J. Inst. Eng. India Ser.

C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40032-022-00808-w

ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION

Scope of Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Wheel Rims

for Formula Student Racecars: A Finite Element Analytical
approach
Sai Yashwanth Kandukuri1 • Anand Pai1 • M Manikandan1

Received: 23 August 2021 / Accepted: 9 January 2022 / Published online: 7 February 2022
 The Author(s) 2022

Abstract Wheel rims are vital components critical to the Keywords Carbon fibre-reinforced polymer 
safety of an automobile. Conventional wheel rims have Aluminium alloys  Magnesium alloys wheel rim 
utilized monolithic materials like aluminium and magne- Finite element analysis  Factor of safety
sium alloys in replacement to heavier steel rims. To reduce
the weight of the formula car, lightweight composite wheel
List of Symbols
rims with higher stiffness are explored in the current work.
x€1 Acceleration of unsprung mass (m=s2 )
Composite wheel rims are still in their nascent stage for
x€2 Acceleration of sprung mass (m=s2 )
commercial automotive applications, although they are
x_1 Velocity of unsprung mass (m=s)
commonly seen more in motorsports. The factors like
Ay Lateral acceleration (m=s2 )
complex design, high cost, and difficulty in fabrication are
Az Longitudinal acceleration (m=s2 )
some of the demerits of composite wheel rims. Formula
c1 Damping constant
Manipal racing has been building race cars for Formula
Fx Load acting normal to contact patch (N)
India events for over 13 years, on which aluminium wheel
Fy Cornering force (N)
rims were standardly fitted. In the current work, the design
Fz Longitudinal load (N)
and finite element analysis of carbon fibre wheels rims
h Height of centre of gravity above ground level (m)
were undertaken to replace the aluminium wheel rims after
k1 Spring constant for unsprung mass
a thorough consideration of other potential materials also.
l Wheel base of the car (m)
The modelling was carried out on CATIA3DX, and finite
m1 Unsprung mass (kg)
element analysis was carried out using the ANSYS
m2 Sprung mass (kg)
COMPOSITE PREP/POST (ACP) module for laminate
t Track width (m)
stackup and structural analysis tools for mechanical
W Laden weight of the car (N)
response. From the studies, the carbon fibre rims reduced
the weight significantly by 42% while improving the factor
of safety by 41% as compared to the current aluminium
wheel rims while thermally outperforming magnesium and
titanium alloys.
Introduction

The automotive industry has seen a steady evolution of

novel materials for the various aggregates and sub-systems,
to reduce the manufacturing costs and improve the fuel
economy. The conventional materials-steel and aluminium-
& Anand Pai
[email protected] have long since crossed the threshold of innovation; the
advantages they offered in terms of strength, formability,
1
Department of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering, toughness, impact resistance and resilience are challenged
Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of
by the high strength fibre-polymer composites. Carbon
Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India

