of the fingers. In a healthy
fetus, all organ systems are functioning.

Hazards to Prenatal Development

Prenatal development is a complicated process and may not always

go as planned. About 45% of pregnancies result in a miscarriage, often
without the mother ever being aware it has occurred (Moore & Persaud,
1993).

Physical Hazards

a. Starvation - The zygote will die of starvation if it has too little

yolk to keep it alive until it can lodge itself in the uterine wall
or if it remains too long in the tube.

b. Lack of Uterine Preparation - Implantation cannot occur if, as a

result of glandular imbalance, the uterine walls are not
prepared in time to receive the zygote.

c. Implantation in the wrong place - If the zygote becomes

attached to a small fibroid tissue in the uterine wall or to the
wall of the Fallopian tube, it cannot get nourishment and will
die.

d. Miscarriages - Due to unfavorable conditions in the prenatal

environment are likely to occur between the tenth and
eleventh week after conception.

e. Developmental Irregularities – Maternal malnutrition, vitamin

and glandular deficiencies.

Environmental Hazards- Scientific research shows that some of these

substances may affect the health of an unborn child. Exposure to these
hazards such as radiation, pollutants, toxic wastes and others during
pregnancy may cause negative health effects for the mother and baby.
Substances that can harm the fetus, known as teratogens, may
nevertheless cause problems. Teratogens include general environmental
factors, such as air pollution and radiation, but also the cigarettes, alcohol,
and drugs that the mother may use.

Prescription and Nonprescription of Drugs – Taking harmful drugs

such as antibiotics and some of nonprescription drugs such as diet pills,
aspirin and coffee.

Psychoactive Drugs – Taking this during pregnancy may harm the

unborn child such as nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as marijuana,
cocaine and heroin.

Other maternal factors that affect the unborn child such as Rubella
(German measles) syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, anxiety and age.

TASK
Instruction: Answer the following :

1. What are proof’s that which is developing in the mother’s womb is a

living human being?
2. What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on developing
embryo/fetus?
3. Can you have a healthy baby without prenatal care? Explain.
4. What behaviours must a woman avoid engaging in when she decides
to try to become pregnant, or when she finds out she is pregnant? Do
you think the ability of a mother to engage in healthy behaviours
should influence her choice to have a child?
5. Given the negative effects of poverty on human development, what
steps do you think societies should take to try to reduce poverty?
Lesson 2

Physical and Motor Development

Any development implies an all-round developmental behavior pattern.

Physical and motor development refers to the advancements and
refinements of motor skills, or, in other words, the abilities to use and
control their bodies. It relates to the growth and skill development of the
body, including the brain, muscles, and senses.
Two Categories of Motor Development
1. Fine motor skills refer to small movements in the hands, wrists,
fingers, feet, toes, lips and tongue.
2. Gross motor skills involve motor development of muscles that
enable babies to hold up their heads, sit and crawl, and eventually
walk, run, jump and skip.
Development is unified and cumulative; hence the discussion of physical
and motor development cannot be restricted only to the growing in size.
Let us take look in the different stage of development.
INFANCY - It is the first year of life and is the period of most rapid growth
after birth. Development is most often divided into the following areas:
1. Physical Development - An infant's physical
development begins at the head, then moves to
other parts of the body.

New •Can lift and turn their head when lying on their back
born – 2
Mos. •Hands are fisted, the arms are flexed

•Neck is unable to support the head when the infant is pulled to a

sitting position

Primitive reflexes include:

•Babinski reflex, toes fan outward when sole of foot is stroked

•Moro reflex (startle reflex), extends arms then bends and pulls
them in toward body with a brief cry; often triggered by loud sounds
or sudden movements

•Palmar hand grasp, infant closes hand and "grips" your finger

•Placing, leg extends when sole of foot is touched

•Plantar grasp, infant flexes the toes and forefoot

•Rooting and sucking, turns head in search of nipple when cheek is

touched and begins to suck when nipple touches lips

•Stepping and walking, takes brisk steps when both feet are placed
on a surface, with body supported

•Tonic neck response, left arm extends when infant gazes to the
left, while right arm and leg flex inward, and vice versa

•Can lift and turn their head when lying on their back
•Hands are fisted, the arms are flexed

•Neck is unable to support the head when the infant is pulled to a

sitting position

Primitive reflexes include:

•Babinski reflex, toes fan outward when sole of foot is stroked

•Moro reflex (startle reflex), extends arms then bends and pulls
them in toward body with a brief cry; often triggered by loud sounds
or sudden movements

•Palmar hand grasp, infant closes hand and "grips" your finger

•Placing, leg extends when sole of foot is touched

•Plantar grasp, infant flexes the toes and forefoot

 •Rooting and sucking, turns head in search of nipple when cheek is
touched and begins to suck when nipple touches lips

•Stepping and walking, takes brisk steps when both feet are placed
on a surface, with body supported

•Tonic neck response, left arm extends when infant gazes to the
left, while right arm and leg flex inward, and vice versa

3-4 Mos. •Better eye-muscle control allows the infant to track objects.
•Begins to control hand and feet actions, but these movements are
not fine-tuned. The infant may begin to use both hands, working
together, to accomplish tasks. The infant is still unable to coordinate
the grasp, but swipes at objects to bring them closer.

•Increased vision allows the infant to tell objects apart from

backgrounds with very little contrast (such as a button on a blouse
of the same color).

•Infant raises up (upper torso, shoulders, and head) with arms when
lying face down (on tummy).

•Neck muscles are developed enough to allow the infant to sit with
support, and keep head up.

•Primitive reflexes have either already disappeared, or are starting

to disappear.

5-6 Mos. •Able to sit alone, without support, for only moments at first, and
then for up to 30 seconds or more.

•Infant begins to grasp blocks or cubes using the ulnar-palmar grasp

technique (pressing the block into palm of hand while flexing or
bending wrist in) but does not yet use thumb.

•Infant rolls from back to stomach. When on tummy, the infant can
push up with arms to raise the shoulders and head and look around
or reach for objects.

6-9 Mos. •Crawling may begin

•Infant can walk while holding an adult's hand

•Infant is able to sit steadily, without support, for long periods of

time

•Infant learns to sit down from a standing position

•Infant may pull into and keep a standing position while holding
onto furniture

9-12 •Infant begins to balance while standing alone

Mos.
•Infant takes steps holding a hand; may take few steps alone

1. Sensory Development
•Hearing begins before birth, and is mature at birth. The infant prefers the
human voice.
•Touch, taste, and smell, mature at birth; prefers sweet taste.

•Vision, the new born infant can see within a range of 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30
centimeters). Color vision develops between 4 to 6 months. By 2 months, can
track moving objects up to 180 degrees, and prefers faces.

•Inner ear (vestibular) senses, the infant responds to rocking and changes of
position.

2. Language Development
0-2 Mos. •Alert to voices

Uses range of noises to signal needs, such as hunger or pain

2-4 Mos. •Coos

4-6 Mos. ● Makes vowel sounds ("oo," "ah")

6-9 Mos. ● Babbles

● Blows bubbles ("raspberries")
Laughs

9-12 Imitates some sounds

Mos.
Says "Mama" and "Dada,", but not specifically for those parents

Responds to simple verbal commands, such as "no"

3. Behavior - Newborn behavior is based on six

states of consciousness such as active crying,
active sleep, drowsy waking, fussing, quiet alert
and quiet sleep.

EARLY, MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD – It spans the ages between

early childhood and adolescence, approximately ages 6 to 12. Children
gain greater control over the movement of their bodies, mastering many
gross and fine motor skills that eluded the younger child.

1. Physical Development - Children will grow an average of 2-3 inches

taller each year throughout this period. “Growing pains" are caused
by bone growth that outpaces the growth of surrounding muscles
and tendons, causing a subsequent stretching of the muscles and
tendons. Children's permanent adult teeth begin to push through
the gums, loosening and replacing the "baby teeth" already in
place. Children typically lose their incisors (the teeth in the front)
first, around age 6. The molars (teeth in the back) are the last to
loosen, normally around ages 10 to 12. - Children will gain 6-7
pounds a year, each year during middle childhood. Girls tend to
retain more fatty tissue than boys in preparation for puberty. As a
result, during this age stage, girls will often look rounder and softer
than boys.
 2. Thinking and Learning Changes - Show rapid development of mental
skills. Learn better ways to describe experiences and talk about
thoughts and feelings. - Have less focus on one’s self and more
concern for others.

3. Emotional and Social Changes- Show more independence from

parents and family. - Start to think about the future. Understand
more about his or her place in the world. Pay more attention to
friendships and teamwork. Want to be liked and accepted by
friends.

PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE – It is a time for growth spurts and

puberty changes. An adolescent may grow several inches in several
months followed by a period of very slow growth, then have another
growth spurt. Changes with puberty (sexual maturation) may happen
gradually or several signs may become visible at the same time.

Early ● During this stage, children often start to grow more quickly.
Adolescen ● These body changes can inspire curiosity and anxiety in
ce some―especially if they do not know what to expect or what is
normal.
Age 10-13 ● Early adolescents have concrete, black-and-white thinking.
● Pre-teens feel an increased need for privacy.
Middle ● Physical changes from puberty continue during middle
Adolescen adolescence.
ce ● At this age, many teens become interested in romantic and
sexual relationships.
Age 14-17 ● Many middle adolescents have more arguments with their
parents as they struggle for more independence.
● The brain continues to change and mature in this stage, but
there are still many differences in how a normal middle
adolescent thinks compared to an adult.
Late ● Late adolescents generally have completed physical
Adolescen development and grown to their full adult height. They usually
ce have more impulse control by now and may be better able to
gauge risks and rewards accurately.
Age 18-21

TASK
Instruction: Answer the following questions and do the activities that
follow.

1. What are the factors that affects motor development?

2. What activities may help a child develop his or her gross motor
skills?
 3. What is the most important aspect of cognitive development in
adolescence?
4. How do children develop their identity during adolescence?
5. How do you support a child's sense of belonging?

Lesson 3

Brain Development
Brain development is about the whole child, from the health of the mother
to the child's early experiences in the culture and language of their family,
their community, and their early learning program. The foundation of brain
development is social and emotional development grounded in caring
relationships.

Throughout the lifetime of the human brain it continues to undergo

changes. I cannot stress the importance of each stage and how we need
to nourish and protect our brain growth from 0 to 100 and hopefully
beyond.
Let’s review each of the five stages of human brain growth.
Stage 1: 0 ● Neurons and connections growing.
to 10 ● Pregnant woman should stay as stress-free as possible, take
months folic acid, B6 & B12, stimulate this young developing brain with
sounds and sensations. Mother should avoid toxins, cigarettes,
heavy metals, alcohol, and drugs.
Stage 2: ● Development of voluntary movement, reasoning, perception,
birth to 6 frontal lobes active in development of emotions, attachments,
years planning, working memory, and perception. A sense of self is
developing and life experiences shape the emotional
wellbeing.
● By age six, the brain is 95% its adult weight and peak of
energy consumption.
● Caregivers need to provide nurturing environment and daily
individualized communication. Negative or harsh treatment
may come with emotional consequences in the future.
Stage 3: 7 ● The neural connections or ‘grey’ matter is still pruning, wiring
to 22 of brain still in progress, the fatty tissues surrounding neurons
years or ‘white’ matter increase and assist with speeding up
electrical impulses and stabilize connections. The prefrontal
cortex is the last to mature and it involves the control of
impulses and decision-making.
● Therefore, teenagers need to learn to control reckless,
irrational and irritable behavior. Avoiding drugs, alcohol,
smoking, unprotected sex and substance abuse.
Stage 4: ● Finally, the brain reaches its peak power around age 22 and
23 to 65 lasts for 5 more years. Afterwards, it’s a downhill pattern. Last
years to mature and the first to go are the brain functionality of
executive control occurring in the prefrontal and temporal
cortices. Memory for recalling episodes start to decline,
processing speed slows and working memory is storing less
information.
● Best approach is to stay mentally active, learn new things, stay
physically active and eat a very healthy diet. Avoid toxins,
cigarettes, alcohol and mind-altering drugs.
● Stage 5: older than 65 years
Stage 5: ● Brain cells are lost in the critical areas such as the
older than hippocampus responsible for processing memories.
65 years ● Learn new skills, practice meditation to promote neutral
emotions, exercise to improve abstract reasoning and
concentration.
● Avoid stress or incorporate stress reducing meditation and
exercises.
● Eat a healthy diet with foods to nourish one’s level of
dopamine.
Brain Development in Infancy and Childhood

Infants are born with a surprising number of unlearned (innate) reflexes,

that is, unlearned responses to stimuli such as;

1. Moro reflex is an outstretching of the arms and legs in response to

a loud noise or sudden change in the environment. The infant's
body tenses; arms are extended and then drawn inward as if
embracing.

2. Babinski reflex is an outward projection of the big toe and fanning

of the others when the sole of the foot is touched.

3. Sucking reflex occurs when an object touches the lips.

4. Rooting reflex is the turning of an infant's head toward a stimulus

such as a breast or hand.

5. Grasping reflex is the vigorous grasping of an object that touches

the palm.

6. Plantar reflex is the curling under of the toes when the ball of the
foot is touched. Physicians sometimes use these reflexes to assess
the rate of development. Gradually, learned responses replace the
reflex actions as an infant becomes more responsive to the
environment.

Although the rate of motor development can vary, the developmental

sequence is the same. On average, an infant will learn to roll over at 2-1/2
months, sit without support at 6 months, and walk alone at 12 months.
The growth and body development from infant to child occurs in a
cephalocaudal direction; that is, the head and upper trunk develop before
the lower trunk and feet.
Sensory and Perceptual Development - newborn infants can and do
respond to a wide range of environmental stimuli. All human senses
function to some degree at birth; touch is the most highly developed and
vision is the least developed sense. At the age of 3 months, however, most
infants can recognize a photograph of their mother.
Cognitive Development- refers to the development of the ability to
think and to mentally represent events and to manipulate symbols.

Jean Piaget’s Behavioral Act

Assimilation ● The process of acquiring new information about the world
and fitting it to already acquired information.
Accommodatio ● The process of creating a new concept to handle new
n information; for example, children come to realize that all
toys don't belong to them, that some belong to other
children.

Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Development

Sensorimotor stage ● Infants develop their ability to coordinate motor
(birth to age 2) actions with sensory activity.

Preoperational ● Children improve in the use of mental images and

stage (ages 2 to 7 symbolic thought.
years)

Concrete ● Children begin to develop many concepts and to

operational stage organize the concepts into classes and categories.
(ages 7 to 11 years)

Formal operational ● Children learn to use and to manipulate abstract

stage (ages 11 symbolic concepts, develop and mentally test
years and beyond) hypotheses, and work mental problems.

Language Development – It is one of the most important aspects of a

child's development.
Moral Development – This occurs in three levels, with two stages at
each level.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Levels

The ● At stage 1, punishment orientation, judgments are
preconventional guided by the prospect of punishment.
level ● At stage 2, pleasure‐seeking orientation, activities are
undertaken primarily to satisfy one's own needs;
needs of others are important only as they relate to
one's own needs.
The conventional ● At stage 3, good girl/good boy orientation, behavior is
level engaged in that brings approval or pleases others in a
child's immediate group.
● At stage 4, authority orientation, behavior is
influenced by respect for authority, performing one's
duty, and doing what is right.
The post ● At stage 5, contract and legal orientation, behavior is
conventional level based on support of rules and regulations because
society's right to exact such support is accepted.
● At stage 6, ethical and moral principles orientation,
behavior is directed by self‐chosen ethical and moral
principles.
Social Development – It begins at birth as a child forms an attachment
(a strong emotional bond) with the primary caregiver(s), usually the
mother.

a. Harry Harlow – In his study it was concluded that emotional

attachments to caregivers are thought to be essential for social
development.
b. Konrad Lorenz – He studied imprinting, a rapid and relatively
permanent type of learning that occurs for a limited time (called a
critical period) early in life. Imprinting demonstrates that
attachments by the young to a parent can occur early and can have
lifelong consequences.

Gender Stereotyping – Is the patterns of behavior expected of people

according to their gender.
a. Eleanor Maccoby - has observed that children with widely different
personalities play together simply because they are of the same
gender.

The development of gender‐related differences is complex. Gender

stereotyping occurs not only because of parental differences in rearing
children of each gender but also because of socialization experiences.

TASK
Instruction: Answer the following questions:
1. Which plays a more important role in brain development, nurture
(genes) or nurture (environment)?
2. What is critical period in brain development?
3. What role do parents play in a baby’s brain development?
4. Are there any differences in the development of boys’ and girls’
brains?
5. When does brain development begin?
LESSON 4

Factors Affecting Development

Child development is a gradual unfolding of biologically determined

characteristics and traits that arises as the child learns from experiences.

Maternal Nutrition – It is an important determinant of birth weight. In

Asia almost one in three babies are of low birth weight and therefore it is
essential to build the nutrition of adolescent and pregnant mothers with
healthy diets consisting of macro and micronutrients particularly of iron,
folate, iodine, vitamin A, zinc, calcium, magnesium and vitamin B12.

Attention is required to fulfil calorie, protein and

micronutrient requirements to promote 10–12 kg body
During
weight gain and lactation to support the growth of the
Pregnancy
fetus and infant.
 The type of fatty acid (oleic acid/ DHA being beneficial)
in the diet during pregnancy and lactation are known to
influence the plasma cholesterol and cognition in
infancy and childhood.

Exclusive breast-feeding and prolonged breast-feeding

can reduce the risk of obesity and related disorders
later.

Energy dense and micronutrient rich complementary

foods to promote growth and development must be
ensured to prevent dual burden of diseases and to
avoid irreversible changes in brain growth, prevent
stunting and obesity in adult life.

Child Nutrition - Feeding is a primary event in the life of an infant and

young child. The essential component of feeding behavior in young
children is the relationship between the child and the primary caregiver.
The first three years of life are a particular challenge because a child’s
feeding abilities and needs change with motor, cognitive and social
development.
1st Stage ● The child integrates experiences of hunger and
satiety to develop regular feeding patterns.
(birth – 3 months)

2nd Stage ● The infant and parent form an attachment that

allows them to communicate with each other and
(3-7 months)
the infant develops basic trust and self-soothing
behaviours.
● At stage 4, authority orientation, behavior is
influenced by respect for authority, performing
one's duty, and doing what is right.
3rd Stage ● The child gradually “separates” emotionally from
the parent and discovers a sense of
(6-36 months)
independence or autonomy, making use of
developing motor and language skills to control
the environment and establish independent
feeding.

Problems in Child Nutrition

Overeating ● Parental concerns about overeating and obesity may
result in inappropriate restriction of their young
child’s diet.
Poor eating or not ● A parent may misperceive her child as having
gaining sufficient insufficient nutritional intake when the child is active
weight and more interested in play and the environment than
in meals.
 Feeding behavior ● Parents may have difficulty making the transition
problem from an infant who is cooperative during feeding to a
toddler who seeks independence at mealtime.
Unusual choices ● Pica, or the ingestion of non-food substances, is
normal in children under two years of age who
explore their environment through hand-to-mouth
experiences.
Unhealthy food ● Food preferences are established through exposure
choices and accessibility to foods, modelling and
advertisements.

