Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Review on microwave nondestructive testing techniques and its

applications in concrete technology
Abdul Wahab a, Md Maniruzzaman A. Aziz a,⇑, Abdul Rahman Mohd. Sam b, Kok Yeow You c,
Abdul Qadir Bhatti d, Khairul Anuar Kassim a
a
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor, Malaysia
b
UTM Construction Research Centre, Institute for Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction (ISIIC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor,
Malaysia
c
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor, Malaysia
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Islamic University of Madinah, Saudi Arabia

h i g h l i g h t s

Various conventional and NDT tests of concrete are reviewed.

The MNDT techniques used in concrete applications are summarized.

MNDT techniques minimize processing time and preserve of energy.

The advantages of MNDT include instant measurements with monochromatic radiation.

The findings assist in the selection of suitable methods for concrete repair.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Every year, a massive amount of literature is published on many aspects of microwave applications. Over
Received 8 November 2018 the past few years, the need for progressive methods for assessing different properties of concrete, as well
Received in revised form 18 February 2019 as for maintenance and monitoring of structures, has led to the development of microwave non-
Accepted 11 March 2019
destructive testing (MNDT) techniques for preserving the civil infrastructure. MNDT has many advan-
Available online 14 March 2019
tages, including good penetrability in nonmetallic materials, instantaneous measurements, monochro-
matic radiation, low power requirements, substantial energy savings, and easy-to-interpret data.
Keywords:
Additionally, with the potential to overcome the limits of both conventional testing and non-
Microwave
Concrete
destructive testing (NDT), MNDT has received much interest.
NDT In this paper, a comprehensive review of the most common MNDT techniques for material assessment
MNDT is conducted based on a detailed literature survey. Furthermore, the basics of MNDT techniques are
Curing explored to contribute to its use in the concrete industry. The conventional tests and NDTs on concrete,
Concrete properties including the applications of different MNDT methods, are discussed. The outcomes of this review can
assist in using the MNDT methods in concrete structures, structural health monitoring, and enhancement
of microwave-based techniques. Finally, this work provides a summary of MNDT techniques used in con-
crete applications, which can lead to advancements in this field.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2. Conventional testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.1. Measurement techniques for concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.1.1. Water absorption test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.1.2. Rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M.A. Aziz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.110
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
136 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146

Nomenclature

RCPT rapid chloride ion penetration (RCPT) MW microwave/microwave energy

ASTM American Society for Testing Materials HPM high-power microwaves
ACI American Concrete Institute MWD microwave drill
LWA lightweight fly ash aggregate NDT non-destructive testing
RCA recycled concrete aggregate MNDTS microwave NDT system
CCS carbon capture and sequestration M AM microwave absorbing material
EAHE earth to air heat exchanger Ε = k’ dielectric constant (DC)
CHAMP Counter-electronics High Power Microwave Advanced e00r loss factor
Missile Project e electric permittivity
MUT material under test re electric conductivity
HSC high-strength concrete rm magnetic conductivity
SCM supplementary cementitious materials l magnetic permeability
(W/C) ratio water-to-cement ratio OPSGPC oil palm shell geopolymer lightweight concrete
SHRP Strategic Highway and Research Program UAVs unmanned aerial vehicle
CRCP continuously reinforced concrete paving FSMM free space microwave method
GHGs greenhouse gases WGM waveguide model
GPR ground penetrating radar

2.1.3. Impact strength test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

2.1.4. Compressive strength test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.2. Factors influencing the properties of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.3. Curing difficulties of concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3. Non-destructive testing (NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.1. Measurement of concrete properties by NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.1.1. Measurement of concrete properties by electromagnetic non-destructive testing (EMNDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.2. Microwave non-destructive testing (MNDT) technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4. Advantages of microwaves over conventional tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.1. MNDT measurement techniques on concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.2. Application of MNDT techniques in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.1. Conclusions and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