123
940 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948

fibres are lightweight, have high strength and modulus, appropriate heat treatment, the mechanical properties were
withstand high temperatures and fatigue, are corrosion improved. This helped meet the operational requirements
resistant. Dispersed in a matrix of epoxy, the carbon fibre- of the various applications. Aluminium alloys being
reinforced composite (CFRP) serves as a potential lightweight (one-third the density of steel), and corrosion
replacement for conventional materials. However, carbon resistant, found use as rim materials in most automobiles.
fiber composites are expensive, the fabrication is difficult However, possessing a very high coefficient of thermal
for intricate and complex parts. Hence, their current use is expansion hindered applications of aluminium alloy wheel
restricted to the niche segment of automobiles like luxury rims at temperatures above 600  C [9]. Magnesium is a
and sports cars [1]. The common areas of application highly flammable material though it requires high activa-
include the body panels (both interior and exterior), tion energy for self-ignition. To control the flammability,
structures of the performance parts, passenger cell com- alloying of magnesium offered an excellent material for
ponents, diffusers and roofings. Recent research has shown wheel rims, commonly seen in sports cars, bikes and high-
the extension of CFRPs in dynamic components like wheel performance vehicles [10]. Magnesium alloys being 30%
rims and axle shafts, to bank on the excellent fatigue lighter than aluminium alloys are advantageous for com-
resistance of carbon fibre [2]. ponents that run at high speeds and must be light in weight,
Wheel rims serve as a platform for mounting the tyres, to reduce inertial forces [9]. Titanium alloys have very high
and they transmit the torque from the axle to the tyres tensile strength and toughness properties at average and
[3, 4]. Wheel rim experiences different types of loading extreme temperatures than aluminium or magnesium
like radial, torsional and bending. Since the wheel rims are alloys. They show excellent corrosion resistance properties,
in direct contact with the road through the tyre, they are but are heavier than other alloys mentioned affecting the
considered as an un-sprung mass. Hence, the weight of the rim mass. They deliver excellent mechanical properties;
rims plays an essential role in the dynamics of the car even at higher temperatures. The main disadvantages are
[5–8]. Reduction in weight of the wheel rim results in that titanium is an expensive material, and it is tough to
better control of its movement and allows the spring- machine titanium alloys and required specialist processes
s/dampers to facilitate appropriate tyre-road contact. This for material removal [11].
ensures improved grip and cornering at high speeds. Since Recent research has seen use of different alternate
the grip is a significant factor for formula student cars materials used for wheel rim construction (Fig. 2). Shinde
(Fig. 1) directly influencing the car’s lap times, weight et al. [13] carried out a study on the failure of Formula car
reduction by employing carbon fibre was taken up, to the wheel hubs made of AA6061-T6 with surface treatment
magnitude of around 1 kg per wheel rim, an overall comprising Anodizing to a depth of 25 lm. The authors
reduction of 4 kg for the car weighing 200 kg, 2%. found that the crack development due to the presence of
Weight also plays a role in the inertia of rotation. For a bending, torsional shear and axial stresses led to the failure
rotating body, reducing weight implies it requires less of the wheel hub. Chowdhary et al. [2] compared alloy
torque to rotate and requires less force for acceleration or steel and wrought magnesium alloy ZK60A (high strength
braking, resulting in better handling of the car. and ductility) wheel rims using finite element analysis. It
Pure aluminium being soft has limited applications in was found that the stress levels generated in the steel rim
the industry. By adding impurities, alloying and were four times that of the magnesium alloy rim. Curb

Fig. 1 Photograph of a Formula Student Car Wheel Fig. 2 Rim construction and nomenclature [12]

123
J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948 941

weight and mileage of eight vehicles from different man- Lowering the IRF will, in turn, increase the Factor of
ufacturers were compared. It was deduced that every 90 kg safety. High factor of safety from finite element analysis
of weight reduction increases the mileage by unit of one. results was necessary to account for the assumptions of
Krishna et al. [9] investigated the effect of the geometrical steady-state and static conditions during the analysis, while
features of the wheel rims-elliptical and hexagon spokes on in actual operation, transient state and dynamic conditions
the performance. Finite element analysis was performed by exist. Ressa [15] employed pneumatics to create an
considering three materials-Aluminium alloy, magnesium experimental test setup for wheel rims. By Placing three
alloy and CFRPs. Key metrics considered for the study pneumatic cylinders at suitable locations for applying the
were von Mises stress, deformation and shear stress. forces on the wheel rim-normal force, cornering force,
Among the three materials, the CFRP rim showed signifi- acceleration and deceleration forces. The author also dis-
cantly less deformation compared to the other two metallic cussed the issue faced during lay-up, mainly the draping
alloys for both types of spokes, with lower von Mises stress problems in circular and fillet areas, which could be
for the hexagonal spokes as compared to elliptical spoke
geometry. However, the authors have not considered the
effect of the remote forces at the contact patch like
cornering force, acceleration/deceleration forces, and the
clamping force due to fasteners on the wheel rim. Bhagwat
[14] investigated different designs of CFRP wheel rims for
Formula Society of Automotive Engineers (FSAE) vehicle,
arriving at the lightest design weighing 18% lesser than
aluminium wheel rims. The limitation of this work was the
low Inverse Reverse Factor (IRF) of 0.9 for the spokes,
which could be compensated at the expense of the wheel
hub, which was found to have excessive thickness.