Early Sensory Stimulation

Sensory play or experiences are activities that allow your baby to interact
with their surroundings and learn about their world. Through this type of
exploration and play their brains grow and mature as connections are
made in the brain.
Parents can have a direct impact on the development of their baby’s brain
through providing a variety of positive sensory experiences such as:

0-3 ● Singing, bouncing, talking, swinging, bath time, massage,

months hanging a colorful mobile for the baby to look at, placing
rattles in baby’s hand for exploration.
3-6 ● At this point you can add tummy time, play with food
months (purees), reading, encourage baby to touch fabrics with
different textures, and shaking rattles.
6-9 ● Now you can start to blow bubbles, play in different
months positions on the floor, play with cause and effect toys and
games such as play peek-a-boo.
9-12 ● Now is the time to add water play, crawl/walk/play on
months grass or sand, play on swings and slides, tasting and
exploring a variety of foods, finger painting, play-dough.

It is important to note that children can become over-stimulated or

overwhelmed when given too much sensory input. A child might enjoy
some sensory play and become very uncomfortable with another type of
sensory play. If your child is having a hard time tolerating an activity,
don’t avoid it altogether. The best option is to take a break and then try to
gradually expose your child to that specific input.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory developed by
Abraham Maslow in 1943 which argues that humans have different levels
of needs. The needs are tiered as displayed in the image below. At the
base of the pyramid are basic human needs (food, water, clothing, etc.),
and at the top is self-actualization (the finding of purpose).
 Source: Mendix.com

If you go through the details of the needs this may become clearer:
⮚ Physiological needs are about having the right nutrition and water,
access to fresh air, enough rest and exercise.
⮚ Safety needs are about security and feeling safe – physically and
emotionally, the need to have shelter/a home and to have stability
in one’s life.
⮚ Belongingness and love and are to do with others, the social side of
feeling that you belong, are connected, loved and included.
⮚ Esteem needs concerns inner self – having feelings of achievement,
being recognized, having power over one’s life and being a person
different from another person.
⮚ Self-actualization is to do with achieving one’s full potential, being
creative and finding that specialness of oneself.

From a purely child development stance, all child developmental needs

are encompassed in Maslow’s theory – physical development, emotional
development, social development, cognitive and language development
and aesthetic development.

As educators we need a comprehensive understanding of Maslow’s

Hierarchy of needs, because it provides us with a larger context to relate
their behaviors and actions. We often view the way a child behaves as
singular rather than as a part of their broader life

TASK
Instruction: Answer the given questions and the activity that follows.
1. How does nutrition affect a child's development?
2. What are the environmental factors that affect growth and
development?
3. What is sensory development in early childhood?
 4. What are the factors affecting child health?
5. How is maternal nutrition related to preterm birth?

In module II, you have learned about child development that occur
in a child from birth to the beginning of adolescence. During this process a
child progresses from dependency on their parents/guardians to
increasing independence. You have learned that a child development is
crucial to their health, wellbeing, and the overall trajectory of their lives in
a variety of ways.

REFERENCES
Child nutrition: Feeding Behaviour of Infants and Young Children and Its
Impact on Child Psychosocial and Emotional Development. (n.d.).
Retrieved September 19, 2020, from http://www.child-
encyclopedia.com/child-nutrition/according-experts/feeding-
behaviour-infants-and-young-children-and-its-impact-child
Children's, C. (2017, April 07). The Importance of Early Sensory
Experiences in Development. Retrieved September 22, 2020, from
https://blog.chocchildrens.org/the-importance-of-early-sensory-
experiences-in-development/
5 Stages of Human Brain Development. (2020, September 17). Retrieved
September 17, 2020, from https://nancyguberti.com/5-stages-of-
human-brain-development/
Foundation, C. (n.d.). 12 Foundation. Retrieved September 11, 2020, from
https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-biology-advanced-conce
FutureLearn. (n.d.). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Retrieved September 22,
2020, from https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/supporting-learning-
primary/0/steps/58666
Infancy Physical Development: Motor Development. (n.d.). Retrieved
September 11, 2020, from https://www.gracepointwellness.org/461-
child-development-parenting-infants-0-2/article/10108-infancy-
physical-development-motor-development
Libretexts. (2020, May 16). 5: Middle and Late Childhood. Retrieved
September 11, 2020, from
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Development/Boo
k:_Lifespan_Development_-
_A_Psychological_Perspective_(Lally_and_Valentine-French)/
05:_Middle_and_Late_Childhood
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https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/teen/Pages/Stag
es-of-Adolescence.aspx
The Growing Child: Adolescent 13 to 18 Years. (n.d.). Retrieved September
14, 2020, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-
and-prevention/the-growing-child-adolescent-13-to-18-years
Yurtoğlu, N. (2018). Http%3a%2f%2fwww.historystudies.net%2fdergi%2f
%2fbirinci-dunya-savasinda-bir-asayis-sorunu-sebinkarahisar-ermeni-
isyani20181092a4a8f.pdf. History Studies International Journal of
History, 10(7), 241-264. doi:10.9737/hist.2018.658
MODULE III
 Lesson 1. Language Acquisition
Lesson 2. Bilingual Language Development

Lesson 3. Emergent & Early Literacy, Reading

Development & Performance

Lesson 4. Factors Affecting Development: Early

Language Stimulation, Literate
Communities and Environment, Story
Reading

Lesson 1
Language Acquisition

The Concept of Language Acquisition

Before we proceed to the lesson on language acquisition, it is
important at this stage to understand the concept of language as being
species specific. What does this mean? It means that language is
uniquely human. Only the humans have language. However, every living
creature has a communication system: animals have cries and calls while
plants and some insects communicate through chemicals released from
their system. Humans communicate using language. Although some
higher forms of primates like the gorillas and chimpanzees can be taught
sign language, it cannot be claimed that they already possess language.
This is because these primates cannot speak the language. Language,
primarily is spoken. Animals cannot speak. Furthermore, for the primate
to be qualified as having a language, the primate should be able to
generate novel utterances and invent words, can even lie, and must
increase vocabulary size on its own.
The moment a cat is born, it meows and until it grows old, it meows.
That is its communication tool. The moment an infant is out of the
mother’s womb it cries. The infant does not immediately talk and curse
the doctor for slapping his behind and making him cry. The infant has yet
to acquire and/or learn the language.
There is a distinction between language acquisition and language
learning. Sometimes, these two occurs in the process of language
development. Simply put, language acquisition is “picking up a language”
from the speakers of the language around you. The language spoken may
come from immediate family, neighbors, playmates, television shows,
radio etc. The process of acquisition is not a conscious “getting” of the
language. It does not involve thinking about the language (grammar,
structure, usage) which is among the features of language learning. So,
as mentioned, unlike language acquisition, language learning is intentional
and conscious study of the language. It may involve formal or informal
instruction. This usually occurs when you enroll in a language class or if
you find yourself in a different place with people who speaks a different
language like in the case of migrants.
There are two types of language acquisition: First language (L1)
acquisition which happens as a result of language development and there
is Second language (L2) acquisition where the individual already
possesses a language but is exposed to a different speech community.
When it comes to language acquisition among children, the
following are predominant characteristics of the phenomenon.

⮚ For the most part, children are not taught to speak in their native
language. They learn it by exposure to people who talk to them.
(That is why it is important to use only one language when
addressing the child or else it will confuse the child and cause a
delay in speech; particularly, when you use any of the Philippine
Languages and English which belong to two different language
systems/families.)
BTW
⮚ Children pick up the language spoken around them with very little
effort, and often with very little input.
In fact, children are provided with poor

Motherese language is the term

used for the way how caregivers
like mothers, aunts, grandmas,
and yayas talk to babies and
toddlers. Examples in the Iloco
 examples of correct speech as adults talk to them in motherese
language or “baby talk”.

⮚ Yet by the age of two or three, most children are usually

communicating well enough for parents and most others to
understand them.

⮚ The first step that an infant does is to find some way to learn the
phonological system. To reproduce the speech sounds of any
particular language when they begin to talk, infants must learn to
discriminate among sounds that may be quite similar. (like bill, pill
or thin , etc.)

⮚ Some tests established that infants are born with the ability to
differentiate between even closely similar sounds, but that this
ability diminishes or disappears by the age of about one year in
favor of perceiving only the differences crucial to the native
language.

⮚ The acuity or keenness of voice perception in newborn babies has

also been attested. It has been established that three-day-old
infants are able to distinguish their mothers’ voices from among
other female voices. And it has also been shown to newborn
infants prefer to listen to their mother tongue rather than another
language.

⮚ Although the rate of speech development in normal children varies

somewhat, it is possible to generalize about the stages that
characterize language acquisition.

o 1st eight to ten weeks - Only Reflexive (basic biological)

noises such as burping, crying and coughing are produced .
These are supplemented by cooing and laughing during the
next 12 or so weeks
o 6 Months – Vocal Play, consisting of the production of a
fairly wide range of sounds resembling consonants and
vowels becomes noticeable.
o 6mos – 12mos. The second half of an infant’s first year is
characterized by babbling. Babbling appears to be largely
instinctive because even children who do not hear go through
the babbling stage. In general, even before the onset of
babbling, infants show eagerness to communicate and begin
to process the information they are receiving through various
channels. It also appears that regardless. It also appears
that regardless of the language they are acquiring, children
learn to use the maximally distinct vowel sounds of their
language (usually a, i, and u) before other vowels, and the
consonants articulated with the help of the lips and teeth
(commonly p, b, m, t and d) before those produced farther
back in the mouth. (although subsequent research has
 indicated that the order on which the sounds of languages
are acquired is not universal
o Intonational contours (such as the sound or intonation
done at the end of a question) begin to appear around the
end of the first year, at about the same time as the one-
word stage (for example mama, cup, and doggie).
o Two years old – Multiword stage . At first the child
combines two words (ex. See doggie, baby book. Nice kitty,
daddy gone), but soon expands to phrases and to short
sentences. On the average, the spoken vocabulary of two-
year-olds amounts to two hundred words or more, although
they understand several times that many.
o By the age of five years old or so, all normal children are
able to ask questions, make negative statements, produce
complex sentences (consisting of main and subordinate
clauses), talk about things removed in time and space, and in
general carry on an intelligent conversation on topics they
are able to comprehend.
⮚ Even though much of the speech to which children are exposed is
quite variable and casual, they gain command of the many sounds,
forms, and rules so well that they are able to say, and do say, things
they have never before heard said- and all of this without the
benefit of formal teaching.

The following table shows a summary of the stages of

language development.

Typical
Stage Description
age
6-8 Repetitive CV patterns
Babbling
months (ex. Nana, dada , mimi, mama)
One-word stage
(better one- Single open-class words or word stems
9-18
morpheme or one- (ex. Daddy could mean “where is
months
unit) daddy?” or “Daddy is here”
or holophrastic stage
18-24 "mini-sentences" with simple semantic
Two-word stage
months relations
Telegraphic stage
"Telegraphic" sentence structures
or early multiword
24-30 of lexical rather
stage
months than functional or grammatical morphe
(better multi-
mes
morpheme)
Later multiword 30+ Grammatical or functional structures
stage months emerge
Theories of Language Acquisition
There are different theories of how language is acquired. At this
point, we are referring to the first language (L1) acquisition. These are :
behavioral approaches, nativist approach, and functional approaches.

Behaviorist Theory
Behaviorism is a theory of learning which states that all behaviors
are learned through interaction with the environment through a process
called conditioning. This process involves the strengthening or weakening
a response to a stimulus through reinforcement or punishment. A
reinforced behavior becomes a habit.
In terms of language acquisition, behaviorists see language as a
fundamental part of human behavior (linguistic behavior). The behavioral
approach focused on the observed responses and the relationships or
associations between those responses and the events in their
surroundings. A behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to
be the production of correct responses to stimuli.
If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or
conditioned. For example, mothers usually teach their children to say
‘please’ when asking for something. Reinforcement can be in the form of
reward like praising (saying very good) the child for saying ‘please’ or by
repeated action: when the child forgets , the mother would remind the
child to “say please” before giving what he or she wants. In this manner,
children produce linguistic responses that are reinforced.
A behavioral model of linguistic behavior has been thoroughly
discussed in B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1957). Skinner’s theory of
verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning by
operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism
(in this case, the human being) emits a response (the operant in the form
of a sentence or utterance); that such operant is maintained (learned) by
reinforcement (for example, a positive verbal or nonverbal response from
another person). If a child says ‘want milk’ and a parent gives the child
some milk, the operant is reinforced, and as the response is repeated over
a period of time, it becomes conditioned.
According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other behavior is
controlled by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding,
behavior is maintained and is increased in strength and even frequency.
When consequences are punishing, or when there is a total lack of
reinforcement, the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished.
For instance, positive reinforcements can be the granting of what is
asked for , or giving praises like ‘good job’ or ‘very good’. Negative
reinforcements are punishments or anything that inhibits behavior. For
instance , when a child speaks bad words, gets scolded for doing so. The
punishment prevents him from doing it again (speaking bad words) for
fear of getting the same negative response (being scolded).
A verbal behavior that does not get reinforced also is extinguished.
For instance, if you want to talk and call the attention of someone and this
person ignores you instead of listening or talking to you, soon, the desire
to speak to that person is extinguished - (It is useless to talk to him, he
wouldn’t listen anyway.) - something to this effect.

The Nativist Theory

The term native in this context refers to the innate , inherent, or
inborn characteristic of a person. In the case of language development,
the nativist approach insists that language acquisition is innately
determined, that we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us
to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the
construction of an internalized system of language. Simply put, we are
born with a capacity for language that is why it becomes natural for an
individual to perceive, pick up and use language.
Among the supporters of innateness
hypothesis is Eric Lenneberg (1967) who
proposed that language is a ‘species-specific’ Lenneberg’s innate
behavior and that certain modes of perception, hypothesis suggests that only
categorizing abilities, and other language human have the capacity for
related mechanisms are biologically language. Animals cannot
determined. This implies that animals cannot have language because they
have language because they do not have the are not biologically created
biological, genetic make up for it. (This was to have that capacity or
discussed at the introduction of the lesson.) capability. In the case of
chimpanzees and gorillas,
Noam Chomsky (1965) similarly claimed like the celebrated Koko, who
the existence of innate properties of language learned sign language, it
to explain the child’s mastery of a native cannot be said that they have
language in such a short time despite the highly language because they
abstract nature of the rules of language. This cannot produce it orally or
innate knowledge, according to Chomsky, is vocally since their oral
embodied in the brain which Chomsky labels as features are not built to
the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Mac articulate the sounds. Deaf
and hearing impaired people
Neill (1966) described the LAD as consisting of
who sue sign language can
four innate linguistic properties.
articulate the sounds if only
1. The ability to distinguish speech they were not incapacitated
sounds from other sounds in the by hearing loss. Remember
that language is primarily
environment.
spoken.
2. The ability to organize linguistic data
into various classes that can later be
refined.
3. Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is
possible and that other kinds are not.
 4. The ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing
linguistic system so as to construct the simplest possible system
out of the available linguistic input.
The idea that individuals have innate (inborn , natural) inclination to
acquire language supports the generative theories of language which
dictates that children have innate abilities to generate potentially
infinite number of utterances. This theory also accounts for (or could
explain) aspects of meaning, abstractness, and creativity in the language
of individuals from infancy to maturity.
The LAD however, is not really a cluster of brain cells in the physical
sense of the brain that could be isolated and neurologically located. But is
believed to be there as a function within the neurological mass we call,
the brain. The research on this neurological aspect of language
acquisition and functions is carried on in the field of psycholinguistics
where experts research on the cognitive side of the linguistic-
psychological continuum.

Interactionist Theory
If to the nativist, language acquisition is an innate capacity of man
because it is biological in nature being a function of the human brain
referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), the behaviorist view
language acquisition as a learned behavior from processes of conditioning
and reinforcements of responses to events in the social environment.
To the interactionist, language acquisition is a combination of both
perspectives. Language is acquired from the interaction of innate
biological capabilities with exposure to language in the social environment
in which the child is developing. The interactionist theory of language
development therefore, is a compromise between the nativist theory and
the behaviorist theory of language acquisition. It recognizes the
importance of both biological and environmental factors in the language
development of the child.
Although some interactionist theorists are more inclined to one
end of the extreme than the other (i.e. they give more importance to
environmental than biological and vice versa), all of these interactionist
theorists believe that language acquisition occurs as a result of the natural
interaction between children and their environment, more specifically ,
their parents or caregivers. This means that the environment that a child
grows up in will heavily affect how well and how quickly the child will learn
to talk.

Task
Instruction: Search the web for a research article about language
acquisition and conduct a critical analysis as to the application and
the validity of the ideas learned in this lesson.
Lesson 2

Bilingual Language
Development

Bilingualism Defined
Bilingualism refers to the ability to use two languages proficiently in
everyday life. This is common in countries where there are more than one
language used in different transactions in the society. The Philippines
alone, bilingualism is common. We speak our native language at home
and we speak the official languages (Filipino and English) in school. We
also use the National Language (Filipino) to communicate with other
Filipinos from other ethnolinguistic groups since Filipino is the common
language (lingua franca) where different ethnolinguistic groups can
understand each other.
In the field of linguistics however, bilingualism is complex to define.
Although, by its derivative “bi” means two, bilingual speakers are those
who regularly use more than one language- not just two. The context by
one can classify bilingualism is the frequency of use. If you have learned a
foreign language in school and can use it well but the language is not a
part of the languages used in the society, the learned language is not a
part of your bilingualism. But a knowledge of more than one language can
be termed as multilingual, and in the case of a person who has knowledge
of more than one or two languages may be called a polyglot , one who
speaks many languages, but not a linguist- a linguist is one who studies
language without necessarily speaking or learning it.
As was discussed in the previous lesson, acquisition is of two forms:
L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition. The focus of this lesson is on the
acquisition of L2 among bilingual children- children who are exposed to
two or more languages in their environment.

Stages of Language Development among Bilingual Children

 Although some experts consider bilingualism as a specialized case
of language development, language acquisition among bilingual children
proceeds similarly as in the language acquisition of monolingual children
(those with only one language).
Bilingualism occurs in households where there exists more than one
language. This can be a result of intermarriage between two different
ethnolinguistic group or the household is in a different speech community
( a community who speaks a different language from that of the
household). Bilingual children usually follow two types of language
development patterns: simultaneous bilingualism, in which the child
acquires two languages at the same time before the age of three (3) years
, and sequential bilingualism, in which the child acquires a second
language by age 3 after having acquired the first language (L1).
Simultaneous bilingualism. The following table shows the stages
of language development in simultaneous bilingualism.

AGE STAGE MILESTONE

Birth to 2 Undifferentiated cooing

months (contains elements from
both languages)

2 – 6 months undifferentiated babbling

6-15 months undifferentiated First words (age of average length

might be later than with
monolingual speakers but is still
within normal range)

1-2 years undifferentiated Language blend (parts of words in

both languages are blended in the
same word)

2-3 years undifferentiated Language mixing (words of

different languages are used in the
phrase or adapted to the grammar
of the other language).