1. Introduction concrete [6]. Likewise, in another investigation, with minimum

contents of Portland cement and hydrated lime, an innovative
Concrete is an environmentally friendly material used for the range of lime-based low-carbon cementitious material (LCM) was
construction of the world’s vast infrastructure. As the production planned and arranged. With the recommended numerical calcula-
of concrete and cement increases, the amount of energy consumed tion of carbon emissions, the LCM is almost 13–38% of Portland
in the production process will also increase [1]. Moreover, an cement [7].
immense amount of contaminated concrete waste mass is pro- Generally, the manufacturing process of concrete involves mix-
duced from decommissioning projects [2]. Furthermore, the quan- ing several ingredients, including water, aggregate, cement, and
tity of energy applied for manufacturing cement and concrete in additives [8]. The basic shortcoming of ordinary concrete is its poor
the industrial sector ranges from 30% to 70% of the sector’s total durability. By enhancing the microstructure and composition of
energy requirements. Consequently, it is imperative that energy- cementing materials, the durability of concrete can be increased
relevant environmental emissions are decreased across the world [9]. At present, high-strength concrete mixes (HSC) are used for
[3]. The amounts of energy intake and greenhouse gas emissions construction purposes. The durability of concrete to be used for a
have increased with the enhancement in concrete production. project should be determined by the state of concrete materials,
With the CO2 capturing process, carbon capture and sequestration its impact, and its cost-effectiveness [10]. Likewise, high-
(CCS) is a very favorable technique related to the achievability of performance synthetic macro polypropylene fibers (HPP) at
the utilization of large-scale sources to decrease CO2 emissions [4]. dosages of 1, 2, and 3 kg/m3 have been considered. Furthermore,
Through the available information on environmental and other while exposed to high temperatures, 1 kg/m3 of fibers is enhanced
benefits, costs commercialization are helping as references for in HSC for upgrading the mechanical properties of concrete [11].
emerging technologies in order to reduce the concrete industry’s Originally, conventional concrete testing techniques were used;
CO2 emissions and energy use, increase energy savings, and subsequently, NDT techniques have been extensively used to date.
enhance process descriptions [5]. Similarly, the life cycle sustain- The available variety of NDT methods are mostly used by civil engi-
ability assessment (LCSA), which relates to the cost-effectiveness neering professionals [12]. Usually, NDTs are used to assess the
and social impact of CO2, has shown that CO2 discharges are grad- mechanical properties of concrete. Recently, microwave non-
ually increasing in the atmosphere due to the widespread use of destructive testing (MNDT) of concrete materials has become an
 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146 137

important practice for revealing cracks and flaws and determining 2.1. Measurement techniques for concrete
the moisture content and inhomogeneities via microwaves. MNDT
is an emerging technique with instantaneous precise electronic In general, there are several destructive measurement tech-
control and superior sensitivity. MNDT techniques are gaining pop- niques used for determining the durability and strength properties
ularity because the microwave energy (MW) that is involved can of concrete. Such tests include the rapid chloride ion penetration
be utilized for drying, evaporating the moisture content, heating test, impact tests, water absorption tests, and the compressive
and for several other applications [13]. Also, MNDT techniques strength test. Durability is the ability to prevent weathering, abra-
possess a remarkable potential for determining the properties of sion, and other degradation processes. Each of these attributes can
concrete when compared to conventional and destructive testing be identified through numerous experimental procedures [17].
techniques. Although MNDT possesses some distinctive advan- Because of their destructive nature, direct strength tests are excel-
tages, there is very limited research that has been conducted using lent for quality-control purposes during construction. However,
MNDT methods. Fig. 1 depicts a record of publications on MNDT these tests deal more with the quality of the supplied materials
from 1995 to 2018. than the constructed structures [18]. Similarly, destructive tests
Managing concrete waste during testing is a typical challenge are conducted with the help of the identification of the active dam-
encountered in the construction industry. MNDT can save a signif- age process methods of acoustic emission signal analysis for early-
icant amount of time in the testing process. Furthermore, due to age concrete [19].
the minimal amount of secondary waste produced by MNDT, the
amount of concrete used in these tests is minimal. Also, the labor 2.1.1. Water absorption test
required to perform the tests is reduced, which directly affects Over the past several years, water absorption tests have been
the cost-effectiveness of MNDT. MNDT may produce more accurate used effectively. In such a test, the amount of water absorbed by
results than other testing methods due to its precise control and hydraulic cement concrete is measured over the inflation in a sam-
in-depth penetration characteristics. Additionally, it is very effec- ple. Though the specimen is exposed to water only on a single sur-
tive in its detection of voids, cracks, inhomogeneity, and defects. face, it is assumed as a function of time. In the test method (as per
Table 1 shows the approximate total waste produced from conven- ASTM C: 642-81), water absorption, a, significantly influences the
tional tests for a batch of concrete mix in a plant [14,15]. durability of the structure. The water absorption, a, of concrete is
The available literature shows that much of the research mainly calculated (as a percentage) using the following Eq. (1):
considers conventional tests and NDT tests for evaluating the proper- msaturated  mDry
ties of concrete. Based on a detailed literature survey, there is a very a¼  100% ð1Þ
mDry
limited number of research studies conducted on MNDT methods.
Even though MNDT has very significant benefits, the lack of collabo- where mSaturated and mDry are the total weight of water content in
ration among the experts in the field, civil engineering professionals, the soil at saturation and the weight of dry soil, respectively. A
and researchers reflects that much more attention needs to be given reduction in the permeability of concrete is obtained by using var-
to MNDT techniques. Also, it is essential to bridge the gap by finding, ious packing materials in reinforced constituents to achieve a level
focusing, and relating the most standard techniques of MNDT applied of density that improves the concrete structure’s capillary voids
to concrete. As a result, the present review has been undertaken. To [20].
date, no review paper has been published on the MNDT methods
applied to concrete. Thus, the aim of this article is to contribute to 2.1.2. Rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT)
the available information about the MNDT methods applied to con- An electrical explanation for determining the capability of con-
crete and to increase its use in the concrete industry. crete that withstands the penetration of chloride ions is achieved
by the rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT). As per ASTM
C1202, the test method in a concrete specimen gives a quick indi-
2. Conventional testing
cation of the concrete’s capacity to withstand chloride ion penetra-
tion by assessing the concrete sample’s electrical conductance.
Conventional concrete comprises Portland cement, fine aggre-
Fig. 2 demonstrates the RCPT setup.
gate, and coarse aggregate as its main constituents and can be pro-
The progressive environmental impact was emphasized of the
duced with or without steel reinforcements [16]. Conventional
RCPT method has been analyzed, taking into account chloride pen-
concrete does not contain special additives that change its proper-
etration, water absorption, capillarity, and carbonation resistance
ties. Several methods are available for testing conventional con-
[21]. With some important physical quantities like chloride ions
crete. Some of these include Standard Procedure ASTM C1078,
and water carbonation depth, the durability properties of concrete
Standard ASTM C 192, and standard ASTM C 31.
mixtures are evaluated during various curing periods [22].