Table 1 Properties of different materials considered for the wheel

rim [14]
Properties Aluminium Magnesium Titanium
alloy alloy RZ5 alloy 6Al–
AA7075 4V

Density (kg/m3) 2810 1840 4430

Ultimate tensile 520 226 1030
strength (MPa)
Tensile modulus (GPa) 71 44 95
Shear strength (MPa) 331 138 520
Thermal conductivity 130 61 6.7
(W/mK)
Specific heat (kJ/kgK) 2.5 1.0–1.1 0.52–0.53
Coefficient of thermal 21 27.1 9
expansion ( 106 /
K)

Table 2 Description of CFRP stackups for wheel rim parts

Stackup Part of the rim Number of CFRP Ply stackup
lamina

Bottom Well, Beads and 5 45 BD/0 BD/45 BD/

stackup wheel hub 0 UD /45 UD
Centre Beads 4 0 BD /0 BD /0 BD /
stackup 0 BD
Top Well, Beads and 5 45 BD/0 BD/45 BD/
stackup wheel hub 0 UD /45 UD
Fig. 3 RVE approach to determining the orthotropic properties of
CFRP prepregs

123
942 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948

Table 3 Properties of CFRP UD and BD prepregs (for 0 orientation with global x-axis)
Properties CFRP-UD ply CFRP-BD ply

Density (kg/m3 ) 1490 1420

Coefficient of thermal expansion, ax (106 = C) -0.47 2.2
Coefficient of thermal expansion, ay (106 = C) 30 2.2
Coefficient of thermal expansion, az (106 = C) 30 10
Modulus of elasticity, Ex (GPa) 121 61.3
Modulus of elasticity, Ey (GPa) 8.6 61.3
Modulus of elasticity, Ez (GPa) 8.6 6.9
Poisson’s ratio, mxy 0.27 0.04
Poisson’s ratio, myz 0.4 0.3
Poisson’s ratio, mzx 0.27 0.3
Shear modulus, Gxy (GPa) 4.7 3.3
Shear modulus, Gyz (GPa) 3.1 2.7
Shear modulus, Gzx (GPa) 4.7 2.7

Fig. 4 Finite element model of wheel rim with boundary conditions.

a Thermal analysis, b transient structural analysis

minimized by creating slits and overlapping. Also, the

mould release issues were discussed. Salunkhe et al. [16]
compared wheel rims made of aluminium and magnesium
alloys (ZA21). For ZA21, the equivalent stress was 20.7
MPa, and the maximum deformation was 0.054 mm, which
was better than that of the aluminium wheel rims. The
Fig. 5 Steps in the structural analysis of wheel rims
magnesium alloy wheel rims could be alloyed with zinc to
improve the strength, fatigue life (endurance limit), relia- coated tools) near the flange and the bead seat area for
bility, and overall weight and cost. Walther et al. [17] perfect seating of the tyre in the rim groove and preventing
introduced a testing technique to measure temperature on air leakage. Chapman et al. [12] opine that a car’s tyre must
CFRP wheel rim surfaces, using temperature indicating constantly contact the ground and exert a significant
strips near critical areas like the brake disc area. The CFRP amount of (normal) force to remain controllable. Accord-
wheel rim was finished by machining (milling by diamond- ingly, the car’s suspension system must follow the road and

123
J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948 943

Table 4 Specifications of the race car wheel rim all its imperfections. The undamped natural frequency of
Parameter Dimensions (mm)
the suspension response time could be used to describe it.
k1 x1 m2 x€2 2c1 x_1
Rim diameter 280 x€1 ¼ ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
m1 m1 m1
Offset distance 24.25
lug bolt hole diameter 12 For a two-degree of freedom system with spring and
Wheel hub diameter 135 mass, Eq. 1 shows that a decrease in m1 results in an
increase in the acceleration and thus a better response for
the car. It is possible to boost the sprung mass to raise the
mass ratio but Newton’s second law predicts a decrease in
Table 5 Boundary conditions for the wheel rim FEA the car’s acceleration and increase in the racing situation
Type of load Value car’s lap times. The best approach was to reduce the
vehicle’s unsprung mass by employing lighter materials for
Fx (N) 2500 the parts of the car.
Fy (N) 1500
Fz (N) 2000
Air pressure (kPa) 140 Materials and Methods
Clamping force (N) 25,000
Surface temperature ( C) 550 Materials for the Wheel Rims