4 years and differentiated Uses each language as a separate

older system

The first stage in simultaneous bilingual acquisition is an

undifferentiated “single-language” system, which is composed of elements
from both languages. In this stage, the bilingual child goes through the
same language developmental processes as that of a monolingual child –
single words, increased vocabulary, emergence of two-word combination,
use of verb tenses and so on. The only difference is the presence of two
language systems in the bilingual child.
 For instance, a child may know the name of the object in one
language but not in the other language. Another case may be language
mixing or code mixing where words from both languages are used in one
sentence: but not the kind you hear among college socialites back in the
80s and 90s (we refer to them before as the kolehiyala language which
totally mangles the language of Filipino and English):
Kolehiyala : “hala stop na kasi your making tukso of Arielle , she will
pukpok your ulo sige ka”.
Bilingual child: “Mama, si papa is nabartek again”. (quoting my balikbayan
friend’s son who just got back from Las Vegas)
“Mama kyat ko egg plist”. (My son at 3 does not use itlog for
egg, I guess it is easier to say because it is only one syllable,
and I conditioned him to always say please when asking for
something.

Another case may be the instance where the child does language
blending, this is the use of word stems of one language and the prefixes or
suffixes of the other language.
Example:
Adult: Where is your lola?
Bilingual child: She is plantsing. (quoted from my professor’s 3
year old granddaughter. The adults in their household speaks to
her in English but the adults use Ilocano when speaking to each
other. The child obviously had acquired the progressive “ing” to
denote an ongoing action. However, she obviously haven’t been
exposed to the word “flat iron” but instead, the adults call the
object plantsa. So instead of saying agplanplantsa (ironing), she
used the word “plantsing”- a blend of Iloco and English.)

The second stage occurs when a child begins to differentiate the

two language systems, using each one as a separate system for distinct
purposes. There may be instances where one language is associated with
particular person (babysitter vs. parents), age group (playmates vs.
adults), or situation (home vs. playground). In this case, the child
develops the ability to alternately use the language depending on the
situation. For instance, the child may use Iloco with the family members
and use Filipino which is Tagalog-based with playmates.

Sequential Bilingualism. The following table shows the stages in a

sequential bilingualism.

STAGE MILESTONE

First language Normal acquisition sequence

 Second language

Interactional period Use of nonverbal communication and fixed

phrases

Inference period Grammatical rules of the first language are

applied to the second language

Silent period Selective mutism ( can be longer in anxious

children)

Code - switching Switches between languages in the same

conversation

In sequential bilingualism, the first stage is the acquisition of the 1 st

language with which the bilingual child draws knowledge and experience
from in the process of acquiring a second language. The length as to how
long or how soon a child passes through the phases of language
development or in this case, second language acquisition would depend
upon the child’s disposition and motivation. A more socially oriented child
may quickly learn fixed phrases that help him interact with other children
and adults. A less outgoing child may have a “silent phase” when with
people who speak his or her second language.
Another factor that may affect the language acquisition of a
bilingual child is the exposure of the child to the first language as
compared to the second language. If the child hears and uses both
languages equally, his language developmental pattern will more likely
resemble patterns of language development of monolinguals; but, this is
unusual because bilingual children have “majority” and “minority”
languages. The majority language is the language the child feels more
comfortable using. It does not necessarily refer to the first language or
mother tongue. For instance, a child from a Filipino speaking family who
then enters and begin functioning in an English-speaking society may
ultimately use English as his majority language. This is much like the
situation among Filipino immigrants in other countries.

How to Raise Bilingual Children

To successfully raise bilingual children, it is helpful to remember
these guidelines provided by pediatricians and linguists alike:
1. Be consistent. Experts suggest that the best way to maintain
bilingualism is to compartmentalize the languages, separating
how and with whom each language is used. A child with a
normal language development pattern should be able to master
multiple languages regardless of their exposure to the language
(both parents speaking both languages, or one parent speaking
one language), as long as the pattern of exposure is clear and
 consistent. For instance, the child of a Filipino mother and an
American father could use only Filipino with his mother and
English with his father. It could also be, like the general case
among Filipino children, the use of first language at home like
Iloco or Pangasinan and Filipino in the school. Clear boundaries
for where each language is spoken should be established. The
child should soon be able to differentiate these situations and
speak the appropriate language in each case.

2. Do what feels natural. Parents are more likely to maintain

consistency if they choose a pattern of language exposure that
feels natural to them. If a parent feels more comfortable
speaking in Tagalog and the other parent is more comfortable
speaking in Mandarin, it may be more natural for the child to
hear one language exclusively from one parent. This means that
the mother should address the child only in Tagalog and the
father only in Mandarin. Maintaining a particular language
pattern should not impose undue stress to the family; instead,
enjoying the languages as a family will be helpful in promoting
the child’s language progress.

Parents who want their child to develop a language that they

have not mastered should have a strong commitment to learning
and speaking that language routinely to provide a good model of
that language. This is probably why it is difficult for most Filipino
children to acquire English as a second language (ESL) because
most Filipino adults at home and in school are not at ease with
the English language and thus, they provide poor language input
to the child.

Other strategies that can be employed to help in the

acquisition of a second language is to have a child-care provider
or playmates who are fluent in the second language and by
having second language children’s books and videos.

3. Keep the language developmentally appropriate. When

speaking to a child, simplify the grammar or the language (form,
structure, vocabulary) should be appropriate to their age level.
Parents (and adults) should also build on the attempts of the
child to communicate by demonstrating grammar and
vocabulary. If the child says “me juice”, the parent might
respond with, “ Do you want a glass of juice?” The language
that the parents use in responding to their child depends on how
they are teaching the child. Tools that are used when a child is
developing a first language should also be used in the
acquisition of a second language. Music, rhymes, games, and
videos help the child not only to learn the language but also to
appreciate the culture that he is being raised in.
 4. Keep your child interested. It is important that the child
keeps motivated to learn the second language. Learning the
language should be fun and interesting for the child. One way to
diminish a child’s interest in learning the language is when he is
made to “perform” or “show off” his second language. This
might be embarrassing for the child. Encouragement and
praise for spontaneously using a second language can go a long
way toward enhancing the “language ego” – the feeling of pride
in using the language.

Advantages of Bilingualism
Being bilingual or even multilingual has its benefits. These are just
some of them:
1. Cognitive development. In terms of cognitive development, people
who are bilingual and biliterate (literate in both languages) switch
between two language systems. Theiri brains are very active and
flexible. According to several studies, compared to their non-
bilingual peers, bilingual people have easier time:
⮚ understanding math concepts and solving word problems
⮚ Developing strong thinking skills
⮚ Using logic
⮚ Focusing, remembering, making decisions
⮚ Thinking about language
⮚ Learning another language

2. Social-emotional Development. Being bilingual supports

children in maintaining strong ties with their family, culture, and
community. All of these are key parts of a child’s developing
identity. Bilingual children are also able to make new friends and
create strong relationships using their second language—an
important skill in our increasingly diverse society. Research has
found that babies raised in bilingual households show better self-
control, a key indicator of school success.

3. Learning Success. School readiness and success for children who

are dual or multi language learners is tied directly to mastery of
their home language or first language. Bilingual and multilingual
children benefit academically from knowing more than one
language in many ways. Because they are able to switch between
languages, they develop more flexible approaches to thinking
through problems. The ability to read and think in two (or more)
different languages promotes higher levels of abstract thought,
which is important in learning. Current research shows that people
who use more than one language appear better at blocking out
irrelevant information, a benefit that may exist as early as seven
 months of age. Children who learn to read in their home language
have a strong foundation to build upon when they learn a second
language. They can easily apply their knowledge about reading to
their second language.

4. Long –Term Success. One-half to two-thirds of adults around the

world speak at least two languages. In today’s global society, they
have many advantages. Globally, bilingual and biliterate adults
have more job opportunities than monolingual adults. Bilingual and
biliterate individuals have the opportunity to participate in the
global community in more ways, get information from more places,
and learn more about people from other cultures.

Task
Instruction: Search the web for a research article about bilingualism
in children and conduct a critical analysis as to the application and
the validity of the ideas learned in this lesson.

Lesson 3
Emergent & Early Literacy, Reading
Development & Performance
Defining Emergent Literacy
The term emergent literacy was coined by Marie Clay in 1966 to
refer to the behaviors of very young children which reflected an
understanding of reading and writing when children were not yet actually
reading and writing. Teale and Sulzby (1986) developed Clay’s concept of
emergent literacy where they refer to literacy as comprising of reading
and writing; while, emergent refers to the process of becoming literate.
In general, what children learn about reading and writing before
they are considered readers and writers is referred to as emergent literacy
knowledge and the ways that children demonstrate that knowledge (i.e.,
the observable behavior) is referred to as emergent literacy skills.

Emergent Literacy Knowledge as a Continuum of Development

Experts believe that emergent literacy is the beginning of a

continuum of literacy development in children. Teale and Sulzby (1986)
reviewed early researches on reading and came up with the following
conclusions:

1. Literacy development begins early in life and long before

formal literacy instruction in elementary school.

⮚ Young children with normal vision and hearing are

regularly exposed to printed and spoken words
through their daily activities. They listen to stories,
songs, watch educational shows for children like
Sesame Street or Peppa Pig, or Barney and Friends,
and frequently observe others reading and writing.
We have seen parents or adults or older children in
the home teach the young ones words, songs,
nursery rhymes. So even before they enter school
to receive formal instruction, they already possess
the beginnings of literacy.

2. There is an interrelationship between oral language skills

(listening and speaking) and written language skills
(reading and writing) such that the skills develop
concurrently and interrelatedly rather than in some
sequence (e.g., oral language development preceding
written language development, etc.). In addition,
children’s cognitive development during early childhood is
important to their literacy development.

⮚ Oral language skills are interrelated with written

language skills. It is not sequential where you have
to learn one skill before learning the other. You
cannot read a word if you have no orientation of
how to pronounce the sounds within the word. You
do not know how to write a word if you do not know
 how to represent the written code for a certain
sound. Also, it is just logical that literacy
development is aligned with a child’s cognitive
development.

3. The functions of literacy (e.g., ordering a meal from a

menu at a restaurant, obtaining information on an event,
inviting friends to a birthday party) are as important as
the forms of literacy (e.g., letters, words, sentences) to
the child’s literacy development in early childhood.

⮚ Literacy development should not only emphasize

the reading and writing as to form but must be in
context of functions like greeting, introducing,
asking permission, etc.

4. Children’s active exploration of print within their

environment and their social interactions with adults
(particularly their parents) within reading and writing
contexts (e.g., reading books together, making a sign to
show support for a favorite football team, following a
cookie recipe) provide important opportunities for adults
to model literacy behaviors for children to learn.

⮚ Children who do not see their parents reading will

not have the drive to read. The presence or
absence of reading materials in the home matters
too. Storytelling to children or better yet story
reading to children helps a lot in not only getting
familiarization with the sounds of the words but the
visual representation of the sounds are introduced
to the child and the meanings of course are
associated with the pictures and the story as told or
narrated by the adult.

5. There is variability for typically developing children in the

age and sequence of acquisition of emergent literacy
knowledge and skills across the continuum of literacy
development.

⮚ Every individual is unique. Some young children

develops faster than others.

Timing of the Emergent Literacy Stage

Most experts believe that the concept of emergent literacy as a

stage or a phase in the literacy development continuum is challenging
because it is difficult to delineate the stages or phases. Furthermore, it is
difficult to identify the end points: when will emergent end and when does
early literacy begin and end as well as that of conventional literacy. You
cannot really pinpoint the stages by age levels or by phases. Thus, the
phrase “emergent literacy stage” is used to refer to the period of time
during which children acquire a variety of emergent literacy knowledge
and skills.

Despite the challenges in defining the emergent literacy stage,

there is considerable agreement on the approximate timing of the stage
for typically developing children. This agreement was based on the
concept of “reading readiness”, which emerged in the 1920s. the concept
of reading readiness suggest that there was a period of time during the
preschool years in which children developed skills necessary for reading
and writing. Although the exact age as to when the emergent literacy
stage begins has not been empirically determined, there was a general
agreement among experts that the stage begins long before children are
able to read and write. Some experts believe that the emergent literacy
stage begins at birth since emergent literacy is closely related with early
language acquisition. In the United States and perhaps others with
preschool curriculum, experts consider the emergent literacy stage for
typically developing children to end at 5 years, or at least, when the child
enters preschool where the children receive formal instruction in reading
and writing.

Perspectives on the Emergent Literacy Stage

The field of emergent literacy is still a work in progress as more and

more research are being conducted. However, recent research through
the decades, have provided different perspectives with some experts
constructing their own frameworks regarding the emergent literacy stage.

A. Developmental Perspective. A common assumption among

these frameworks is that the understanding of the relationship
between print and meaning occurs first, followed by an
understanding of print form. There are different frameworks
under this perspective.

The Goodman Framework. Goodman’s framework

(1986) outlines five areas in which children’s knowledge and
skills progress in their developing the “roots of literacy.” The
progression through these “roots of literacy,” according to
Goodman enables children to acquire emergent literacy
knowledge and skills. Evidences of these areas are shown
as follows:

1st area : print awareness in situational contexts

⮚ This is observed when the child begins to learn and

recognize print in the environment, such as logos
for restaurants and food companies.

2nd area: print awareness in discourse

⮚ This happens when the child is exposed to print

media. Through experiences with different print
media, the child learns that each serves a particular
purpose. For example, an individual can read a
 newspaper or online websites to find out about the
weather for the day or for several days, events that
occurred locally, or events that have occurred
around the world. After being introduced to these
media, the child learns how to manipulate them.
Learning how to “read” a book by turning the pages
from the front to the back of the book and reading
from left to right (in English) are examples of ways
to manipulate print media.
3rd area: functions and forms of writing

⮚ The child begins to write by scribbling or drawing

lines to represent letters or typing strings of letters
using a computer.

4th area: oral language to talk about written language

⮚ This is observed when the child begins to

understand and talk about the functions of print.
For example, the child may describe a book as
something that tells a story using words and
pictures.

5th area: metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness about

written language

⮚ This is observed when the child begins to

understand the meanings of literacy terms, such as
“letter” and “page,” and uses words to describe
what he or she reads.

The McCormick and Mason (1986) Framework. Another

framework in the developmental perspective is that of
McCormick and Mason (1986) who suggested that children
progress through a “hierarchy” of knowledge and skills when
learning to read. According to this framework, the child’s
success at the higher levels of the hierarchy is dependent on
the successful development of the preceding level or levels.

1st level : functions of print

⮚ Children’s understand print by the context of the

environment where the print occurs (context-
dependent). They begin to read environmental
print such as street signs, yet they may not be able
to read those same words in different situations like
when it is written on an address book. Within this
level, children learn that meaningful words can be
represented in print form (meaning they
understand that print has a function).

2nd level: form of print

 ⮚ At this level, children learn about grapheme-
phoneme correspondence ( or the correspondence
between letter and sound). They begin to
experiment with this understanding through
increased reading exposure and invented spelling.
Here they can apply phonetic analysis to printed
words because their attention to print shifts from
function to form. The children begin to learn about
the structure of printed words via their letter-sound
understanding. They no longer rely on the
contextual clues provided by pictures or
environmental situations which were the dominant
clues in the previous level.

3rd level: coordination of the form and function of print

⮚ This time, children apply their understanding of

print function and print form simultaneously. Since
children develop clearer and more efficient ways to
decode printed words, such as by noting
orthographic redundancy and phonologic patterns,
they are able to give more attention to word
meanings. In this last stage, children learn to use
their skills for both print function and form in order
to read, just as conventional readers do.

The Strommen and Mates Framework . An output

of a longitudinal study which they conducted, Strommen and
Mates (2000) based their developmental framework on
emergent literacy directly on the developmental progression
of children’s understanding about becoming a reader.
Strommen and Mates observed six concepts about reading
during the emergent literacy stage. The developmental
progression through these different conceptual processes
illustrates the ways that children learn the functions, content,
and purpose of print materials.

1. Reading is one aspect of an interpersonal routine

⮚ Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which
the book itself has a minor role. The book is
viewed as a tool for social interaction.

2. Readers focus on the book

⮚ Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which
the book is the focus of the routine. This time the
central activity is the reading of the book.

3. Readers construct a sequenced account

⮚ They rely on the illustrations rather than the print to
construct a meaningful story.
4. Readers reconstruct a specific account
⮚ They recognize that the content of a story is unique
to each book; in reconstructing a story, the words
can change, but the meaning must stay the same.

5. Readers refer to print to reconstruct texts

⮚ Printed text is needed to reconstruct a story;
however, the relationship between decoding print
and reading is not always understood.

6. Readers reconstruct texts by using multiple strategies to

interpret the language encoded by print
⮚ There is the understanding that they must
accurately interpret written language using a
variety of language and decoding strategies (e.g.,
graphophonemic, semantic, and syntactic
information), in addition to the illustrations, in order
to be able to read.

The van Kleeck Framework. Van Kleeck (1998) suggested

that there are two general stages of emergent literacy during
which children acquire their literacy knowledge and skills.

1st stage (3 to 4 years old)

⮚ children discover that print is meaningful through
their exposure to print and terms related to book
reading such as “book” and “page.”

⮚ Children in the first stage also begin to retell stories

in their own words while looking at pictures in
books and may begin to learn to rhyme and name
letters. Further, the emphasis on the print–meaning
relationship is evident in the behavior of both the
adult and the child during shared book reading. For
example, adults tend to convey the meanings
associated with pictures in the books via strategies
such as labeling objects and people and describing
objects or events during book sharing with infants
and toddlers.

2nd stage (older preschool children)

⮚ They begin to learn about print form and early
form–meaning correspondences while continuing to
learn about print meaning across a range of literacy
environments. Adults make more specific and direct
references to the form of printed text using print-
related terms such as “capital” (letter) and “word”
during book sharing.

⮚ Also, during this stage, children learn how to write

letters and match letters with their associated
sounds, create more detailed stories, and
 strengthen their ability to predict events in stories
that are orally read to them.

B. Components Perspective. The frameworks that were

developed under this perspective attempted to identify the
“components” of the emergent literacy stage. As opposed to
the developmental frameworks, which describes a general
sequence in the acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge and
skills, the primary focus of the components frameworks is on
the specific knowledge and skills that characterize the
emergent literacy stage. The following are the developed
frameworks in the components perspective.

The Storch and Whitehurst Framework. Storch and

Whitehurst (2002) based their framework on the perspective
that children gain literacy knowledge and skills throughout the
stage that influence later literacy development. key ideas in
this framework are:

⮚ The framework identifies children’s emergent

literacy knowledge and skills as code-related skills
and oral language skills

⮚ Components or code-related skills include:

o conventions of print (e.g. directionality of

reading or the direction of eye movement, or
the sequence of turning pages when reading)
o beginning forms of writing (e.g., writing
one’s name),
o grapheme knowledge (e.g., identifying
letters of the alphabet),
o grapheme–phoneme correspondence
(e.g., knowledge that the letter m makes
the /m/ sound, and phonological awareness
(e.g., knowledge that the word “book” begins
with the /b/ sound).

⮚ Components of oral language skills include:

o semantic knowledge (word knowledge,
expressive and receptive vocabulary),
o syntactic knowledge (knowledge of word
order and grammatical rules),
o narrative discourse (e.g., telling a story),
and
o conceptual knowledge (e.g., knowledge of
the world).

⮚ The oral language and code-related skills that are

acquired during the emergent literacy stage
constitute the foundation for conventional literacy.
⮚ The code-related skills and oral language skills are
related and have a reciprocal effect on each other
(they affect each other). These skills also affect
early reading development during preschool and
kindergarten years.