2.1.3. Impact strength test

Concrete structures are usually subjected to impact loads, such
as earthquakes, blasts, machine vibrations, and vehicle impacts.
Impact resistance energy is required when concrete is subjected
to an impact. Impact resistance energy can be measured by using
a drop weight hammer test as recommended by ACI committee
544.2R-89. Fig. 3 illustrates a schematic diagram for impact testing
machine components and equipment. The mechanical properties
of concrete, such as cube compressive strength, elastic modulus,
and splitting tensile strength for impact resistance, have been eval-
uated using the drop hammer test [23].

2.1.4. Compressive strength test

Fig. 1. Timeline depicting the sequence of publications on MNDT beginning from Compressive strength is one of the key characteristics of con-
1995 to 2018. Source: Web of science (www.webofknowledge.com/). crete. It is affected by several factors, such as the shape of the
138 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146

Table 1
Wastage of conventional tests for a batch of concrete mix in a plant.

Conventional tests on concrete Volume of concrete Cost of concrete Cost of testing Total cost Time duration
for single test (USD/m3) (USD) of testing for tests
(m3) (USD) (days)
Cylinder test (Dia. 150  300 mm2 0.064 Presently 116 USD for a 18 USD /sample# 216 USD 3, 7, 14, and 28.
3 samples/test age) metric ton of concrete
Cube test (150  150  150 mm3 0.041 – 7.8 USD/cube *
93.6 USD 3, 7, 14, and 28.
3 samples/test age)
Slump test 0.0053 – 10.9USD 10.9 USD Fresh state
*
[14].
#
[15].