The monolithic and isotropic materials considered for the

wheel rims are Aluminium alloy AA7075, Magnesium
Table 6 FE mesh details of CFRP wheel rim alloy RZ5 and Titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V. Carbon fibre-
Element type Element quality Aspect ratio Skewness reinforced epoxy was the target material (orthotropic)
taken up as a lightweight and viable replacement for the
Automatic 0.858 1.273 0.143 conventional materials. The mechanical properties of the
Multizone 0.775 1.474 0.213 monolithic materials are shown in Table 1. The CFRP
All triangles 0.885 1.269 0.118 prepregs considered in the study contain 55% carbon fibre
by volume in epoxy matrix. Two types of CFRP prepregs-
carbon fibre epoxy UD (uni-directional) and carbon fibre
epoxy BD (bi-directional woven)-were used for building
Table 7 FE mesh details of Al, Mg and Ti alloy wheel rims
the stackups, layup details are given in Table 2, and the
Element type Element quality Aspect ratio Skewness selection of the CFRP plies was based on recent wheel rim
ply stackups in [14, 17]. Since CFRP prepregs display
Automatic 0.803 1.95 0.276
orthotropic behaviour [18], the material properties for the
Multizone 0.807 2.571 0.277
UD and BD prepregs have been evaluated by the Repre-
All triangles 0.808 1.963 0.279
sentative Volume Element (RVE) approach, and using
Material Designer Tool of ANSYS R20.0, the process is
shown in Fig. 3. The thermo-mechanical properties of the
CFRP prepregs are given in Table 3. These properties were
considered in the ACP module (shown in Fig. 3) for the
different plies in the stackups pertaining to the corre-
sponding parts of the CFRP wheel rim.

Modelling and Design of Wheel Rims

The wheel rim design needed vital inputs related to the

magnitude and types of loads exerted on the wheel rim due
to the tyres, during regular operation of the formula car.
The rim construction and its parts are shown in Fig. 4. The
modelling was carried out using the CATIA 3DX soft-
ware. The loads and boundary conditions recorded on the
standard aluminium rims on the formula car were utilized
Fig. 6 Grid independency check for wheel rim model

123
944 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948

Fig. 7 von Mises Stress for different wheel rim materials. a Aluminium, b magnesium, c titanium, d CFRP

for the FEA of the CFRP rims as shown in Fig. 5. The magnesium and titanium, the material properties were
model of the CFRP wheel rim was kept similar to the directly allocated in the structural modules to the 3D wheel
aluminium rims in terms of the specifications given in rim geometry. But, the CFRP material stackup was
Table 4. For the finite element analysis, the following developed on the ACP module of ANSYS R20.0 work-
assumptions were made- bench and exported as shell data into the geometry which
required a planar mesh. The thermal response of the wheel
• The monolithic materials-Al, Mg and Ti-were consid-
rims is vital to check whether any overheating is occurring
ered to be isotropic and homogeneous, while for CFRP,
due to close proximity with the brake disc. In composite
orthotropic material properties were considered.
wheel rims, the polymer matrix glass transition temperature
• For the alloy wheel construction, at the connection
limits the maximum allowable temperature for the wheel
interface, bonded condition was allocated as there is no
rims. To obtain the operating temperatures on the wheel
relative motion between the two parts.
rims, temperature sensors were fitted on the current alu-
• The time step for the transient analysis was computed
minium wheel rims, and the maximum temperatures were
based on the top speed of the car.
noted and used for the FEA. It was found that the loads
• For the thermal analysis, convection was considered for
acting at the contact patch of the wheel were the most
the wheel rim with quiescent air, and air velocity was
critical to the performance of the wheel rims. The dynamic
taken as zero.
loads experienced by the wheel rims are complex owing to
• During the FE analysis, the orientation of the wheel
the split-second transfer of loads from the tyre-road contact
centre was considered in upright position.
patch to the wheel rims. Three main loads were found to
Two significant parts of the wheel rim are the front and act near the contact patch in three mutually orthogonal
rear components. Rim contained a foam core material with directions [19],
aluminium dowels mounted near the wheel hub area. The
• Normal load (Fx ), the load is acting normal to the
aluminium tubes were placed near the mounting points to
contact patch generated directly due to the car’s weight
improve the stiffness and withstand tightening torque
Eq.2
caused by the bolts. For monolithic materials- aluminium,