⮚ After kindergarten, code-related and oral language

skills become independent of each other with
regard to reading development; that is, the code-
related skills continue to influence a child’s reading
development in the first and second grades, but no
longer influence the child’s oral language skills.

⮚ Additionally, Storch and Whitehurst (2002) claim

that oral language skills have little or no direct
influence on reading development in the first and
second grades and indirectly affect reading
comprehension in the third and fourth grades.
Instead, they state that code-related skills learned
in kindergarten, such as phonological processing
and print concepts, heavily affect a child’s ability to
read (but there is contradictory evidence in the
study of van Kleeck & Norlander (2008).

⮚ It is important to note however, that the early

interaction of code-related and oral language skills
provides a foundation for reading achievement at
least in the early grades of school.

⮚ For example, Storch and Whitehurst (2002) found

that 38% of kindergarten code-related skills were
drawn from the code-related skills in the preschool
period (e.g., phonological processing and
orthographic representation), which also
significantly predicted reading achievement in the
first and second grades. These code-related skills
enabled children to convert printed words to their
spoken counterparts, thus resulting to reading
comprehension.

⮚ Although the influence of code-related skills on

emergent literacy is apparent, Storch and
Whitehurst stress that oral language skills and
code-related skills should not be taught in isolation
or should not be taught separately. They
emphasize the coordination and interaction of oral
language and code-related skills throughout the
preschool and kindergarten years. They also
explain that these skills continue to develop and
influence conventional literacy acquisition. Like
Storch and Whitehurst (2002), van Kleeck (1998,
 2003) offered a framework that describes the
knowledge and skills that children develop
throughout the emergent literacy stage.

The van Kleeck Framework. This framework illustrates

the interrelationship among four components: the context
processor, the meaning processor, the orthographic
processor, and the phonological processor.

a. context processor

⮚ enables children to comprehend and interpret text

that is being read to them before they can read and
that they will read themselves later on in their
literacy development.

⮚ Context processor skills include world knowledge

(e.g., concept development), syntactic knowledge
(e.g., knowledge of grammar and word order),
narrative development (e.g., knowledge of story
grammar), book conventions (e.g., knowledge of
how to use books), abstract language (e.g.,
inferential language), and functions of print (e.g., to
share information).

b. The meaning processor

⮚ This is important to children’s ability to apply lexical

knowledge to the meanings of individual words.

⮚ The meaning processor skills are comprised of word

awareness (a form of metalinguistic awareness),
which involves the understanding that words are
units of language, and vocabulary development (a
semantic language skill).

c. The orthographic processor

⮚ involves the ability to recognize individual letter

units that enable the child to identify individual
letters and sequences of letters.
⮚ Orthographic processor skills are those that pertain
to print conventions and letter knowledge (print
conventions pertain to how the words are written
like capitalization, spelling and punctuation
conventions.

d. Phonological processor

⮚ This enables the child to use phonological

awareness skills to convert printed letters to sounds
and sound sequences (i.e., words).
 ⮚ The phonological processor skills include syllable
segmentation, rhyming, and phoneme
segmentation. Syllable segmentation is the ability
to divide a word into separate syllables. For
example, mother is divided into two syllables:
moth-er. Rhyming involves the ability to isolate and
change one consonant or consonant cluster at the
beginning of a word to create a new word with a
similar sound (e.g., isolating and changing the first
consonant in hat to create rat). Phoneme
segmentation occurs when a word is divided into
phonemes or sound units. For example, bus is
divided into three units: b-u-s.

C. Child and Environmental Influences Perspective .

Frameworks under this perspective put emphasis on the
interplay between the child and the immediate environment.
Basically, these frameworks looks into the child and
environmental influences that may positively or negatively
affect emergent literacy development.

⮚ Child influences can include :

1) the child’s participation in literacy-related
activities
2) language proficiency
3) cognitive abilities
4) interest in literacy
5) attention
6) overall health.

⮚ The environment includes :

1) the physical settings in which the child typically
functions (e.g., home, day care, preschool)

2) the people with whom the child interacts

somewhat regularly (e.g., parents, siblings, day
care providers, preschool teachers)

3) the literacy materials to which the child is

exposed consistently (e.g., books, magazines,
signs, crayons, pencils, paper)

4) the literacy experiences and opportunities that

are provided within the child’s environments
(e.g., joint book reading with an adult, group
book reading with a teacher, ordering from a
menu, drawing a picture of a favorite activity).

The McNaughton Framework . This framework is

based from Mc Naughton’s (1995) socialization model
of child development. This model considers the
influence of a child’s environment on the acquisition of
emergent literacy knowledge, skills, and processes.
Key points to the framework are:

⮚ A child’s emergent literacy development is

structured within initial family experiences. The
framework suggests that the activities in which the
family engages with the child and the resulting
system of learning and development are based on
four distinct and identifiable components of family
literacy practices. These are:
o family practices
o activities (child and family)
o systems for learning and development,
leading to expertise,
o relationships between settings.

⮚ Family practices are how children are socialized and

it is through these social interactions that create
ways of thinking, acting, and using language that
are considered appropriate by the various cultural
and social communities with which the family
identifies. For example, a general social and
cultural expectation of families in developed
countries is that their children will become literate.
As a result, families expose their children to a range
of functions of written language within different
contexts. Very young children’s experiences range
from observing the different uses of written
language (e.g., watching a sibling read a book) to
being directly involved in such events (e.g., book
sharing with a parent).

⮚ A family’s literacy practices can be observed within

the reading and writing activities that occur
routinely for that family. These activities have goals
and rules that are followed. The child can
accomplish the activities alone, with siblings, or
with the entire family. For example, a family might
celebrate friends’ and relatives’ birthdays by
sending birthday cards that the family members
have signed. The goal of the activity is to
acknowledge and celebrate someone’s birthday;
personal notes might also be written that share
additional information. Such an activity requires
that certain conventions are followed, such as
signing the card below the text and writing from left
to right and top to bottom, including both the
mailing and return addresses as well as a postage
stamp in appropriate locations on the envelope.
 ⮚ There are two systems of learning and
development. The first occurs when the family is
directly involved in activities with the child, such as
book sharing. The second occurs when the child
explores writing and reading alone.

⮚ Through both systems, the child develops expertise

in the areas that are being introduced through
participation in the various activities. For example,
through book sharing with a parent, the child is
becoming an expert on what a book is, how it is
read, and the purpose of reading. The child learns
how to turn the pages and begins to understand
that the pictures represent the text that is being
read.

⮚ Literacy practices, activities, and systems can be

found in settings other than the family
environment, such as day care centers, preschools,
church events, playgroups, and other community
settings.

⮚ The child experiences in the family is brought to the

outside social environment. For example, if a child
learns how to interact with books during book-
sharing experiences with a parent, he or she then
can use the same book-sharing knowledge and
skills in play with another child and with books in a
preschool classroom.

The Wasik and Hendrickson Framework . Wasik and

Hendrickson (2004) formed this framework based on their
studies on family literary practices with children from infancy
to preschool. They organized an analysis of major variables
that were present in the observed literacy practices and that
such practices may be influential in the literacy development
in very young children. Four major variables are involved in
the framework:

(1) parental characteristics

(2) child characteristics
(3) home literacy environment
(4) parent–child relationships

Parental characteristics. Wasik and Hendrickson

identified three types of parental characteristics. These
include culture and ethnicity, parental beliefs, and
socioeconomic status.

⮚ Culture and ethnicity affect areas such as the

expectations for education, the patterns for
language use in bilingual families, the preferences
 for types of literacy activities (e.g., storytelling,
book sharing), and the structure of tasks (e.g.,
question-asking, task routines, and parental
teaching strategies).

⮚ Parental beliefs include the family’s beliefs about

the importance and role of the educational system
in the literacy development of their children.

⮚ The family’s socioeconomic status has an effect on

factors such as the amount of time spent in
literacy-related activities, financial resources
available for literacy related materials and
experiences, the underlying purpose of family
literacy activities (e.g., literacy to perform functions
of daily living, literacy to entertain), and other
factors that support children’s literacy
development.

These variables might include parents’ educational

background and the quality of parent–child interactions.
Culture and ethnicity, parental beliefs, and socioeconomic
status are especially important to consider because of the
variability among families in terms of these parental
characteristics.

Child characteristics. These include the child’s level

of engagement and social interaction in literacy-related
activities, as well as language proficiency, cognitive abilities,
developmental achievements, motivation, attention, and
health conditions that might affect language and literacy
development. Each of the child characteristics can influence
the extent to which a child can use the support that the
environment provides for early literacy learning.

Home literacy environment. This includes such

aspects as book sharing between parents and children,
parents reading aloud with their children, print materials
being available to the children, and parents’ positive
attitudes toward literacy activities.
The home literacy environment is comprised of both
direct and indirect literacy-related events. Direct literacy
related events are those in which the child engages, such as
book sharing with a parent or labeling the printed letters of
the alphabet. Indirect literacy-related events are those about
which the child learns through the observation of individuals
as they engage in those activities (e.g., reading the
newspaper, writing notes).
The characteristics of the home literacy environment
interact with the parental and child characteristics in
influencing a child’s acquisition of emergent literacy
knowledge and skills.
 The last aspect concerns social–emotional and
interpersonal aspects of parent–child relationships that relate
to literacy practices. According to Wasik and Hendrickson
(2004), parent–child literacy interactions are central to
fostering a child’s emergent literacy skills. Specifically,
nurturing parent–child relationships characterized by warm,
supportive, and

Parent-child relationships. Parental interactions

have been correlated with higher language and literacy
achievement. This means the stronger and more frequent
parental interaction with the child, the higher or more
successful would be the language and literacy achievement
of the child.
Although positive parent–child relationships do not
wholly account for a child’s success or failure with achieving
emergent literacy skills, the absence of such relationships
can be a detrimental factor in a child’s emergent literacy
development.

TASK

Instruction: Do the following:

1. Create a concept chart to synthesize the key concepts in this

lesson.
2. Web work: Look for a research article on child literacy
development and write a critical analysis of the study analyzing
the study according to principles learned in this lesson.

Lesson 4
 Factors Affecting Development: Early
Language Stimulation, Literate Communities
and Environment, Story Reading

Early Language Stimulation

There have been several studies conducted in the study of factors
affecting the different aspects of child development. When it comes to
literacy development, it is apparent that literacy is interconnected with
language and cognitive development. Dominant in this aspect is language
acquisition and learning since language is the primary medium of
communication and literacy. Furthermore, early language skills in young
children lead to improved social and cognitive interactions, allowing for
learning and literacy and improved brain development in childhood.
The language development of the child, as previously discussed, is
influenced by the child’s immediate social environment. In a study
conducted by Herman et al. (2016), it was found that children who had
higher language exposure and stimulation as three-year-olds were more
likely to have adequate to better-than-average language skills in first
grade; while, children who did not receive adequate language stimulation
early in life were much more likely to have poor language skills. This is
just one of several studies on proving the importance of language
stimulation among young children to help them in their development.
Language stimulation refers to a range of techniques and or
strategies that parents and caring adults do to encourage children to use
language. This is vital among early language users especially during the
time of early language acquisition and learning. Language stimulation is a
great way of building upon children’s attempt to communicate with the
adults modelling how children can use language.

Examples of early language stimulation techniques include the

following:

a. Imitation

Imitation is one of the earliest language stimulation

techniques that a parent/carer can start using with an infant.
The baby will develop simple actions before he or she develops
sounds. As soon as the baby starts making noises like gurgling,
squealing, cooing, the parent/carer can start imitating them. By
simply copying the baby’s sounds, the parent/carer is teaching
the basics of conversation skills - taking turns. The baby is
learning that he is actually saying something and that the
parent/carer is actually responding by saying something. This
would encourage more vocalizations. In other words, the baby
 will expect the adult to copy the sound he makes and this will
make him happy, reinforcing the vocalization. Soon, the child
will be imitating the adult , which is the beginning of how the
child learns words- by imitating the adult (parent/carer).

b. Running Commentary

Children learn language (words and sentences) through

listening to others. The more language they are hearing, the
more readily they are able to pick up new words and phrases.
Often children have to hear a word many times before they will
attempt to say it, which suggests that Mums and Dads need to
do a lot of talking to encourage their children to learn new
words. A simple way to do this is by providing a ‘running
commentary’ throughout the day. In other words, describe all
the things that your child is doing as they are doing them. Use
simple language and repeat the main words. For example when
the baby is eating, while the mother is feeding him, she could
just be encouraging the baby to eat by saying, “ wow my baby
eats yum yum. Uhm delicious, ahm ahm yum yum, yes? Eat
more yum yum. Open mouth, ah, uhm yum yum, eat more yum
yum”.

The parent/carer must remember however, not to talk too

quickly, make their voice animated, and make sure they are
commenting specifically on the child’s actions and interests. By
commenting on the child’s immediate interests and actions, the
parent/carer is providing the child with words and sounds that
are motivating in that moment, and it is these words and sounds
that they will be more likely to say.

Experts recommend that parents use the running

commentary technique as early as four months of age. While the
baby does not have any words yet, he is starting to develop an
interest in the world, and is beginning to tune into the
parent/carer’s words and sounds.

c. Labelling

When the child begins to use single words one will most likely
hear a lot of labels (nouns) such as kitty, puppy, milk, ball. Right
now these are the most useful words for the child as these are the
things that he can see and touch. At this stage it is important for
the adult to encourage the child’s vocabulary by labelling other
things in their environment. The child does not know all of the
words yet, and may be simply pointing to different things and
looking at the adult questioningly. When this happens, the adult
(parent/carer) must give the child the word for whatever he is
pointing at.

If the child pronounces words incorrectly, it is important for

the adult to repeat the word correctly. For example, if the child says
 ‘kikky’ instead of ‘kitty’, it is important that the adult shows him the
correct way to say that word e.g. “Yes, it’s a kitty’. Children learn
language from their parents, and if the error is repeated, the child
will think it is correct.

d. Build on the child’s words

Once the child start using single words, it is time for the
adult to start speaking in 2-3 word sentences. Children learn how to
construct sentences from Mum and Dad, parents should simplify
their language and show the child exactly how to combine 2-3
words. For example, if the child points to a cat and says ‘kitty’, the
adult could respond with ‘Oh! White kitty. Kitty is sleeping.’ In this
instance the adult has given the child a few more words that they
can use to talk about the cat: a colour (white) and an action
(sleeping). The adult has shown the child how to combine these
words to make a short sentence.

These are just some of the early language stimulation techniques.

There are more and it grows to more formal ways as the child matures and
attends formal school. What is important is for the child to be given
opportunities to use the language. Language stimulation starts in the
home with the parent. A good way to stimulate and encourage the child
to use language is to always talk to them, show interest to them, ask them
questions, always be curious with them as they are with you and their
surroundings.

Literate Communities and Environment

Imagine a community in the form of a village in the densest area of

the Amazon forest. There are no print nor electronic media present in the
village. People in that area only live by hunting and foraging. Children in
this area would acquire the language of the tribe, no doubt. But as to the
conventional literacy of reading and writing will obviously be not part of
their development nor their lifestyle. But in a society such as hours,
where education is both prestige and survival, it is expected that children
are to be “literate” and thus, the society provides them with opportunities
to grow as literate individuals. There are agencies of the government for
education, for language, and even for preservation of culture. These
institutions that make a literate environment affects the way how a child is
raised and consequently, his development.

The Home. Emergent literacy is regularly associated with the

home literacy environment. It is important to note therefore, that the
home literacy environment plays a key role in the success students do or
do not have within the classroom setting. It goes without saying that the
home literacy environment is directly linked to literacy performance in
school.

According to Haney & Hill (2004), holding parents responsible for a

portion of their children’s learning is imperative to their development.
Home literacy activities prepare students with significant skills that will
assist them in their early literacy development. in other words, the quality
of the home itself can have some effect on how a child performs within the
classroom.

The manual, A Parent’s Guide to Public Education in the 21 st

Century (2016) gives the following tips on how to create a literate home
environment:

1. Reading is practiced by the adults in the home - When

children see that the adults closest to them read, they learn that
reading is an important human activity worthy of emulation, it
makes little difference what the reading material is: books,
magazines, newspapers, in print or digital, as long as children
see those around them reading. Adults can drive home the
value of the activity by stopping to read something aloud that
they found interesting or remarkable, or to share some
information they learned from reading.

2. Writing is practiced by the adults in the home - a literate

household uses writing in a variety of ways. The important thing
that children learn in a household where people write is that
writing is a means of communication that can inform, persuade
or simply serve as a memory aid. So, whether they are letters,
emails, grocery lists or post–it notes reminders placed on the
bedroom door or refrigerator, children should see writing being
used to communicate and they should have writing materials
readily available for their own writing attempts.

3. Literacy materials are available in the home – Literacy

materials should be found throughout the home. Books on
shelves and end tables, magazines on the coffee table and
newspapers on the kitchen table. For children to grow as literate
humans, the “stuff” of literacy must surround them. Children
should be provided with pop-up story books and children’s
magazines.

4. Children are included and encourages to participate in

family conversations – The greatest ally young students have
in learning to read and write in school is the oral language they
bring with them from home. Oral language is developed when
children are seen and heard. Conversations conducted with
children rather than commands directed at children help them
develop the oral language they need to underpin their emerging
literacy skills in school.

5. Children are read to regularly – Reading aloud is important.

Children who are read to from an early age show a greater
interest in reading at later ages, have superior reading
 comprehension skills and have more expressive language
abilities. But just as important is the talk that surrounds the
read aloud. A read aloud should include frequent opportunities
to talk with children about what has been read, to ask and
answer questions and to talk about what a story made the child
feel and/or think about.

6. Family stories – All families have stories, those stories about

the time the cat climbed a tree and refused to come down or
when dad or mom did something silly or how grandmother came
to be called meemaw. Sharing family stories around the dinner
table or in the car is an important way for children to develop
their oral language and their understanding of the narrative
structure of stories. Family stories are also a good way to pass
down an oral history of the family; an oral history that gives
children a firm understanding of who they are and where they
come from.

7. Share a fascination with words - All of the activities

described above will help children develop a rich vocabulary, but
parents can also help with vocabulary development by being on
the lookout for interesting, exciting, curious words that pop up in
reading or in conversation and by simply talking about words
used by characters on TV or written on billboards or restaurant
menus. We want to develop a “word consciousness” in children
– a fascination with words and their many and varied used.
When you see interesting words, talk about them with your
children.

8. Combine TV watching with talk – Television is not the enemy of

literacy learning. Television viewing can be educational, whether
kids are watching something that is informative or merely watching
an entertaining cartoon or sitcom. The key to making TV watching
a literate experience is talk. During commercials the TV can be
muted and parents and children can talk about what they have seen
and predict what will happen next. At the end of the program, the
TV can be turned off and the family can discuss what they have
seen , summarize the big ideas and each family member can share
what stood out for them in the show.

9. Continue all of these practices after children begin school –

Once children begin school and begin to formally learn to read and
write, good home literacy practices, including read aloud, should
continue in the home. Continued emphasis on literacy in the home
supports the work of the classroom teacher and the continuing
learning efforts of your child.