2.2. Factors influencing the properties of concrete

Generally, concrete’s properties are influenced by its strength,

durability, fire resistance, thermal mass, and maintenance. Con-
crete strength is influenced by various parameters, such as the
water-to-cement ratio, aggregate size, type of cement, chemical
and mineral admixtures, temperature, compaction, age, relative
humidity, and curing conditions [25]. Also, the concrete’s moisture
content significantly affects many of its other properties [26]. The
ease with which fresh concrete is mixed, transported, placed, and
compacted without lowering its quality is defined as the concrete’s
workability. Workability is influenced by the type of cement used,
aggregate size and shape, and water-to-cement ratio. Workability
can be improved through the use of chemical and mineral
Fig. 2. Picture showing different components of Chloride-ion penetration test admixtures.
equipment [22]. In another investigation, equal levels of vibroacoustic vibrations
were applied to a mixer during concrete mixing, and the workabil-
ity index of a concrete mix was measured [27]. Workability
increases as water content increases and as chemical admixtures
are integrated [28]. The slump cone test is an elementary determi-
nation of the plasticity of the fresh concrete mixture to determine
its workability as per the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test stan-
dards. The Abrams cone is used to measure slumps by taking a
specimen from the fresh concrete mix. The cone is positioned with
the broad end downwards upon a uniform and absorbable surface.
Firstly, in three layers, the cone is filled with equal volumes of con-
crete using a steel rod to amalgamate the concrete. After each layer
is added, it is tamped. Then, the cone is raised attentively, and
gravity causes the restricted material to slump [29]. The properties
of the concrete and factors affecting the strength of concrete are
shown in Fig. 5.
The delicate area in the three-phase medium of concrete, which
is called the interface transition zone (ITZ) and which directly
affects the durability, strength, and stiffness of concrete was stud-
ied. The findings suggest that whenever the ITZ strength is at least
70% of the strength of the cement mortar, the concrete is consid-
ered a two-phase medium, including the phases of the cement
mortar and of the aggregate. Consequently, the ITZ is not consid-
Fig. 3. The schematic diagram shows the components and Impact testing machine
equipment. ered the weakest part of the mixture [30]. Additionally, a few
advanced methods for concrete material optimization and prepa-
ration have been indicated with favorable printable properties
[31].
aggregate, the mixture of materials, the water-to-cement ratio, and Recently, a study was conducted using mechanical tests on hot
the cement’s strength and quality. A cube or cylinder is used to concrete. These tests and a cooling process were used to examine
carry out a compressive strength test. The components and com- the behavior of very high-performance concretes (VHPCs) at ele-
pressive testing machine equipment are shown in a schematic dia- vated temperatures. The results show that cube compressive
gram (Fig. 4). The recommendations of the American Society for strength, density, concrete splitting, tensile strength, and elasticity
Testing Materials, ASTM C39/C39M are followed for the concrete modulus decrease at elevated temperatures. However, the strength
cylinder and concrete cube specimen tests. Emphasis was placed of VHPC remained higher than that of conventional concrete [32].
on investigating the strength of each structure with the application In another study, it was observed that the behavior of concrete
of flexural and compressive factors. Meanwhile, chloride penetra- composites changes by adding fibers under ambient and high tem-
tion, intrinsic permeability, and carbonation depth were used to peratures. This result adds to our knowledge of the structural per-
investigate durability properties [24]. formance of concrete reinforced with fibers and of concrete
 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146 139

Fig. 4. The schematic diagram shows the components and compressive testing machine equipment.

Fig. 5. The Schematic diagram showing different properties of concrete and factors affecting the strength of concrete.

structures exposed to elevated temperatures. Furthermore, these strength and workability properties of concrete that is reinforced
outcomes can be used in the design of concrete structures that with metalized plastic waste. The flexural strength, workability,
are at a high risk of fire loading [33]. and compressive strength showed a minor decrease at a 1% dosage
Another investigation examined the durability characteristics of metalized plastic waste fibers [35]. In an additional study, it was
and mechanical properties of concrete with lightweight concluded that the properties of a large quantity of recycled aggre-
geo-polymers. The findings show that concrete with lightweight gate (RA) mixed with sustainable supplementary cementitious
geo-polymers can be produced with the use of palm oil shells materials (SCM) can be evaluated for both hardened and fresh
and clinkers [34]. This research shows the test results of the concrete [36].
140 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146

Table 2
Comparison between Destructive & Non Destructive Tests on Concrete.

Destructive Tests Non-Destructive Tests

Destructive tests are not usually convenient to perform on site. The in situ tests are traditionally known as nondestructive tests (NDT) & are easy and quick to
perform also saves labor time and materials.
Retesting of the same material is not possible. An important feature of NDT is that they permit retesting of the same material at the same or
nearly the same location so that changes with time can be monitored.
Repeated checks are not permitted. Non-destructive tests permit repeated checks over a period of time through which its relationship
with service failure may be established precisely.
A single destructive test may measure only one properties that Several non-destructive tests, each precise to different properties of the material, may be applied
may be critical under service conditions concurrently or in sequence. In this way, it is easy to measure as several properties corresponding
with service performance as desired.

2.3. Curing difficulties of concrete tion of several non-destructive techniques for determining the
strength of concrete – such as penetration resistance, break-off,
Curing is the supply of adequate water of a preferred tempera- surface hardness, and pull-out tests – is restricted, as some of them
ture for a predetermined course of time directly after concrete has are generally destructive, inaccurate, and unreliable [48]. Table 2
been poured. Curing helps the concrete develop desirable proper- illustrates the comparison of destructive testing and NDT on
ties [37]. The concept of using carbon dioxide (CO2) for curing concrete.
was introduced in the 1970s and has not been supported until
recently. The negative effects of weathering carbonation due to
3.1. Measurement of concrete properties by NDT
the expensive production of pure CO2 have been carefully consid-
ered [38]. Concrete cube compressive strength, strain, and elastic-
There have been many investigations undertaken to measure
ity moduli are derived from outcomes during the early ages of
the properties of concrete materials. The five major factors affect-
concrete production. Simultaneously, these moduli are evaluated
ing the properties of concrete are the signal-to-noise ratio, pene-
and correlated with concretes comprising ordinary Portland
tration depth, difference in physical properties, lateral and
cement and natural aggregates [39]. Three diverse curing systems
vertical resolution, and the available information regarding the
are used: (1) uninterrupted curing with normal water, (2) curing
structure; these are the elementary principles of NDT methods
after 28 days with initial water before the exposure to an open-
[49]. In other work, few concrete composites in different curing
air environment, and (3) initial water curing for 28 days prior to
conditions have been studied to experimentally and simultane-
seawater exposure. At the same time, the researchers examined
ously measure wave reflection loss and concrete compressive
the durability and mechanical properties of the treated recycled
strength. Also, the ultrasonic wave propagation technique is useful
concrete aggregate. By incorporating the treated recycled concrete
for determining the early age strength of concrete [50].
aggregate, the outcomes show a reduction in the durability and
The mathematical and experimental values were calculated by
mechanical strength of concrete, especially when a continued cur-
pulse-echo measurements in a deteriorated concrete structure for
ing period was used. Furthermore, the active method is influenced
the undamaged layer thickness assuming that the deterioration
by the materials and construction method used [40].
depth was greater than the wavelength. To automatically control
An investigation was carried out for 28-day strength estimation,
the strength of the concrete during and after the hydration process
as it is an important strength characteristic to assess. Also, the flex-
[51], a compact and programmable ultrasound board was used to
ural and compressive strength of concrete for precast elements
enclose the essential electronics for obtaining, producing, and pro-
with atmospheric steam curing was assessed. Nevertheless, the
cessing the ultrasound signal [52]. The use of estimation proce-
28-day standby period is not favorable in several phases [41]. A
dures to determine the building materials’ moisture content is
few years ago, it was established that after 28 days of steam curing,
emphasized, as were the alterations among the techniques applied
t the strength of concrete decreases in concretes with water-to-
by researchers and professionals in the past [53]. In recent times,
cement ratios of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6. Also, the effects of curing tech-
the rebound hardness measurement technique has been applied
niques and of cement type on concrete’s flexural and compressive
by means of a Schmidt hammer to investigate the non-
strength were observed [42].
destructive inspection of land concrete structures [54]. A quiet,
low-budget embedded data logging system was applied and
designed to discover a device which can sense the strain and excess
3. Non-destructive testing (NDT)
pressure imposed on a concrete beam reinforced with fiber by
using a low-budget sensor with optical fiber and surplus perfor-
Several articles have been published during the last decade con-
mance MSP430 [55].
sidering progressive NDT methods, such as ultrasonic, impulse-
thermography, radar, and impact-echo methods, each of which is
feasible for use in masonry and concrete structures. They are also 3.1.1. Measurement of concrete properties by electromagnetic non-
used to assess normal structures. At a depth range of 5 cm to destructive testing (EMNDT)
100 cm, NDT techniques are suitable for the characterization and In a previous study, the electromagnetic properties of concrete
determination of inhomogeneity in masonry as well as in concrete were emphasized and explained both microscopically and macro-
structures [43]. Likewise, the ground penetrating radar (GPR) tool scopically via techniques such as magnetic conductivity rm, rela-
used for identifying the steel bars and for the estimation of mois- tive permittivity er, electrical conductivity re, and complex
ture in concrete is progressively applied by civil engineering pro- relative permeability lr [56]. Similarly, the effect of different levels
fessionals [44]. Also, GPR tools have been used to estimate the of moisture content on the electromagnetic properties and the fre-
strength and hydration control [45] of concrete pavements [46]. quency variation of concrete were studied [57]. In recent times, the
In another investigation, an NDT technique was proposed to cal- raw electromagnetic properties of material composites with
culate the approximate compressive strength of concrete, which is various-sized reinforcement grids of concrete, brick, wood, and
very advantageous in the construction industry [47]. The utiliza- glass have been presented. In addition, the relative data for
 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146 141