The School. Classrooms, in a sense, can be considered a

community. Children spend six or even more hours in five days a
week, interacting with their teachers and classmates in a specific
space in the school. Literate classrooms should motivate students
and emphasize the importance of speaking, reading, and writing.
As a place for literacy, it is but natural that the classroom should
have a literate environment. Creating a literate classroom
environment where pupils feel well, productive, energized, and safe
requires design.

1. Prepare the physical environment. The physical

arrangement and organization of a classroom can be a powerful
and effective support for literacy instruction. The following can
be helpful in the classroom.
a. Create a well-organized library of books of various genre.
b. Provide students with other print resources such as
magazines, newspapers, recipes, signs, posters, comics
etc.
c. Set up areas with pillows and cozy chairs the pupils can
read comfortably.
d. Use the walls to display labels, word walls, anchor charts,
posters, and student work.
e. Organize materials in colorful bins that make use and
clean up easy.
f. Provide pupils with a wide range of engaging materials to
promote reading and writing. These may include colorful
markers or pens, letter tiles, magnets, puppets, clay,
learning mats or games.
g. Arrange a large rug to serve as a place for the class to
gather, read, and learn together away from the desks.
h. Incorporate technology. If available, consider using iPads,
e-readers, computers, or active whiteboards as tools for
motivating pupils about literacy.

2. Establishing effective routines. To make the most of literacy

instruction, a daily routine should be established that allows for
predictability for the students. The literacy practices in a daily
routine should include print concepts, familiar or self-selected
reading, word/letter work and vocabulary development, guided
or structured shared reading including instruction in reading
strategies, text comprehension, and writing for authentic
purposes. Some routine activities may include:
⮚ interactive read aloud
⮚ Introduction to new vocabulary
⮚ Shared reading
⮚ Spelling
⮚ Guided reading
⮚ Writing

3. Effective grouping practices. Students should have the

opportunity to work collaboratively with the teacher and their
classmates. Group work also teaches the child social
interaction. It is the task of the teacher to facilitate the learning
of the students. With group work, the following can be done:

⮚ Make use of students various learning styles

⮚ Include manipulative-based activities within groups,
such as pocket charts to build words, tape
recorders, dry erase boards, reading games,
sequence cards, etc.
 ⮚ Include open discussion within groups such as,
literacy groups, represented by the leveled reading
groups

The Community/Society (Nation). The local community,

and the nation as a whole provides opportunities for literacy
through language and education policies, establishing community
libraries and day care centers.

Story Reading

Several studies over the decades have proven the value of story
reading to child development. Among the benefits of reading to children
include the following:

a. Assist cognitive development. Cognitive development

refers to how we perceive and think about our world in
reference to our intelligence, reasoning, language
development, and information processing. By reading to
children, you provide them with a deep understanding
about their world and fill their brains with background
knowledge. They then use this acquired background
knowledge to make sense of what they see, hear, and
read, which aids their cognitive development.

b. Improve language skills. Reading daily to young

children, starting in infancy, can help with language
acquisition, communication skills, social skills, and literacy
skills. This is because reading to children in the earliest
months stimulates the part of the brain that allows them
to understand the meaning of language and helps build
key language, literacy and social skills.

c. Improved literary skills. Reading with aloud with

young children, even if they can’t fully understand what
you are saying, gives them the skills they need for when
they begin to read by themselves. It shows children that
reading is something achieved by focusing from left to
right and that turning pages is essential for continuing.

d. More extensive vocabulary. Hearing words spoken

aloud can expose children to a range of new vocabulary
and phrases that they may not have heard otherwise. By
reading to a child daily, they’ll learn new words every
single day.

e. Greater concentration. Regular and consistent reading

can help to improve a child’s concentration abilities.
Furthermore, it will help a child learn to sit still and listen
for long periods of time, which will benefit them in their
schooling.
 f. Higher levels of creativity and imagination. Reading
a book relies on us using our imagination for picturing
characters, visualising their settings and environment,
and guessing what’s coming next. We must use our
imagination if we are to learn about other people, places,
events, and times. In turn, this developed imagination
leads to greater creativity as children use the ideas in
their heads to inform their work.

g. Building stronger relationships. If a parent reads with

a child on a regular basis, then they will undoubtedly
develop a stronger relationship with them. Reading
provides parents with an opportunity to have a regular
and shared event that both parent and child can look
forward to. Furthermore, it provides children with feelings
of attention, love, and reassurance which is key for
nurturing and wellbeing.

TASK
Instruction: Do the following:
1. Write a personal journal of how you develop and improve your
language and literacy skills.

2. Answer the following questions:

a. How can the home be a nurturing place for language and
literacy?
b. How can story reading be beneficial for literacy?

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 MODULE IV
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Lesson 1 Theories of Cognitive Development

Lesson 2 Individual Differences

Lesson 3 Factors Affecting Development:

Genetic and Biological, Early
Stimulation, Instruction, and Social
Interactions

Lesson 4 Review of Contemporary Researches

and Related Articles

MODULE IV
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
This module deals with the concepts and theories that are related to
cognitive development. It intends to find connections, through the use of
knowledge on contemporary research literature in relation to theories on
cognitive development and developmentally applicable teaching
approaches or strategies that are suited to the learners‟ profile and
environmental contexts in terms of needs, strengths, gender, interests
and experiences.

Lesson 1 tackles the theoretical perspectives on

cognitive development of Jean Piaget
and Lev Vygotsky, Information -
Processing Theories and their
application to education.

Lesson 2 delves into the theories of intelligence,

learning style, and cognitive style, and
individual differences.

Lesson 3 discusses significant factors that positively

and negatively affect Development:
Genetic and Biological, Early
Stimulation, Instruction. Social
Interactions

Lesson 4 provides Review of Contemporary

Researches and Related Articles to
Theories of Cognitive Development

Objectives
At the end of this module, you must be able to:

1. Synthesize the major themes of Piagetian and Vygotskian

theories highlighting their agreements and disagreements,
sum up the information-processing theories and their
applications in the classroom;

2. Summarize the theories of intelligence and individual

differences highlighting their commonalities and differences
and reflect on their significance in education;

3. Identify the significant factors that positively and negatively

affect development; and

4. Write a review of a research article on situations and

contexts that aid or impede cognitive and language
development and illustrate their educational implications.

Module Organizer

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson

carefully then do the tasks to find out how much you have
benefitted from this module. Work on these tasks carefully and
critically then submit your output as instructed in the Google
Classroom.

Lesson 1
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

Piaget’s stages are a theory of how a child’s cognition – meaning their
knowledge and understanding about the world – progresses between birth
and adulthood.

Jean Piaget is best known for the idea that individuals construct their
understanding, that learning is a constructive process.
 Active learning as opposed to simply absorbing info from a teacher,
book, etc.
 The child is seen as a ‘little scientist’ constructing understandings of
the world largely alone.
 As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism adapts to
its environment (Piaget described this ability as intelligence.)
 He believed that all learning is constructed, whether it is something
we are taught or something we learn on our own.
 Whether or not we are taught in a “constructivist” manner, Piaget
believed we are constructing knowledge in all our learning.
 Behavior is controlled through mental organizations called schemes
that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action.
 This adaptation is driven by a biological drive to obtain balance
between schemes and the environment

If logic itself is created rather than being inborn, it follows that the first
task of education is to form reasoning." - Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Jean Piaget (Swiss psychologist) got an initial job in Paris which had
something to do with the standardizing of the Binet-Simon tests (the first
Intelligence tests that assessed IQ score). With this chance to work with
Alfred Binet (psychologist who introduced the measurement of
intelligence), Piaget found that a lot of children of the same ages provided
the same kinds of incorrect responses to particular questions. He
speculated “what could be studied from such a scenario”? He then got
the interest to learn more deeply about intellectual or cognitive
development of children and decided to conduct a research and after an
interview with hundreds of children, he found that those who are
permitted to commit mistakes do find ways to learn their errors, to correct
them, and to find solutions thus, carry out their own learning. Out of his
observations, he inferred that “children were not less intelligent than
adults, they just think differently”. He develop his Cognitive Development
Theory, a discontinuous stage theory with the three basic principles:
 1) All children go through same stages in the same order,
 2) One can only be in one stage at one time, and
 3) Itis not possible to regress into a previous stage.
He believed that new learning happens as new experiences are being
assimilated into an already existing knowledge. He introduced the basic
concepts of schema, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. His
theory suggests that children move across four distinct stages of mental
development.
Basic Concepts

1. Schema refers to a set of interrelated mental representations of

various things that represent the world. It then indicates the way things
are sensed, interpreted and reflected on and in the end turns out to be
the beginning of human knowledge.

For example, a young child has a schema of a dog because there is a dog
at home, he knows that it is an animal, a friendly pet who looks at him
eye to eye, has four legs, furry and is less than 1.5 feet in height. Schema
serves to organize and deposit information in the brain.
Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at
birth that he called "reflexes." In other animals, these reflexes control
behavior throughout life. However, in human beings as the infant uses
these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly
replaced with constructed schemes.

Schema-building: A blend of
experiences and retrieval modes
make for deep learning
(image: teacherhead.com)

2. Adaptation: Assimilation and Accommodation

Dredge up that man has two main states – Equilibrium &

Disequilibrium Piaget believed that we are driven or motivated
to learn when we are in disequilibrium (We want to understand
things more), and in order to equilibrate, we adjust our ideas to
make sense of reality.
Equilibration motivates a child to continue through the stages of
cognitive development. When a child experiences assimilation,
their world view is inaccurate, and they are in a state of
disequilibrium. This motivates the child to accommodate new
information, to reach a state of equilibrium.
 Assimilation of knowledge is a part of adaptation which
occurs when a learner incorporates a newly perceived stimulus
(can be a thing or a new idea) into existing schema. This process
may sometimes be subjective as we are influenced to adapt
information to fit in with our previous views.
In other words, this is the process of using or transforming the
environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive
structures. Process of matching external reality to an existing
cognitive structure.

Relating it to the example in schema, when the same child sees an

animal in a movie or in a children’s book, he tags it “dog”
because of his previous knowledge (existing schema) about a
dog.

Accommodation is a part of adaptation that occurs when

the learner adapts the old schema or constructs a new schema on
the basis of the old one in order to accept and accommodate the
new object when it fails to conform (match) to the subject's
schema.

In a movie or in a book or even in a park, when the child

sees a small dog of about less than a foot tall and another one
taller than 3 feet, his schema about a dog changes incorporating
the information he just learned that a dog can be small, big or
bigger.

Schema Stages
(image: pinterest.ph)

Piaget emphasizes that accommodation occurs only when a new object

can arouse the interest of the subject. Accommodation indicates the
process of how the subject under the influence of the object is modified
and transformed, whereas assimilation indicates the conservative process
of how the subject modifies and transforms the object. In short,
assimilation and accommodation represent the interactions between the
subject and the object (Lei, 1987, p.110).
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance linking assimilation
and accommodation via a process he called equilibration. This process is
about transforming and adapting one’s thinking to new information in
order to move from one stage of thinking into the next. In the case of the
schema of the child of a dog, for instance, when he goes to a family
friend’s house and is approached by an angry dog who seems to like to
bite him or her, he or she experiences a disequilibrium (whether dogs are
friendly pets or not) and later will realize that dogs cannot be
friendly at all times and in all situations. As schemes become increasingly
more complex (i.e., responsible for more complex behaviors) they are
termed structures. As one's structures become more complex, they are
organized in a hierarchical manner (i.e., from general to specific).

Stages of Development

A child’s capacity to understand certain concepts is based on the child’s

developmental stage. He believed that all children develop according to
four stages based on how they see the world. He thought the age may
vary some, but that we all go through the stages in the same order.

1. Sensorimotor Stage: Approximately Birth to 24 months

Infants gain their first understanding of the immediate world via
their senses and through their own actions which at first are reflexes
such as looking, sucking, listening and grasping. The goal of this
period is object permanence, the child's capability to understand
that objects continue to exist even if it is not seen by the child. Let's
say, Erika, 16 month-old, insistently opens a box where some of her
toys are kept because she knows that her most-liked “winnie the
pooh” stuff toy is there even if she does not directly see it.

This stage is comprised of six sub stages with specific skills.

1) Reflexes (0-1 month): The child understands

the environment through reflexes.

2) Primary circular reactions (1-4 months):

Consists of organizing sensation and new
schemas. Say, a child may put his/her thumb then
sucks it and since he/she finds pleasure in it,
he/she repeats the behavior.

3) Secondary circular reactions (4-8

months):

The child starts to purposefully repeat an action to

cause a response in the environment like
persistently picking up something then putting it
in his or her mouth.

4) Coordination of reactions (8-12 months):

 The child obviously shows purposeful actions and may combine
schemas to get the results that he or she wants. For example, a child
who wants to play with a favorite toy pushes other toys and other things
out of the way to reach that specific toy.
5) Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months): This is
the period of trial-and-error experimentation. When in
the seashore, a child digs a hole, builds a sand castle and then puts back
the sand in the hole.

6) Early representational thought (18-24 months): Children start

to acquire symbols to refer to events or objects and begin to
understand them through mental operations.

2. Preoperational Stage: Approximately 2 to 6 years

Language development is one hallmark of this
stage where young children are able to use
symbols, numbers and words like mommy,
puppy, doll and ball to refer to a real person,
animal and objects.
Egocentrism is one attribute that makes this
stage distinct where young children experience
difficulty to understand the points of view of
other people.
Children become gradually skillful at using
symbols so there is an increased desire in
pretend play.
Before the age of five, Piaget found few children
manifested some comprehension of
conservation, a skill in logical thinking used to
realize that some properties of objects like
number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity will remain before
and after any adjustment in the form, shape, or apparent size.
In the picture, the child knows that the
volume of the liquid remains the same
despite of the properties of the
containers. During this stage then, a
specific realistic factor like weight,
volume, and quantity) remains an
invariant in the child’s mind. The main
goal of this stage is symbolic thought
(symbolic thinking).

The child displays five key behaviors during this period:

 1. Imitation. This is where a child can mimic
someone’s behavior even when the person they are
imitating is no longer in front of them.
2. Symbolic play. A child starts to use objects as
symbols, projecting the properties of one object onto
another; for example, pretending a stick is a sword.
3. Drawing. Drawing involves both imitation and
symbolic play. It begins as scribbles and develops
into more accurate abstract representations of
objects and people.
4. Mental imagery. The child can picture many
objects in their minds. They may ask the names of
objects often to secure these associations in their
mind.
5. Verbal evocation of events. The child can use
language to describe and represent events, people,
or objects from their past.

3. Concrete Operations: Approximately 6 to 11years

School-age children can perform concrete mental operations with symbols
that utilize numbers and those with organizing objects by specific qualities
such as size or color. They acquire a better knowledge of mental
operations as they begin to think logically (inductive) about concrete
events but with difficulty in understanding abstract concepts. Inductive
logic is reasoning from a specific knowledge (or experience) to a general
assumption. The capability for reversibility prominently characterizes this
stage. It is the aptitude to know that numbers or objects can be returned
(reversed) to their original condition (example: 72 /9 = 8; 9 x 9 =72) thus,
the probability to go back to the starting point or beginning of a process.

(image: nebusresearch.wordpress.com)

4. Formal Operations: Approximately 11 to adulthood.

As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an
abstract manner by manipulating ideas in their head, without any
dependence on concrete manipulation (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
Abstract thinking, deductive reasoning and systematic planning
characterize this stage. Typically developing early adolescents can think
and reason abstractly, solve and answer hypothetical problems.
Deductive reasoning involves the ability to apply a general principle to
prove a specific outcome. This thinking skill is useful and relevant in the
sciences and mathematics. Children start to think abstractly to reflect
(and deliberate) possible consequences of actions thus, the capability of
long-term planning. While younger children use trial-and-error in
problem- solving, adolescents can systematically resolve a problem
logically because of the following attributes:

1) they can think better than children on what is possible

(instead of what is real).

2) they can think abstractly or hypothetically.

3) they begin to think metacognitively (metacognition is awareness
and understanding of one’s thinking) thus, they show greater
introspection and self consciousness.

For instance, a student would think “I got a failing grade in math

so I must be poor in math” then after some reflections, he or she
would say” may be not that I am not really good I in math, I just
have to exert more efforts”.

4) the thinking of adolescents can be multi-dimensional that

is why adolescents are able to talk or discuss more
differentiated ideas and can address issues based on
several points of views.

This table and the following sections outline Piaget’s four stages of
cognitive development:

Stage Age Key information

The 0–2 Infants start to build an understanding of the

sensorimotor world through their senses by touching,
stage Years grasping, watching, and listening.
Infants develop object permanence (see
below).

The 2–6 Children develop language and abstract

thought. Children begin to use symbolic play
 preoperational Years (“playing pretend”), draw pictures, and talk
about things that happened in the past.
stage

The concrete 7–11 Children learn logical concrete (physical)

rules about objects, such as height,
operational stage years weight, and volume.
Children learn conservation, the idea that
an object, such as water or modeling clay,
remains the same even when its
appearance changes.

The formal 11+ Children learn logical rules to

understand abstract concepts and
operational stage solve problems.

In a nutshell, Piaget’s theory centers on the idea that children, as little

scientists, need to explore, interact with, and experiment in order to gain
the information they need to understand their world. Caregivers and
educators can put Piaget’s theory into practice by providing plenty of
opportunities for children to explore their environment. This includes
letting them learn by trial and error and by experimenting with their
environment.
In the early stages, people can help a child learn better by giving
them new and interesting toys to play with and answering the
questions they ask about the world. Providing challenging new
objects and situations can create disequilibrium, which
encourages the child to learn to reach equilibrium. In later stages,
word puzzles, problem-solving tasks, and logic puzzles will help
their cognitive development.
Allowing a child to interact with other children may also help
enhance their learning, especially those of a similar or slightly
higher developmental stage to their own.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development had a significant impact
on how people understand childhood development today. Piaget
suggests that children go through four distinct stages of cognitive
development from birth to adulthood.
Each stage includes certain milestones where the child
demonstrates a more sophisticated understanding of the world.
Piaget believes that development occurs through a continuous
drive to expand and adapt schemas, or understandings about the
world. However, some people have criticized Piaget’s theory.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian teacher who is considered a pioneer in
learning in social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the first to
examine how our social interactions influence our cognitive growth. He
was convinced that learning occurred through interactions with other
mentors. Vygotsky sought to understand how people learn in a social
environment and created a unique theory on social learning. He
determined that teachers have the ability to control many factors in an
educational setting, including tasks, behaviors, and responses. As a
result, he encouraged more interactive activities to promote cognitive
growth, such as productive discussions, constructive feedback, and
collaboration with others. Vygotsky also stated that culture was a primary
determinant of knowledge acquisition. He argued that children learn from
the beliefs and attitudes modeled by their culture.
Cognitive development is essentially a social process. Thought
development is determined by language. Intellectual growth is contingent
upon the development of the social key of language. Vygotsky
emphasizes that each child is born with the mental operations of
attention, sensation, perception and memory which are further developed
in his or her social and cultural environment. He stresses that social
learnings precedes cognitive development and children can actively
construct knowledge. This insinuates that socialization, community and
language play a great role in the development of cognition.

Fundamentally, Vygotsky recognized that social settings and learning

were closely entwined. Therefore one must identify and implement
strategies that are effective in a social context. It is also important to note
that the culture of each individual is created by their unique strengths,
language, and prior experience. One of the ways that students gain
knowledge is when they collaborate with their peers or mentors on
activities that involve problem-solving skills and real-life tasks.