different building materials with electromagnetic penetration and Furthermore, microwave weapons will eventually be a part of elec-
attenuation have been presented [58]. tronic warfare for disabling enemy robots, vehicles, and traps.
Fig. 9 illustrates a weapon which can pump out high-powered
microwaves from a small platform [67]. From a close range, it
3.2. Microwave non-destructive testing (MNDT) technique can be fixed on warships, aircraft, and even on vehicles to distract
small UAVs, vehicular electronics, and even missiles of hostile
Today, MNDT of concrete is an essential discipline that com- forces.
prises the innovation of new methods and operational techniques To determine dielectric properties, several free-space methods
for revealing the defects, flaws, water content, and inhomogeneity were developed in the past few years [68,69]. MNDT methods
in concrete by using microwaves. In general, with a frequency are mostly applicable to dielectric materials. MNDT methods are
range between 300 MHz and 300 GHz, the microwaves belong to categorized into two types: (1) free space microwave methods
the category of electromagnetic waves. In MNDT methods, dielec- (FSMMs), which do not give accurate results and are operational
tric constants, loss factors, reflection coefficients, and transmission in the far-field region using horn lens antennas and (2) waveguide
coefficients are the measurable parameters that can be correlated methods, which are compact, provide instantaneous measure-
with suitable modeling and calibration techniques. Recent ments, and operate in the near-field region using rectangular
advances in modeling and measurement techniques have waveguides, open-ended coaxial probes and lines, cavity res-
expanded the range of applications for MNDT. Microwave heating onators, and microstrip lines [70].
has been established in a number of industrial sectors [59]. For The measurement of transmission coefficients, loss factors,
concrete materials, microwave-accelerated curing has been estab- dielectric constants, insufficiencies in early-age concrete, and the
lished as a standard and advanced curing process [60]. Moreover, curing and measurement of early-age cement-based materials
microwave curing is appropriate for the slow repair setting mate- are quite challenging responsibilities that need to be addressed
rials [61], and for earlier concrete curing, a portable microwave- [71]. The latest MNDT techniques can be used to determine the
assisted curing unit was designed through a coupled electromag- durability properties of high-strength concrete mixes.
netic microwave thermal analysis [62]. Furthermore, microwave
systems have been used as part of surveying methods of concrete
structures and as part of high-performance non-destructive moni- 4. Advantages of microwaves over conventional tests
toring systems. With the use of different heating techniques, a
microwave acts together with a material once the microwave heat- In the electromagnetic spectrum, the microwave lies between
ing has occurred. Microwave heating is very effective for heating infrared and short-wave radio wavelengths. Microwaves have good
dielectric materials. penetration ability into all materials, excluding metals. Microwave
Thus, the application of microwave heating in the manufactur- measurement methods are dynamic [72]. Additionally, MW can be
ing of cement and concrete is significant, as it contains remarkable applied in the curing of cementitious materials due to the presence
dielectric properties and is capable of absorbing MW very effi- of water [73]. As microwaves are efficient diagnostic tools, they can
ciently [63]. Also, it leads to reductions in production time and determine the structure of matter. Also, microwave material fac-
energy consumption in the production of high-performance tors are closely associated with the micro factors of the materials
cement paste [64]. Furthermore, the effect of microwave curing [74]. On a microscopic scale, the interactions between microwaves
on steel reinforcement bond strength in concrete repair has been with materials in structures are expressed in terms of waves [75].
studied [65]. Several NDT techniques have been developed, most The material under test (MUT) is not affected by the microwaves in
of which are either radio wave non-destructive systems that oper- any way [76]. Microwave parameters are the result of the internal
ate within the range of 1 kHz to 100 kHz or MNDT techniques [66]. structure of a material [77]. The estimation of concrete compres-
Fig. 6 illustrates a parallel plate electrode system (PPES), a com- sive strength through the microwave-based method is economi-
plete set of PPESs, and a close-up view of a parallel electrode plate, cally advantageous [78]. Based on numerous applications, the
while Fig. 7 illustrates a mobile dielectric probe system (MDPS) general advantages and disadvantages of microwaves are listed
with different shapes of plates and Fig. 8 illustrates the MNDT sys- [79].
tem with a vector network analyzer, computer, and printer [66].
The U.S.A. has developed microwave weapons; the Air Force 4.1. MNDT measurement techniques on concrete
Research Laboratory began work on the Counter-electronics High
Power Microwave Advanced Missile Project (CHAMP) in April Several inventions have been developed from the theoretical
2009. Actually, these weapons are basically emitters of investigation approach for the use of microwaves in concrete
high-power microwaves (HPMs) that disable electronic systems. mixes. Detailed microwave measurement techniques used to

Fig. 6. Shows different components of the Parallel Plate Electrode System (PPES) [66].
142 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146

Fig. 7. Shows different components of the mobile dielectric probe system (MDPS) with different shapes of plate [66].

Many numerical techniques have been applied to affect micro-

wave heating for different concrete mixes. Remarkable advance-
ments have been accomplished in the modern period for
microwave heating mathematical simulations. With more applica-
tions of advanced models, comprehensive explanations for the
composite permittivity, and rapid numerical methods, desirable
results can be achieved by developing more materials. Further,
such improvements will accelerate this development [82]. The
composite border among materials and microwaves will be
improved, and the basic influencing factors will be identified con-
sidering the strategy of advanced and well-regulated applicators
with the help of numerical simulations.
In the area of military and civil practices, microwave absorbing
materials (MAMs) are presently getting more consideration. Intrin-
sic electromagnetic properties, such as permeability, complex per-
mittivity, and conductivity, as well as extrinsic properties, such as
working frequencies and thickness, are typically associated with
the electromagnetic absorbing performance of any MAM [83].
Fig. 8. Shows the MNDT system (MNDTS) with vector network analyzer, computer
Presently, the microwaves are used to determine the material
& a printer [66].
characteristics of walls so that adequate thermal insulation for
existing non-insulated buildings can be introduced [84]. Recently,
results were obtained by magnetic metal detectors which are
obtainable in the market with identical configurations of rein-
forced concrete. Additionally, an investigation was carried out to
relate the performances of the probing methods established on
the performance of a microwave camera for the applied rebar con-
figuration [85]. Recent research findings with changeable material
content have been implemented by using MNDT methods on the
reflection properties of concrete. The methods used are waveguide
methods, which have a remarkable potential for measuring con-
crete component makeup by using an a priori statistical distribu-
tion of microwave reflection measurements to determine the
material content of concrete specimens [86]. Table 3 shows a sum-
mary of literature reports of the MNDT techniques applied to
determine the properties of concrete.

Fig. 9. . Shows the weapon that can pumps out high powered microwaves from
4.2. Application of MNDT techniques in concrete
small platform [67].

Presently, MNDT can be categorized as a distinctive technique

evaluate the material electromagnetic properties are discussed. with instantaneous measurement, concise and quick results, low
With the dielectric response of a material, the microwave field energy requirements, and good penetration ability (except in met-
and its capacity to heat concrete via MW can be utilized to effec- als) when compared to other NDT methods [87]. The measurement
tively merge these features. For the development of materials, of the electromagnetic properties of hardened-state concrete rang-
the basics of processing the microwave heating and the theory of ing between 0.25 and 0.70 GHz is limited [88,89]. In the last few
electromagnetics are crucial to developing microwave heating years, very few studies have measured the electromagnetic proper-
[80]. In another piece of research, the material’s electromagnetic ties of concrete with limited aggregate size (i.e., less than 10 mm)
properties and a time-domain determination technique are or of special concrete conditions, such as wet and dry conditions
assessed, and an overview of measurement techniques is carried [90]. Earlier research indicates that there is an increase in the use
out using typical material to produce composite magnetic and of concrete electromagnetic properties for the evaluation of com-
electrical properties [81]. pressive strength, water-to-cement ratio, and moisture content
 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146 143

Table 3
The Summary of literature reports of the MNDT techniques applied for determining the properties of concrete.

Year Ref. Curing of concrete using Strength of Concrete using Moisture Content of Concrete using Workability of
microwave microwave microwave Concrete
1972 [26]   U 
1995 [63] U   
1998 [9] U   
1998 [29]    U
1999 [73] U   
2005 [44]   U 
2007 [2]  U  
2007 [53]   U 
2011 [101] U   
2012 [48]  U  
2012 [18]  U  
2013 [78]  U  
2014 [13] U   
2015 [71]  U  
2016 [64] U   
2016 [61] U   
2016 [62] U   
2016 [45]  U  
2017 [31]    U
2017 [46] U   
2017 [38] U   
2017 [65] U   
2017 [60] U   