Major Themes of the Theory

1. Social interaction plays a vital role in cognitive

development .Vygotsky (1978) states that “every function in the
child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level
(interpsychological), and later, on the individual level
(intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention,
logical memory, and formation of concepts. All the higher functions
originate as actual relationships between individual”.

2. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Vygotsky asserts that the

most fruitful experience in a child's education is his or her
collaboration with more skilled partners. He explains that the more
experienced partner provides help in the way of an intellectual
scaffold, which allows the less experienced learner to accomplish
more complex tasks than he may be possible alone (Stone, 1995;
McClellan, 1994). The more experienced partner is the MKO which
can be anyone (a teacher, a parent, a coach, or older adult, a peer)
who has a better understanding or higher ability level than the
learner about a specific task.
 3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) . The ZPD is the distance
between a learner’s ability to perform tasks (like solving the
problem) independently and under the guidance of MKO and/or with
peer collaboration. First, there is what a child can accomplish on his
or her own (actual competence), then there is the ZPD which
represents what we can do with the help of MKO (potential
development). ZPD is based on the idea that mental functions of
children are still in the course of maturation and it implies that
learning can accelerate cognitive development.

The figures are based on how Vygotsky explained his theory of learning
that is accelerated through the learner working with or the teaching of a
‘More Knowledgeable Other’ “…not a specific quality of the child, nor is it
a specific quality of the educational setting or educators…it is…
collaboratively produced in the interaction between the child and more
knowledgeable others. The aim of the collaborative interaction is to lift
the learner to become a ‘head taller’” (Vygotsky, 1978, p.102)

Children do not develop in isolation but in a social world. The child’s

environment, age, culture and life experiences, social relationships and
their interactions with other adults and children, need to be considered
when reaching conclusions about
children’s development (socio-cultural influences).

4. Scaffolding. Vygotsky defined scaffolding in instruction as the

“role of teachers and others in supporting the learner’s
development and providing support structures to get to that next
stage or level” (Raymond, 2000). The zone of proximal development
stresses the constructive role of the social partner (a teacher or a
more skilled peer) of the learner. Thus, teacher becomes a
supportive tool (scaffold) for the student in the ZPD and allows the
learner to accomplish a task who was seemingly impossible.
Learning is interactive and is an interpersonal activity in which the
teacher and the learner co-construct the answer to a problem.
Authority between the teacher and the learner is shared where
inequality between them resides in their respective levels of
understanding. Scaffolding then is temporary and is removed when
the learner does not need it anymore. You just have to know what
to scaffold, when to scaffold and when to end the scaffolding.

5. Mediations . Mediations happen when people intentionally

introduce tools and signs between themselves and their environment in
order to get specific outcomes or benefits. Language as a cultural form of
mediation points out the use of different types of language (symbols) as
mediators between the minds and the environment. Vygotsky states that
by using activity mediators, the human being is able to modify the
environment, and this is his or her way of interacting with the nature.

These mediations include “language; various systems of counting;

mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol systems; works of art; writing;
schemes, diagrams,
maps and mechanical drawings; all sorts of conventional signs and so on”
(Vygotsky, 1981, p. 137). Today, additional mediations add computers,
gadgets, technologies to paint brushes, machineries and the like.
Vygotsky had a groundbreaking theory that language was the basis of
learning. His points included the argument that language supports other
activities such as
reading and writing. In addition, he claimed that logic, reasoning, and
reflective thinking were all possible as a result of language. This led to the
development of
instructional strategies to support growth in literacy as well as a
reassessment of the classroom setup. Teachers were to encourage
leadership in the classroom, collaborative learning, and thoughtful
discussions. With the exception of independent tasks, which were also
included, the goal was to create purposeful, meaningful exchanges
between students. The role of the teacher was to facilitate learning by
directing the dialogue and confirming contributions in an effort to further
motivate the students. The primary role of the teacher in the educational
context is to act as a facilitator for learning. Guided exchanges,
comprehensive discussions, and the creation of an engaging community
are valuable strategies for cognitive development. Many educators have
incorporated Vygotsky’s ideas of social connection and small group
learning in the classroom in an effort to see more growth.

Information Processing Theories

Information processing theory discusses the mechanisms through which

learning occurs. Specifically, it focuses on aspects of memory encoding
and retrieval. The basic idea of Information processing theory is that the
human mind is like a computer or information processor — rather than
behaviorist notions that people merely responding to stimuli.

These theories equate thought mechanisms to that of a computer, in that

it receives input, processes, and delivers output. Information gathered
from the senses (input), is stored and processed by the brain, and finally
brings about a behavioral response (output).

Atkinson and Shiffrin's (1968) information-processing model. Note

that short term memory is now more commonly known as
“working memory.”
Information processing theory has been developed and broadened over
the years. Most notable in the inception of information processing models
is Atkinson and Shriffin’s ‘stage theory,’ presenting a sequential method,
as discussed above, of input-processing-output (Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin,
R. M. (1968). Though influential, the linearity of this theory reduced the
complexity of the human brain, and thus various theories were developed
in order to further assess the inherent processes.

Following this line of thought, Craik and Lockhart issued the ‘level of
processing’ model (Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). They emphasize
that information s expanded upon (processed) in various ways
(perception, attention, labelling, and meaning) which affect the ability to
access the information later on. In other words, the degree to which the
information was elaborated upon will affect how well the information was
learned.
Bransford broadened this idea by adding that information will be more
easily retrieved if the way it is accessed is similar to the way in which it
was stored (Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J., 1977). The next
major development in information processing theory is Rumelhart and
McClelland’s connectionist model, which is supported by current
neuroscience research (Rumelhart, D. E., et.al, 1988). It states that
information is stored simultaneously in different areas of the brain, and
connected as a network. The amount of connections a single piece of
information has will affect the ease of retrieval.

The general model of information processing theory includes

three components:

Sensory memory
In sensory memory, information is gathered via the senses through a
process called transduction. Through receptor cell activity, it is altered
into a form of information that the brain could process. These memories,
usually unconscious, last for a very
short amount of time, ranging up to three seconds. Our senses are
constantly bombarded with large amounts of information. Our sensory
memory acts as a filter, by focusing on what is important, and forgetting
what is unnecessary. Sensory information catches our attention, and thus
progresses into working memory, only if it is seen as relevant, or is
familiar.

Working Memory/Short Term Memory

Baddeley (2001) issued a model of working memory as consisting of three
components. The executive controls system oversees all working memory
activity, including selection of information, method of processing,
meaning, and finally deciding whether to transfer it to long term memory
or forget it. Two counterparts of this system are the auditory loop, where
auditory information is processed, and the visual-spatial check pad, where
visual information is processed. Sensory memories transferred into
working memory will last for 15-20 seconds, with a capacity for 5-9 pieces
or chunks of information. Information is maintained in working memory
through maintenance or elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance refers to
repetition, while elaboration refers to the organization of information (such
as chunking or chronology).

The processing that occurs in working memory is affected by a number of

factors. Firstly, individuals have varying levels of cognitive load, or the
amount of mental effort they can engage in at a given moment, due to
individual characteristics and intellectual capacities. Secondly,
information that has been repeated many times becomes automatic and
thus does not require much cognitive resources (e.g. riding a bike). Lastly,
according to the task at hand, individuals use selective processing to
focus attention on information that is highly relevant and necessary.

Long term memory

Long term memory includes various types of information: declarative
(semantic and episodic), procedural (how to do something), and imagery
(mental images). As opposed to the previous memory constructs, long
term memory has unlimited space. The crucial factor of long term
memory is how well organized the information is. This is affected by
proper encoding (elaboration processes in transferring to long term
memory) and retrieval processes (scanning memory for the information
and transferring into working memory so that it could e used). As
emphasized in Branford’s work, the degree of similarity between the way
information was encoded and the way it is being accessed will shape the
quality of retrieval processes. In general, we remember a lot less
information than is actually stored there.

For learning to occur, it's critical that information is transferred from the
short term memory to the long term memory, because if we have more
than seven pieces of information in our short term memory at one time,
we get an overload (referred to as cognitive overload).

TASK
WATCH and THINK CRITICALLY
A. Watch the Video clip provided in the following links to further
understand Piaget and Vygotsky’s Theories on Cognitive Development:

Links:
Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory - Documentary and Animated
https://youtu.be/WvWeOCcb6uo
Vygotsky's Cognitive Development Theory
https://youtu.be/hEFafbTP9UA

B. Discuss this activity with a study buddy or you may interview someone
in the Teaching Profession, then relate your thoughts from their sharing,
video clips watched, and your Module 4 Readings.

1. Provide five (5) challenges or criticism to Piaget and Vygotsky’s

Theories on Cognitive Development. Elucidate your point.
2. Learner’s errors provide teachers an insight into the child’s learning
and viewpoints as well as the assistance that the child needs.
Based from the perspectives of Piaget and Vygotsky, what can a
teacher do about this?
3. Development happens from one stage to another through
interaction with the environment. Changes from stage to stage
may occur abruptly and kids will differ in how long they are in each
stage. How would a teacher prepare him/herself for struggling and
advanced learners? Think of a concrete plan for both situations.
4. Would it be possible to include learners’ with disability to normal
students? If yes, in what way would it be possible? If no, support
your answer.
5. How would a teacher avoid cognitive overload with students?
Lesson 2

Individual Differences

It is important for teachers to know variables such as physical

characteristics, intelligence, perception, gender, ability, learning styles,
which are individual differences of the learners. An effective and
productive learning-teaching process can be planned by considering
these individual differences of the students. Since the learners' own
learning speeds and interests vary, these characteristics should be taken
into consideration by the teacher.

Intelligence is one of the topics most emphasized in education yet there

has been no standard definition of what exactly it is. Some researchers
and theorists propose that intelligence is one distinct general ability while
others suppose that it is not a single ability but a range of aptitudes, skills,
or specific abilities.
Read critically the concepts and theories that follow and be able to
highlight their basic premises, resemblances and differences that will help
you derive your own concept of intelligence.

Structural and Process Theories of Intelligence

A. Concept of Intelligence by Alfred Binet

Binet stated "It seems to us that in intelligence there is a

fundamental faculty, the alteration orthe lack ofwhich,is ofthe
utmostimportance for practical life. This faculty is judgment,
otherwise called good sense, practical sense,initiative,the faculty
of adapting one's self to circumstances. A person may be a moron
or an imbecile if he is lacking in judgment; but with good judgment
he can never be either. Indeed the rest of the intellectual faculties
seem of little importance in comparison with judgment" (Binet &
Simon, 1916, 1973, pp.42-43). Binet defined intelligence in terms
of judgment, practical sense, initiative, and adaptability (Binet &
Simon, 1905). His concept of general intelligence has three
components
1) goal ofthe mental processes,
2) capability to display adaptable solutions; and
3) ability to demonstrate selectivity of
judgment and critical analysis of choices.
In 1905, the first IQ Test or intelligence test, known now as the
Binet- Simon Scale, was introduced and became the grounds for
the development of intelligence tests which are being used up to
now. In 1908, they made revisions (dropping, changing and
addition of tests then arranging them correspondingly) of the
scale to make it appropriate according to age levels as the tests
were intended to children from ages three through thirteen.

B. General intelligence of Charles Spearman (1904)

British psychologist Charles Spearman described a concept he called

general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique of factor
analysis to investigate certain mental aptitude tests, Spearman found and
concluded that scores on specific tests gave remarkably similar results.
Those who scored high on one cognitive test tended to score high on
other tests, while those who scored low on one test tended to score low on
the other tests. He concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive
ability that is underlying most if not all other factors which can be
measured and numerically expressed. He then proposed a two- factor
theory that explains the “g” and the “s” factors of intelligence. The “g”
represents the general intelligence, a universal and innate ability to
understand the complex things and ideas surrounding us. An example of
g factor is cognitive ability and the extensive use of English as a language.
The “s” factor, on the other hand is any specific aptitude or ability that has
an impact on a specific task. It varies from activity to activity, from person
to person and it can be cultivated and improved.

C. Primary Mental Abilities of Louis Leon Thurstone

Thurstone rebuffed the idea of any single ability that possesses general
application more than other abilities. After evaluating several factors that
are affecting performance on a specified test at one time, he devised new
statistical techniques he called factor analysis and generated his Primary
Mental Abilities Test in 1938. Instead of looking at human intelligence as a
single general ability, he proposed and focused on seven distinctive
primary mental abilities namely: verbal comprehension, word fluency,
facility with numbers, Perceptual speed, reasoning ability, spatial
visualization, and rote memory.

1. Verbal comprehension, the ability to define and

understand words and is assessed by tests in vocabulary
and reading comprehension.

2. Word fluency,the ability to produce words rapidly in

sentences, and other verbal (word) material.

3. Numerical,the ability to solve arithmeticproblems (fast

calculationand solving simple word problems in
arithmetic).

4. Perceptual speed, the ability to see differences and

similarities as commonly seen inproofreading and in quick
recognition oftexts (letters and numbers). 5. Reasoning,
ability to find rules, use patterns and results in problem
solving. 6. Spatial visualization, the ability to create in
mind (visualize) shapes, patterns, rotations of objects an
example of which is how parts of a puzzle fix together. 7.
 Memory, the ability to memorize quickly and recall and
associate previously learned items effectively.

D. Multiple Intelligences (MI) of Howard Gardner

The theory of multiple intelligences was initially proposed by Howard

Gardner in his book “Frames of Mind in 1983. Gardner defines intelligence
as a “biopsychological
potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting
to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture”
(Gardner, 2000, p.28). Thus, we may all possess these intelligences, but
our level or degree of these intelligences may differ from person to
person because of genetics or experiences. Gardner disagreed with the
earlier view of a single general type of intelligence which merely focuses
on cognitive abilities and proposed that not every intelligence that a
person has and will have is innate. He initially introduced eight types of
intelligences comprising of Logical-Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical,
Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Naturalist, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal.
Later, he added the existential intelligence.

According to MI Theory, identifying each student’s intelligences has strong

consequences in the classroom. If a child's intelligence can be identified,
then teachers can accommodate different children more successfully
according to their orientation to learning. Teachers in traditional
classrooms primarily teach to the verbal/linguistic and
mathematical/logical intelligences. Look into these intelligences and their
significance in the classroom.

The Multiple Intelligences of Howard Gardner and their Classroom

Implications
Ability Description Implication
Verbal linguistic The ability has to do Learners demonstrate
Intelligence with words, written great skills in the
language and how it is language arts as in
spoken, grammar, speaking and writing,
writing skills reading and listening

Logical mathematical The ability in numbers, Learners score high in

intelligence problem solving, reasoning, numerical
reasoning, logical and problem solving
reasoning and
recognition of patterns

Musical intelligence The sensitivity to Learners learn well

pitch, rhythm melody, through songs,
and tone like a patterns, rhythms,
composer, a singer or instruments and
anyone who loves musical expression.
drumming, tapping
their hands or feet to
the rhythm of a music.
Visual spatial The ability to see and Learners understand
intelligence manipulate things or better if they see what
objects in mind and is being talked about.
graphical information They love enjoy with
maps, art, charts,
graphs, tables,
illustrations, puzzles
and so on.

Bodily kinesthetic The ability to utilize Learner learn best

intelligence the body or parts of through activities like
the body skillfully, to games, hands on
handle objects or tasks, love to join in
simply doing athletics and in
something involving dances. In traditional
their hands and body classrooms, they are
efficiently. the “overly active”

Interpersonal The skill to Learners are sociable

intelligence communicate with and visibly people
others, verbally and oriented, and love to
nonverbally, to do their learning tasks
understand people cooperatively with a
and relationship partner or in groups.
(people smart) In traditional
because of the classrooms, they are
sensitivity to subtle the “talkative”.
cues on feelings.

Intrapersonal It is the capability to Learners are in touch

Intelligence access and deal with with their own
one’s inner life and feelings, values and
emotional state, concepts thus, appear
thoughts and to be intuitive and
reactions to things as more reserved. They
a way to know and know what they want
appreciate oneself and in life.
others

Naturalist Intelligence It is the capability to Learners love the

(1995) be connected to the outdoors like field
details of nature or the trips, field experiences
natural environment and experiential
as in rock formation, learning, technology
insects, animals, outside the classroom.
animals, plants and They love to pick up
the like. on subtle differences
in meanings of nature.

Existential intelligence The ability to deal with Learners learn may

(1999) bigger life questions ask “what is our part
about existence and or role in this world?”
find answers to these learners love to
existential questions go into philosophy and
 like “why do we exist? related fields of study.
Why are we here?
Why do we die?” It
also has something to
do with questions on
spirituality and even
about God.

E. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg’s theory seeks to highlight the interdependence of the

structures and the processes that cause intelligent behavior, the function
of these structures to the question of realizing goals in the outside world,
and the role of experience in building intelligence and its usage. The
theory has three components, analytical intelligence,
creative intelligence, and practical intelligence.
1. Analytic intelligence, the ability to analyze, critique and evaluate
thus, refers to problem-solving abilities. The “book smart” uses this
ability for to analyze a math problem or to compare and contrast
two concepts or to do some evaluating a play or a group project
presented in class. The analytical skill depends largely on the
cognitive processes as itis the ability to reason, to process and
organize information and to solve problems very effectively.

2. Creative intelligence is the ability to discover, invent or to create

something in order to manage a new situation or a new task
effectively utilizing past experiences and existing knowledge and
skills. The “arts smart” uses this ability to create a poetry, art work,
discovery or doable proposals for a project and other creative
outputs after learning a theory.

3. Practical intelligence, the ability to apply, implement or put into

practice what has been learned allowing the person to react and
adapt to the environment or even change it to suit his or her needs.
The practical skill is used when a “street smart” navigates any kind
of environment he is in.

F. Cognitive Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin are the foremost two theorists who
are associated with the cognitive information processing theory. In 1968,
they proposed a multi-stage theory of memory that explains how an
information goes through a process from the moment it is received (or
sensed), then processed, until it is stored in the memory. Relative to the
theoy, they introduced the information processing model that has three
major components (Eggen & Kauchak, 1999, pp. 243-244):

1. Information stores – repositories used to hold information. Three

types of storage are assumed: sensory, short- term (working), and
long-term.

2. Cognitive processes – intellectual actions that transform information

and move it from one store to another. Processes include attention,
perception, rehearsal, encoding, and retrieval.

3. Metacognition – knowing about and having control over cognitive

processes; a form of self-regulation. Metacognition controls and
directs the processes that move information from one store to
another.

The multi-stage theory of memory explains how information is

received by the sensory memory, processed in the short term memory (or
working memory) and storedinthelong term memory. This information-
processing model shows that information which enters the brain is briefly
recorded in sensory memory. Once you focus your attention on it, the
information may become part of short term memory (STM), where it can
be manipulated and used (thus, working memory). Through encoding
procedures like repetition and rehearsal, information may be transported
to long-term memory (STL). Retrieving information from the LTM when
needed in problem solving or in answering a question in a test makes
them active again in the STL. In particular ways, the human memory and
the computer memory are comparable. The LTM somewhat functions like
a hard drive of computer both taking lengthier time to respond but can
store a huge quantity of data.

The sensory memory serves as a tentative holding place for data.

Information enters the human information processing system through a
variety of channels associated with senses like:
 Iconic memory, a sensory memory for vision that lasts just
milliseconds before fading
 Echoic memory, sensory memory that registers specific auditory
information
 Haptic memory, sensory memory for touch (pressure, hot, cold,
and pain)

In the short-term memory, information arrives through encoding (and

rehearsal). Information that enters STMfades away, ordecays as soon as
itis no longer attended to within 30 seconds. Decay is a kind of forgetting
that happens when short term memories fade over time.

Long-term memory is the relatively permanent information storage

system. Information is retained and retrieved for hours, weeks, or years.
Storing information in LTM is equivalent to writing information out to a
computer hard drive. Permanent losses may occur as a result of brain
damage, and itis aswell possible that some memories justdecay away
ifthey aren’t retrieved for a very long time. LTM has several categories like
declarative memory and procedural memory. Declarative memory is also
called explicit memory as itis the retention of facts, data, events like
remembering information for a test or that you have an appointment with
your adviser, your home address and telephone number, email addresses
and passwords, pin numbers, names associated with people’s
characteristics and the like.

Declarative memory provides for representations of relations beyond

the province of events, encompassing the relations among the facts that
constitute our knowledge of the world. This idea indicates further critical
distinction: between episodic memories, which contains autobiographical
records of personally experienced events, and semantic memory,
consisting of world knowledge stored outside of personal contexts
(Tulving, 1972).

Episodic memory is recollection of personal details like first day in the

university or your sister’s graduation day while semantic memory is
recollection of the universal or common knowledge like the names of
colors, the sounds of the alphabets, the capitals of nations and other
essential facts learned over a lifetime.

Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory involving how to

perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to
do certain things as riding a bicycle, typing on a keyboard, playing a
musical instrument, swimming, driving, surfing the Net, joining a virtual
seminar or learning a particular technology.

David A. Kolb's (1974) views learning as an integrated process with each

stage being mutually supportive of and feeding into the next. It is possible
to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its logical sequence.

1. Concrete Experience - a new experience or situation is

encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience.
2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience - of particular
importance are any inconsistencies between experience and
understanding.
3. Abstract Conceptualization reflection gives rise to a new idea, or
a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has
learned from their experience).
4. Active Experimentation - the learner applies their idea(s) to the
world around them to see what happens.

Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of

four stages: of having a concrete experience followed by observation of
and reflection on that experience which leads to the formation of abstract
concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then used
to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

2. Peter Honey and Alan Mumford's model

Peter Honey and Alan Mumford adapted Kolb's experiential learning

model. First, they renamed the stages in the learning cycle to accord with
managerial experiences: having an experience, reviewing the experience,
concluding from the experience, and planning the next steps. Second,
they aligned these stages to four learning styles named:
 1. Activist
2. Reflector
3. Theorist
4. Pragmatist

These four learning styles are assumed to be acquired preferences that

are adaptable, either at will or through changed circumstances, rather
than being fixed personality characteristics. Honey and Mumford's
Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) is a self-development tool and differs
from Kolb's Learning Style Inventory by inviting managers to complete a
checklist of work-related behaviors without directly asking managers how
they learn. Having completed the self-assessment, managers are
encouraged to focus on strengthening underutilized styles in order to
become better equipped to learn from a wide range of everyday
experiences.

3. Walter Burke Barbe’s VAK

Walter Burke Barbe and colleagues proposed three learning modalities

(often identified by the acronym VAK)
▪ Visualizing modality
▪ Auditory modality
▪ Kinesthetic modality

Descriptions of learning modalities

Visual Kinesthetic/Tactile Auditory

picture gestures Listening
Shape Body movements Rhythms
Sculpture Object manipulation Tone
Paintings Positioning Chants

Barbe and colleagues reported that learning modality strengths can occur
independently or in combination (although the most frequent modality
strengths, according to their research, are visual or mixed), they can
change over time, and they become integrated with age. They also
pointed out that learning modality strengths are different from
preferences; a person's self-reported modality preference may not
correspond to their empirically measured modality strength. This
disconnect between strengths and preferences was confirmed by a
subsequent study.

4. Mind Styles Model

The Mind Styles Model was developed from Anthony Gregorc’s earlier
Energic Model of Styles. It is a model of individual differences in thought
and learning that has had strong uptake in the educational field, and
some impact on other fields. Gregorc focuses on how information is
grasped perceptually, and on how that perceived information is then
organized and arranged. Perception and ordering mediate our relationship
to the world, and different minds thus relate to the world in different ways
(Gregorc, 1982).
Our perceptual ability has two qualities: abstractness (pattern-level
perception) and concreteness (instance-level perception). Our ordering
ability also has two qualities: randomness and sequentialness. Each
ability forms a dimension of style, with its two qualities defining the poles.
Crossed, the two dimensions delineate four mind styles:

P – Concrete Sequential (CS)

Pragmatic, objective, instinctive, logical, methodical and deliberate.
CS learners can be perfectionists with an eye for detail and
discrepancy. They focus on tangible results, and their
inventiveness is directed towards making things work better, rather
than creating entirely novel things. People who are strongly CS
prefer busy, stable and orderly environments, and practical
pursuits. Focus on product.

A – Abstract Sequential (AS)

Reflective, analytical, conventional and methodical. AS learners
view life in abstract terms, relating more to signs, symbols,
knowledge, concepts and ideas than to physical events. They
dissect their thoughts into branching patterns of sections and sub
sections, which seem two-dimensional. AS-style creativity expresses
itself in the synthesis and development of models and theories.
They prefer quiet, orderly environments and intellectual
challenges. Focus on process over product.

E – Concrete Random (CR)

Intuitive, adventurous, instinctive and impulsive, “in” the physical
world but looking beyond it. Able to “zoom out” from events to see
the circumstances framing them. Focuses on both process and
product, concerned with applications, methods and underlying
causes. CR-style creativity produces original and unique inventions.
They prefer experientially stimulating environments featuring
change, novelty and competition.

I – Abstract Random (AR)

Sensitive, empathic, holistic, cautious, perceptive, spiritual. Abstract
random learners use their feelings and emotions to make sense of
their experience. They are focused on close relationships,
establishing strong rapport with others. Their creativity is
expressive in nature and often includes musical or artistic talent.
People strong in AR thinking prefer emotionally meaningful
experiences and commitments, in vibrant, active environments.

Theories of Cognitive Style

1. Grasha-Reichmann Learning Style Scale

Anthony Grasha and Sheryl Riechmann, in 1974, formulated the Grasha
Reichmann Learning Style Scale. It was developed to analyze the attitudes
of students and how they approach learning. The test was originally
designed to provide teachers with insight on how to approach
instructional plans for college students. Grasha's background was in
cognitive processes and coping techniques. Unlike some models of
cognitive styles which are relatively nonjudgmental, Grasha and
Riechmann distinguish between adaptive and maladaptive styles.

2. Sternberg's Theory of Cognitive Style

Aiming to explain why aptitude tests, school grades, and classroom
performance often fail to identify real ability, Robert Sternberg listed
various cognitive dimensions in his book Thinking Styles. Several other
models are also often used when researching cognitive styles; some of
these models are described in books that Sternberg co-edited, such as
Perspectives on Thinking, Learning, and Cognitive Styles.

The four forms of mental self-government are hierarchical, monarchic,

oligarchic, and anarchic. The hierarchic style holds multiple goals
simultaneously and prioritizes them. The oligarchic style is similar but
differs in involving difficulty prioritizing. The monarchic style, in
comparison, focuses on a single activity until completion. The anarchic
style resists conformity to "systems, rules, or particular approaches to
problems."

3. NASSP Model
In the 1980s, the National Association of Secondary School Principals
(NASSP) formed a task force to study learning styles. The task force
defined three broad categories of style—cognitive, affective, and
physiological—and 31 variables, including the perceptual strengths and
preferences from the VAK model of Barbe and colleagues, but also many
other variables such as need for structure, types of motivation, time of
day preferences, and so on. They defined a learning style as "a gestalt—
not an amalgam of related characteristics but greater than any of its
parts. It is a composite of internal and external operations based in
neurobiology, personality, and human development and reflected in
learner behavior."

1. Cognitive styles are preferred ways of perception, organization

and retention.

2. Affective styles represent the motivational dimensions of the

learning personality; each learner has a personal motivational
approach.

3. Physiological styles are bodily states or predispositions,

including sex-related differences, health and nutrition, and
reaction to physical surroundings, such as preferences for levels
of light, sound, and temperature.

According to the NASSP task force, styles are hypothetical constructs that
help to explain the learning (and teaching) process. They posited that one
can recognize the learning style of an individual student by observing his
or her behavior. Learning has taken place only when one observes a
relatively stable change in learner behavior resulting from what has been
experienced.

TASK
1. Watch how Dr. Howard Gardner pluralize intelligence and listen to his
reflection on his Multiple Intelligences Theory on this link:
https://youtu.be/CCiN6jF82A0
How does the Theory on Multiple Intelligences influence teaching and
learning according to Dr. Howard Gardner?
2. Which intelligence/s is/are strongest for you? You may use the
questionnaires from Alberta Advanced Education provided in the link
below to find out which intelligence/s you often use.
https://alis.alberta.ca/careerinsite/know-yourself/multiple-intelligences-
quiz/
How will you use your strongest intelligence/s in teaching and learning
process in the future?
3. Create a summary chart that presents the major concepts of the various
concepts of intelligence and their application in the classroom.
Lesson 3

Factors Affecting Development: Genetic

and Biological, Early Stimulation,
Instruction, and Social Interactions

There are influences that may foster or obstruct growth and

development. You will learn here how the following factors affect
biological and physical development of growing and developing children,
early stimulation, instruction, and Social Interactions.
How children grow and develop depend on both internal and external
environmental factors, some of which we have no control over. Having a
good understanding of what children need at each stage of their growth
and development helps us raise them better.

1. Heredity. It is the genetic transmission of physical features from

parents to offspring. These features include height, body structure,
weight, body structure, color of the eye, hair texture, and just as
intelligence and aptitudes. Some illnesses and conditions like heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, can also be passed on by genes thus,
affect a child’s growth and development.

2. Environment. Nurturing and favorable environmental factors can

bring out the best of the inherent (genetic) qualities. Environment
represents the totality of physical and psychological stimulation the
child gets and reacts to such as the physical surroundings, social
environment and relationships with significant others in his life
(family, peers, etc.) and the conditions of the place where he lives
and grows. This may be illustrated in the case of a well-nurtured
children who consistently perform better than those deprived. Like
family, school is an important aspect of the child’s environment
that aid in fostering desirable social and interpersonal skills.

3. Sex. Boys and girls grow up differently. At the onset of puberty for
instance, boys are more likely to be taller and physically stronger
compared to girls. Girls though tend to mature faster in
adolescence, as boys mature over an extended period of time. In
terms of structure of the body, boys appear to be more athletic and
fit for activities of strength, rigor and stamina.

4. Play (and exercise) and health. In this context, exercise means

normal playtime and sporty movements that allow the body to gain
increased muscular strength and bone mass. Proper play (and
exercise) helps children grow healthy and strengthen the immune
system. Outdoor play gives them the chance to adjust them to
microorganisms that aid build resistance and better gross motor
skills development.
 5. Nutrition (maternal and child nutrition). Proper nutrition during
weeks
6.
development and in infancy through early childhood has lifetime good
consequences. A balanced diet abounding in vitamins, minerals,
proteins, fats and carbohydrates is vital for the body and brain
development. Malnutrition can lead to diseases that adversely affect
physical growth, motor development and maturation. Thus, there are
children with interrupted growth and motor development.

7. Early Sensory Stimulation. Scientists now believe that to achieve

the precision of the mature brain, stimulation in the form of
movement and sensory experiences during the early developing
years is necessary (Greenough & Black, 1992; Shatz, 1992).
Experience appears to exert its effects by strengthening and
bonding synapses which are the connections that are made
between neurons. Connections that are not made by activity, or are
weak, are “pruned away,” much like the pruning of dead or weak
branches of a tree. Due to differences in experience, not even
identical twins are wired the same (Chugani, 1998). Hence,
providing developmentally appropriate stimulation of senses allows
the child to use more sense and use them more.

8. Geographical Influences. The place and neighborhood where the

children live, the school they attend, the opportunities in the
community, and their peers are some of the socio-cultural factors
that influence child growth and development. Where you live has a
great influence on how you grow and develop. The availability of
parks and sports facilities is a big factor in the physical and motor
enhancement of the growing children. The weather in a particular
place can influence children in bodily rhythms and other health
conditions, and differences that will help you derive your own
concept of intelligence.

9. Social Interactions. The changes that occur in a child’s

development in the first few years of life are truly remarkable.
Caregivers and professionals note children’s development as they
begin to smile, laugh, sit, crawl, babble and talk. Children begin to
socialize and play cooperatively with other children. They acquire
important skills to get along with others such as turn-taking, sharing
and following instructions, as well as skills that will help them
academically such as drawing, counting, reading, and writing.

Early child development usually follows a sequence, as the child needs to

master one skill before he can acquire the next, but all children develop at
their own rate. At times, a child may take a long time to master a new
skill; at other times, he may seem to skip a skill in the expected sequence
in his speed of development. Through careful observation, assessment
and communication with the child’s caregivers, professionals can draw a
clear picture of the child within their setting. Identifying risks, concerns or
delays requires interpretation within the entire context of the child.
TASK

1. Watch video provided in the link below entitled: “Cognitive

Development: Comparing How Children and Adult learn”. Then answer the
questions below. https://youtu.be/d2etCHqaAOU
2. What are the similarities and differences of children and adolescent in
their way of learning?
3. If you will propose interventions that would enhance cognitive
development of children and adult, what are these?
Lesson 4

Review of Contemporary Researches

and Related Articles

Many factors can affect the cognitive development and you will find out in
this lesson that among the key risk influences that affect cognitive
development in children can be nutrition, environment, and maternal-
child interactions.

A. Nutrition
It has been assumed that loads of specific nutrients can affect cognitive
processes just like the other domains of development. Then comes a
growing body of literature implying a correlation between improved
nutrition and optimum brain development and functioning. Nutrients
provide building blocks that play a critical role in cell proliferation, DNA
synthesis, neurotransmitter and hormone metabolism, and are important
constituents of enzyme systems in the brain (Zimmermann, 2011).

Since rapid brain growth occurs during the first 2 years of life, this period
of life may be particularly sensitive to deficiencies in diet (Bryan et al.,
2004; Lenroot and Giedd, 2006). This suggests that the timing of
nutritional deficiencies can vastly affect brain development. Adolescence
is also a significant and sensitive developmental period, with research
indicating that structural reorganization, brain and cognitive maturation
and in particular, major developments in the prefrontal cortex take place
during puberty (Blakemore et al., 2010). Under-nutrition can lead to
children’s less interest for learning and negatively affects cognitive
development as shown in school and other performances.

During prenatal development and the early years of childhood, nutrition

has been considered the greatest environmental influence. A proper
nutritional balance in this formative and sensitive period is critical for the
brain to develop normally. Nutrient deficiencies for instance in iron and
iodine can impair cognitive, and these impairments are often permanent.
Existing literature suggests too that essential fatty acids are critical for
brain development and functioning for they promote neuronal and
dendritic spine growth and synaptic membrane synthesis thus, influence
signal processing and neural transmission. Some researches point to
positive association between maternal fish intake and cognitive
development. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the
effect of essential fatty acids, particularly long chain polyunsaturated
fatty acids (LCPUFA), on cognitive brain development. In Infancy, dietary
long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) are essential for normal
development and in cognitive development. In infancy, dietary long-chain
polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) are essential for normal
development, and in cognitive development. Randomized, controlled
studies evaluated the effects of feeding term and pre-term infant’s
formula containing LCPUFA or no LCPUFA on various measures of
cognitive behavior. There are findings which imply that LCPUFA could
improve efficient information processing as well as attention regulation in
infants.

There are other nutrients that have been related to early brain functioning
which include folic acid, choline and many more.
For more insights about the adverse effects of deficiencies in iodine, iron,
zinc and vitamin B-12 in cognitive development, please read the article
Micronutrient Deficiencies and Cognitive Functioning published by
Maureen M. Black.
You can access the article through this link:
https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/133/11/3927S/4818043.

In order to gain more insights about the Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty

Acids, please access the article of Mattthew F. Muldoom, et.al entitled
Long–Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Optimization of Cognitive
Performance by clicking this link:
doi: 10.7205/MILMED-D-14-00168

B. Environment

Epigenetics claims that environmental contexts can produce changes in

gene expression which can eventually increase one’s risk of disease that
can even be transmissible to one’s children. For instance, exposure to
environmental teratogens like tobacco, smoke, insecticides and many
more, either prenatal or after birth of the child, can have harmful effect
causing cognitive dysfunction. (In biology, epigenetics deals with the
study of hereditary phenotype changes that do not cause changes in DNA
sequence).

Literary- Rich Environment

Epigenetics is the study of change in organisms caused by

modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code
itself.

Getting students absorbed in meaningful, purposeful literacy

activities requires a number of significant changes in the
classroom – in the physical environment, in the events and
activities, and in the nature and quality of the interactions. –
Noel Jones

A literacy-rich environment highlights the importance of speaking,

reading, and writing in the learning of children that involves selection of
materials that facilitate language and literacy opportunities, reflection and
thought construction among infants and young children. It encourages
and fosters reading and writing, speaking and listening. It contains print
learning materials (like books and posters),electronic and broadcast media
(such as radios and televisions) and digital information and
communications (like smart phones, tablets, computers, internet and
technology) which promote a reading culture, literacy acquisition and
better literacy retention along with access to up-to-date materials.

To illustrate, imagine yourself in a pre-school or an early elementary

school classroom where pupils are engaged in varied activities such as
interacting with books and posters, writing, drawing and coloring
activities, watching videos/movies, working in groups, working with some
learning materials individually and the most important is the presence of
a teacher who interacts with them and is accessible for any help whenever
necessary. The situation is a picture of a literacy-rich learning
environment. In addition to reading books, pupils can interact with e-
books and listen to audio learning materials, as well as with
adults/teachers/staff/parents with varied expertise. Materials in the
classroom must be adapted not only to help pupils to interact with text,
but also to serve as a motivator to engage in reading. A literacy-rich
classroom has labels with words and pictures everywhere so that pupils
constantly connect written language with the things they represent.
Teachers display these labels based on children’s needs and interest to
provide those with disabilities support in the classroom (Dorrell, 2002).

What do teachers need to do then? Teachers need to engage learners in

language and literacy activities in all elements of instruction such as
employing games and activities, storytelling/story reading that children
can use to learn independently, or learn with peers. They serve as
scaffolds in learning who provide mediations and demonstrate their own
participation in language and literacy through modeling its use
continually throughout the day. The provision of reinforces (such as
rewards, incentives, praises) enhances learning.

Story Telling and Reading

It has been said that storytelling is the fundamental preparation for

academic learning. Stories that are read to and read by a child can
connect the home with world of classroom and the world itself because
they deliver general thread that allow varied cultures to come together.
Stories provides a connection across the cultural diversity. Normally,
children excitedly love to retell a story they have told (and heard) several
times. Perhaps, storytelling is the most powerful way that the child
processes experience. By ages 3 and 4, most children can tell and retell
varied types of stories which can be an autobiography, fantasy, and
reports they simply overheard.