[91]. The results indicate the potential use of reflection coefficients such that the moisture content of structures could be evaluated
to determine compressive strength and water-to-cement ratio. even after the construction of a building is complete [103]. Cur-
Moreover, different reflection coefficients have been used to iden- rently, the results obtained by applying a microwave dual waveg-
tify the segregation of concrete and to predict aggregate content uide sensor with the simulation and by measurement indicated
and size [92]. that the proposed sensor is useful for exposing and assessing any
From the measured phase of transmission coefficients, a very gaps in structural composites, such as concrete members covered
simple free-space technique was first suggested for measuring by dielectric coatings and concrete-filled steel tubes [104]. A sum-
the dielectric constant [93]. The initial research was intended to mary of the waveguide methods and FSMMs for measuring dielec-
determine the complex permittivity in free space with a frequency tric properties is shown in Table 4 [105].
of 9.4 GHz by using spot-focusing antennas [94]. In recent years,
several free-space methods have been developed to investigate
5. Recommendations
dielectric properties [95,96]. An experimental study was con-
ducted by applying the wideband microwave three-dimensional
The following recommendations are developed from this
artificial aperture radar imaging technique to reinforced concrete
review:
samples that had been exposed to corrosion. The technique differ-
entiated between corroded and non-corroded steel bars [97]. In

MNDT techniques can be utilized to determine several mechan-
addition, a study determined microwave transmission and reflec-
ical properties of concrete (specifically, permeability, which is
tion properties from different sides of concrete specimens and
of great concern to researchers).
hardened mortar using various water-to-cement ratios. Measure-

The important parameters for microwave testing include its
ments were recorded after a sample was prepared using elemen-
compatibility with mixed concretes, its application time, over-
tary and comparatively low-budget microwave non-destructive
heating within the sample, and the numerical tools used to
free-space equipment at X-band 8–12 GHz for three to 36 months
observe the transfer of heat during the testing of a sample.
[98].

The overall perspective confers that MNDT techniques are envi-
Recently, the active infrared thermography technique using
ronmentally friendly and sustainable due to their NDT practice.
eddy currents and microwave excitation has been discovered to

Further research is required regarding the measures to be taken
be useful for steel bar measurements and calculations in reinforced
during the application of microwaves in terms of radiation
concrete structures [99]. In other work, water penetration depth
safety, the dangers of microwave heating, and other health
has been evaluated using the near-field microwave measurements
hazards.
method by employing an open-ended rectangular waveguide

Consequently, it is essential that the above-stated concern is
[100]. Moreover, the typical features of cement paste have been
explicated in the future through sociotechnical probing.
analyzed through a multi-mode rectangular waveguide exposed
to MW [101]. Similarly, an extensive experimental study was con-
ducted on the geometric and hydric features of several concrete 5.1. Conclusions and future trends
mixes to determine the correlating electromagnetic waveguide
dispersion factors; the results were acquired by applying the Recently, it has been found that MNDT techniques have had
two-layer waveguide method. This method was also used to very limited practical applications over the past 45 years. However,
observe the water entering the cement paste during the absorption MNDT techniques possess a remarkable potential to assess the
process [102]. properties of concrete. MNDT is relatively a new area of research,
The NDT moisture measurement of a homogeneous concrete and only a few research articles have been published in this field.
test sample employing a coaxial surface probe at approximately Hence, more research on MNDT is required. It is an emerging tech-
1.7 GHz was conducted. The goal was to develop an MNDT method nique with a short processing time, sensors with instantaneous
144 A. Wahab et al. / Construction and Building Materials 209 (2019) 135–146

Table 4
A summary of the Waveguide and FSMM methods for measuring dielectric properties [105].

FREE SPACE MICROWAVE WAVEGUIDE METHODS(Operating in near field region)

METHOD(FSMM) (Operating
in Far field region)
Open ended Probe technique Perturbation cavity Reflection and
Free space resonant Method Transmission line
technique

source
source
source

source
MUT

Vector Network Analyzer

Vector Network Analyzer

Vector Network Analyzer

Vector Network Analyzer

MUT
MUT

Probe

Cavity
MUT

Receiver
R

Receiver
Receiver

Receiver
T

Reflected

Unit
Processing
Processing Unit
Processing |unit

Processing unit

Transmitted
Used for complex permittivity Used for determination of Used for determination of Used for the
of materials moisture content and leakages complex permittivity determination of both ε r,
in concrete structures of materials μ r of the MUT

precise electronic control and contactless characteristics, fair reso- Acknowledgments

lution, superior sensitivity, and good penetration into nonmetallic
materials. This review paper has presented a comprehensive sur- This work was supported by the Ministry of Education and
vey of different MNDT techniques that have been applied to con- Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), [Vote No. 19H98 and
crete. Recently, more research activities have been undertaken 15H32]. Also, the authors would like to thank for their support.
using MNDT techniques in both cement and concrete practices to We shall remain indebted to them for their kindness.
make use of microwave heating to its full potential. The MNDT
technique is an imperative scientific breakthrough which consists References
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