Storytelling is a powerful tool for cognitive development for it can transfer

emotions/feelings that boosts thinking capacity, providing a wonderful
activity of learning where in young children raise questions about how
they feel and what they think. A brilliant teller can use strategies to
arouse curiosity and encourage children to ask questions. Imagination
and even visualizations are acquired and developed as they see pictures
in the book and/or pay attention to stories since they realize how to relate
the pictures/images and stories. You can intensify the memory capability
of children by letting them recall and retain the stories that were already
told to them or read for them by asking them questions, narrate a
possible climax, identify the characters or simply to retell the story.

The most powerful advantage of storytelling is improved information and

learning in children about various places, practices in life, relationships
and so on. As they learn about good and bad characters they will realize
the idea of socially accepted (and unacceptable) forms of behaviors.
Stories also allow children to know about their own cultural roots. Story
telling stimulates expressive language development, receptive language
development, speech and written composition, and also listening and
reading comprehension.

For students, it offers powerful situational learning that develops critical

reading, listening and thinking. One of the most significant outcomes of
reading is that it allows children to use language and to think about it. For
instance, children come to know that what is said is not the same as what
is meant, and they begin grow in vocabulary.

Early Language Stimulation

Early language stimulation is a variety of interaction strategies that

parents/carers can exercise to give confidence to a young child to use
language. Interaction, message, and communication are not limited words
or information used or transmitted. A great part of the messages and the
sense that we communicate are done through non-verbal language like
facial expressions, gestures, body language, eye-contact, touch and also
how close we are to the person we are talking to. It is always clever to
stimulate early language development by letting infants and early
children understand a message through verbal and non-verbal channels.
Some fun activities include rhymes, riddles, storytelling, songs, tong
twisters, homonyms, and as they grow older, word games, word puzzles
are stimulating. Just talk, talk and talk to the child, never criticize a child's
pronunciation or speech patterns, Use television and computers are good
aides when they are used cautiously.

Maternal-Child Interactions

It has been known that mother-child interactions have powerful effect on

the personality development of a child. We must as well ask the questions
whether these interactions greatly influence particularly the developing
intellectual abilities of the child. There are questions that you as future
teachers need to find answers to
1. Do mothers who interact more often with their infants and
children more produce more intelligent children?

2. What are the effects of the following factors in the cognitive

development of infants and young children?

a. Maternal depression
b. Inadequate cognitive stimulation
c. Maternal Education
To be able to gain additional insights on the influences of nutrition and
environment and to find answers to the questions above, search and read
the article “Risk factors affecting child cognitive development: A summary
of nutrition, environment, and maternal –child interaction indcators for
sub-Saharan Africa, Published in final edited form as J Dev Orig Health
Dis. 2016 Apr; 7(2): 197–217.

To have an access to the material, just click doi:

10.1017/S2040174415001427

TASK
JUSTIFY!
1. Do mothers who interact more often with their infants and children
foster more intelligent children?
Justify your discussion with an empirical evidence.
2. Based from the assigned reading on “Risk factors affecting child
cognitive development, how do the following factors influence the
cognitive development of infants and young children?
a. Maternal depression
b. Inadequate cognitive stimulation
c. Maternal Education

References:
Lesson 1:
https://sites.google.com/site/cognitiveapproachtolearning/
cognitiveinformationprocessing

Mayer, R. A. (2003). Elements of a science of e-learning. Journal of

Educational Computing Research, 29(3), 297-313. Library Portal Piaget’s
Theory of Cognitive Development

Absolute Astronomy. (n.d.). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.

Retrieved from http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Kohlberg
%27s_stages_of_moral_d evelopment

Alejandro Ezquerro-Nassar. Developmental Psychology. University of

Cambridge Department of Psychology.

Constructivist Learning Theory, Problem Solving, and Transfer. Psychology

Applied to Teaching. 10th Edition

Lesson 2:
Barbe, Walter Burke; Swassing, Raymond H.; Milone, Michael N. (1979).
Teaching through modality strengths: concepts practices. Columbus,
Ohio: Zaner Bloser.

Gregorc, A. F. (1982). An Adult’s Guide to Style. Maynard, Massachusetts:

Gabriel Systems, Inc.

Keefe, James W. (March 1985). "Assessment of learning style variables:

the NASSP task force model".

Riechmann, Sheryl Wetter; Grasha, Anthony F. (July 1974). "A rational

approach to developing and assessing the construct validity of a student
learning style scales instrument".

Lesson 3:
https://www.beststart.org/OnTrack_English/3-childrensdevelopment.html
Santrock, J.W. (2011) Educational Psychology, 5e. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc. New York, NY.

Lesson 4:
https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/133/11/3927S/4818043.

Muldoom, et.al Long–Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Optimization of

Cognitive Performance, Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty, doi: 10.7205/MILMED-
D-14-00168

J Dev Orig Health. (2016) Risk factors affecting child cognitive

development: A summary of nutrition, environment, and maternal –child
interaction indcators for sub-Saharan Africa J Dev Orig Health Dis. 2016
Apr; 7(2): 197–217.

MODULE V

INTRODUCTION
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Lesson 1 Theoretical Perspectives

1.1 Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory
1.2 Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Theory
Lesson 2 Socialization and the Development of Moral
Reason, Attitudes and Beliefs
2.1 Kohlberg’s Internalization Theory
2.2 Piaget’s Moral Thoughts

Lesson 3 Factors Affecting Development

3.1 Parenting Styles
3.2 Sibling Relationship and Birth Order
3.3 Peer, Play
3.4 Technology and Social Media
 MODULE V

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

INTRODUCTION

This module presents the different theories of growth and

development. It is also presented matters about social and emotional
development on how children start to understand who they are, what they
are feeling and what to expect when interacting with others.

OBJECTIVES
After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Understand the basic concepts and theories of social and emotional

development.
2. Develop a basic understanding of social and emotional development
research and what it means for teachers’ everyday activities.
3. Reflect and adapt teaching practices in light of social and emotional
research.

DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited
from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output as
directed via Google Classroom.
Lesson 1

Theoretical Perspective

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

In Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory, he proposed that the behavior

and development of a person are influenced by the interaction between
the conscious and unconscious aspects of that person’s mind.

Three Components of Different Levels of Consciousness

a. Id The Id is present at birth and represents everything

that we inherit from our parents. It comprises our needs that
require constant fulfillment and operates on the pleasure
 principle, as well as the need for immediate gratification, without
regard for consequences or realities.

b. Ego The Ego develops as a result of our attempts to satisfy

our needs through interactions with our physical and social
environment. In other words, it arises from the Id. The Ego
attempts to fulfill the Id’s desire by serving as a negotiator that
strives for a compromise between what the Id wants and what
the outside world can grant it.

The Ego is also a decision-maker that operates on the reality

principle, evaluating conditions of the real world which may or
may not satisfy the Id’s demands and seeking acceptable
methods of fulfilling the Id’s wishes.

c. Superego The Superego arises from the Ego and

develops as an internal representation of the moral values of the
environment. The Superego judges what we should morally do or
not do, and guides us about the shoulds and should nots of our
lives. It rewards us with pride and positive feelings upon doing
good, and punishes us with feelings of guilt, shame or fear for
not abiding by values that we have set for ourselves.

Freud believed that the unconscious aspect of our mind is a receptacle of

ideas. We are not aware of this aspect of our mind, but it influences our
behavior in equally powerful ways much as our conscious mind does. As
such, one of the most significant contributions of Freud to the
understanding of human behavior is enlightening us about the
unparalleled role of the unconscious in directing and motivating our
behavior.

The Freud Psychosexual Stages of Development

1. ORAL STAGE- A child derives pleasure from oral activities, such

as sucking and tasting. Successful fulfillment of the child’s
feeding needs and proper weaning may result in the
establishment of trust. Too much or too little gratification can
bring about an oral fixation for the adult individual. This is
represented by a preoccupation with oral activities such as
drinking alcohol, smoking, over eating, or nail biting.
 2. ANAL STAGE- The main source of gratification at this stage is
the ability to control bladder movement and the elimination or
retention of feces. A positive and appropriate experience
revolving around potty training can encourage competence,
creativity and productivity in individuals. C into obsession with
perfection, extreme cleanliness, and control or the opposite
which is messiness and disorganization in adulthood.

3. PHALLIC STAGE- At this Freud psychosexual stage, the focus of

pleasure is the genitals. Boys start to perceive their father as
rivals for their mother’s affections, while girls feel similarly
towards their mother. Fear of punishment can lead to repression
of feelings felt toward the opposite sex parent. Fixation at this
stage may bring about sexual deviancy or weak sexual identity.

4. LATENCY STAGE - At this stage, sexual urges are usually

repressed and the individual spends most of his/her time
interacting with same sex peers, engaging in hobbies and
acquiring skills.

5. GENITAL STAGE - The focus at this Freud psychosexual stage is

on the sexual urges that are reawakened and are directed
toward opposite sex peers, with genitals as the primary source
of pleasure. Individuals who completed the earlier stages
successfully become well-adjusted, caring and secure individuals

One importance of Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory is the

emphasis on early experiences in the development of personality and as
an influence on later behavior. The relationships that children cultivate,
their views about themselves and others, and their level of adjustment
and well-being as adults are all influenced by the quality of experiences
that they have had in each psychosexual stage.

Erikson’s psychosocial Theory of Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and

expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are
motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our
lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of
development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At
each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful
completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence
and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings
of inadequacy.
● Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural
implications of development; certain cultures may need to resolve
the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival
needs.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust - From birth to 12 months of age, infants must

learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a
child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their
caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their
baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive
caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender
feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world
as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not
met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust
for people in the world.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt - As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin

to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions
and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show
clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as
food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue
of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might
observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who
wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits
might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic
decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the
opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her
abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt- Once children reach the preschool stage (ages
3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting
control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of
initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while
interacting with others, preschool children can master this task.
Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when
parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the
child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a
sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with
their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority- During the elementary school stage

(ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority.
Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how
they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and
 family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel
that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along
with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion - In adolescence (ages 12–18),

children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to
Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and
“What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most
adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they
explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover
their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage
have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their
beliefs and values in the face of problemsand other people’s
perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a
conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their
parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self
and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity
and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a
positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation - People in early adulthood (20s through

early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have
developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our
life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully
resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and
maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that
we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop
successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a
positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation - When people reach their 40s, they

enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the
mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities such as
volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage,
middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often
through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in
meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to
society. Those who do not master this task may experience
stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the
world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with
others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

8. Integrity vs. Despair - From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are
in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s
task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people
in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
 satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their
accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back
on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not
successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted.
They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have”
been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness,
depression, and despair.

TASK

Instruction: Discuss comprehensively the educational implications of

Erikson theory of psychosocial development.

Lesson 2

Socialization and the Development of

Moral Reason, Attitudes and Beliefs

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development states that we progress through

three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development.
 ● Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work
of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development
of children, which he believed follows a series of stages.

● Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development:

preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level has
two distinct stages.

● During the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is

externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules
of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge
an action based on its consequences.

● During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is

tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to
accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they
believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order.

● During the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is

defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now
believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or
eliminated.

● Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for its cultural and

gendered bias toward white, upper-class men and boys. It also fails
to account for inconsistencies within moral judgments.

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive

theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children.
Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development,
follows a series of stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—stories
that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16
year-old boys about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma
created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the idea of
obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the
way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral
development.

After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg

reviewed people’s responses and placed them in different stages of moral
reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the
capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for
conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-
conventional morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational thought is
attained), which only a few fully achieve. Each level of morality contains
two stages, which provide the basis for moral development in various
contexts.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

According to Piaget's original formulation, children between the

ages of 5 and 10 years see the world through the lens of a
"heteronomous" (other-directed) morality. In this moral understanding,
rules handed down by authority figures (such as parents, teachers and
government leaders) are seen as absolute and unbreakable. Basically,
children accept that authority figures have godlike powers, and are able to
make rules that last forever, do not change, and must be followed.
Children's reasoning regarding why these rules should be followed is
generally based squarely upon their appreciation of consequences
associated with breaking the rules. As breaking the rules tends to lead to
negative personal consequences, most children follow the rules as a way
to avoid being punished.

Children's appreciation of morality changes towards the end of

middle childhood as a result of their recently developed ability to view
situations from other people's perspectives.

1. As children develop the ability to put themselves into someone

else's shoes, their appreciation of morality becomes more
autonomous (self-directed) and less black and white and absolutist
in nature. Piaget called this expanded appreciation a "morality of
cooperation".

2. Starting at about age 10 or 11 and continuing through

adolescence, children will have generally begun to view moral rules
as socially-agreed upon guidelines designed to benefit the group.

3. Children using this frame of reference still feel that it is important

to follow rules, but these rules are viewed as complex, somewhat
negotiable guidelines that are meant to improve everyone's lives.

4. Children realize that making choices about following the rules

should be based on something more than fear of negative personal
consequences or desire for individual gain. Decisions affect
everyone; and can benefit and/or hurt everyone.
TASK

Instruction: Write a critical paper of how a person develops morals and

ethics.

Lesson 3

Factors Affecting Development

How children grow and develop depend on both internal and external
environmental factors, some of which we have no control over. Having a
good understanding of what children need at each stage of their growth
and development helps us raise them better.

Although the terms growth and development are used synonymously, they
have different meanings biologically. Growth refers to the incremental
changes in physical characteristics such as height, weight, size, etc., while
development refers to qualitative changes to growth in an orderly and
meaningful fashion which results in maturity. Growth and development
contribute to each other, are inseparable, and occur simultaneously.
Parenting Style

In the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study on more

than 100 preschool-age children. Using naturalistic observation, parental
interviews, and other research methods, she identified some important
dimensions of parenting.

1. Authoritarian Parenting

In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the

strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules
usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents don't explain
the reasoning behind these rules. They expect their children to
behave exceptionally and not make errors, yet they provide very
little direction about what their children should do or avoid in the
future. Mistakes are punished, often quite harshly, yet their children
are often left wondering exactly what they did wrong.

2. Authoritative Parenting

Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting

style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected
to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic.
Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to
listen to questions. These parents expect a lot of their children, but
they provide warmth, feedback, and adequate support. When
children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more
nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing.

3. Permissive Parenting

Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents,

make very few demands of their children. These parents rarely
discipline their children because they have relatively low
expectations of maturity and self-control.
 Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with
their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that
of a parent.

4. Uninvolved Parenting

In addition to the three major styles introduced by Baumrind,

psychologists Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin proposed a fourth
style: uninvolved or neglectful parenting. An uninvolved parenting
style is characterized by few demands, low responsiveness, and
very little communication. While these parents fulfill the child's
basic needs, they are generally detached from their child's life.

Sibling Relationship and Birth Order

1. Alfred Adler, a 19th- and early 20th-century Austrian

psychotherapist and founder of individual psychology, suspected
that birth order leads to differences in siblings.

a. He considered firstborns to be neurotic, because they

don’t have to share their parents for years and are
essentially dethroned once a sibling comes along.
b. He also considered oldest children dutiful and sometimes
conservative.
c. The youngest children are ambitious, while middle
children are optimally positioned in the family and are
characterized by emotional stability.

2. American psychologist Frank J. Sulloway, who, in the mid-1990s,

combed history books for leading figures who were firstborns and
rebellious ones who were born later, saw a similar trend. Among
the later borns, he found lateral thinkers and revolutionaries, such
as Charles Darwin, Karl Marx and Mahatma Gandhi.

a. Firstborn and single children had less reason to quarrel

with the status quo and identify more strongly with the
worldview of their fathers and mothers.

b. Younger siblings are less sure of their parents’ view and

therefore more often choose alternative paths in life.
Furthermore, some studies confirmed the idea that sibling position can
shape personality.

1. A 1968 study showed that, compared with later born, first born are
less likely to participate in dangerous sports because of fears of
physical injury.

2. A 1980 study of 170 female and 142 male undergraduates showed

lower anxiety and higher ego in firstborns, as measured by the
Howarth Personality Questionnaire.

Meanwhile scientists who analyzed large, transnational data and

compared different families with each other have found the effect of
sibling succession on personality disappears almost completely.

1. Psychologist Julia Rohrer of the University of Leipzig in Germany

evaluated data from more than 20,000 interviewees from Germany,
the U.K. and the U.S. They compared the personality profiles of
siblings but also of people with different birth orders who had never
met. The Leipzig psychologists did not discover any systematic
differences in personality.

2. Psychologist Rodica Damian and her colleague Brent W. Roberts,

both then at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
discovered that firstborns tended to be more conscientious,
extraverted and willing to lead. Contrary to expectations, they were
also more tolerant and emotionally stable than adolescents with
older siblings. Yet the differences were very small, and the
researchers concluded that the importance that is generally
attached to sibling position in shaping one’s character is
exaggerated.

3. Norwegian researchers Petter Kristensen and Tor Bjerkedal cleverly

showed that the difference in intelligence is not linked to biological
factors (some had suspected it might be related to physical
conditions during pregnancy). They tested children whose older
siblings had died early. The researchers’ assumption was that
although these children were biologically younger siblings, they
assumed the role of the firstborn in the family. Compared with other
younger siblings, they achieved better results in intelligence tests.

Peer and Play

Research also indicates that play with peers provides children with
important opportunities to discuss feelings, expand thought processes and
knowledge, and experiment with language and social roles.

Play is an essential part of child development. Studies show that free play
— and outdoor play in particular — benefits children in many ways.

a. It helps them gain strength and endurance while preventing

obesity and other health issues such as diabetes, high
cholesterol and bone and heart problems.

b. It helps relieve stress and anxiety while building self-esteem and

confidence.

c. Children learn to socialize with peers and build relationships

when playing with others and practice independence when
playing alone.

d. Peer relationships provide a unique context in which children

learn a range of critical social emotional skills, such as empathy,
cooperation, and problem-solving strategies.

Technology and Social Media

As technology use has increased over the past decade.While there are
certainly social benefits to digital device use and media consumption,
concerns arise when excessive time spent on devices detracts from time
spent engaging in and benefitting from in-person interactions and
developmentally necessary activities.

1. Pros: Positive Social Connection and Support

It can be used to bring people together, and this is certainly the case for
children and teens as well.

● Children with social anxiety disorders, who often struggle with

engaging in social interactions in person, may find that online
communities and social media platforms allow them to practice
social interaction skills and gain confidence with social
communication in a more comfortable way.
 ● Social support groups online also allow children to share their
experiences and receive encouragement and guidance that may
not be available to them in their local community.

2. Cons: Social Disconnection and Development

Increased technology use has the potential to create social disconnection

for young and older children alike, which can negatively impact the
development of social and relational skills.

● Levels of disruptive social behaviors, such as being bossy or

bullying, increased with more screen time activity.

● This can lead to a sense of isolation and loneliness, with studies

showing that teens who report the least in-person interaction and
the most screen time have the highest rates of loneliness and
depression.

● A study involving older children showed that spending one week

at summer camp without screen time led to a significant
improvement in children’s ability to read and understand non-
verbal emotional cues.

● Increased use of devices leads to reduced quality time among

family members, and increased parent-child conflicts.

TASK

Instruction: Write a critical paper on how does social media affect

emotional development.
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