123
J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948 945

Fig. 8 Deformation (in mm) for different wheel rim materials. a aluminium, b magnesium, c titanium, d CFRP

• Lateral load (Fy ), the load acting to the side of the [21]. Hence, this surface was constrained. Table 5 shows
contact patch due to the cornering of the car Eq.3 the boundary conditions for the wheel rims. The finite
• Longitudinal load (Fz ), the load acting to the front of element analysis was carried out using the Transient
the contact patch (into the plane) due to acceleration or Structural Tool and Thermal Stress Tools of ANSYS
braking Eq. 4 R20.0. The key parameters considered for the FE analysis
are IRF/safety factor, Total deformation, Von Mises stress
and temperature. The flowchart for the finite element
W
Fx ¼ ð2Þ analysis is shown in Fig. 5.
4 The mesh details for the CFRP wheel rim model are
Ay h provided in Table 6 while that for the metallic alloys- Al,
Fy ¼ ð3Þ
t Mg and Ti are given in Table 7.
Az hW
Fz ¼ ð4Þ
l Grid Independency Study
Apart from the contact patch loads, the air pressure acting
Mesh sensitivity analysis was performed by considering
on the inner wall of the wheel rims also has to be con-
‘‘Maximum von Mises stress’’ from the transient structural
sidered. For the standard FM20 wheels, the inflation
analysis as a parameter. The mappable faces of the wheel
pressure of the tyre is 14–20 psi (97–135 kPa) which was
rim were chosen for face meshing using quad elements.
applied on the inner wall of the wheel rim. Wheels are
Asymmetric, non-circular or cylindrical faces with some
bolted to the upright with pre-defined tightening torque.
pockets were meshed with tetrahedral elements. The initial
The clamping force was assigned as another boundary
mesh size selected was 5 mm, and the size was reduced in
condition, applied on either side of the wheel hub with the
the decrements of 0.25 mm. Stress values for different
same magnitude but opposite direction to create a clamping
mesh sizes were plotted as shown in Fig. 6. The stress
effect [20]. The rear surface of the wheel hub is in contact
values remained constant at a mesh size of 1.5 mm which
with the wheel centre and is not displaced in any direction

123
946 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948

Fig. 9 Temperature contour for different wheel rim material. a aluminium, b magnesium, c titanium, d CFRP

Table 8 Comparison of FEA results of different wheel rim materials

Metric Aluminium Magnesium Titanium CFRP

Maximum von Mises stress (MPa) 228.9 229.7 230.1 121.0

Maximum deformation (mm) 1.336 2.120 0.837 1.546
Factor of safety 2.079 0.570 3.824 2.981
Surface temperature ( C) 223.6 264.5 383.8 179.6
Mass (kg) 2.21 1.42 3.69 1.28

Fig. 10 von Mises stress distribution for CFRP rim at a Core b Dowel

123
J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948 947

was selected as the common mesh size for all the four temperature of 179.6  C was observed which was less than
materials for the wheel rim considered in the study. the Glass transition temperature of the epoxy binder [18].
Table 8 compares the FE results for all the rim materials.
CFRP wheel rims show the second best safety factor next
Results and Discussion to titanium, lowest maximum temperature and maximum
von Mises stress, second highest maximum deformation.
The four materials considered for the wheel rim were
Figure 10 shows the stress distribution for the CFRP
evaluated based on the key metrics-Maximum deformation,
wheel rims at the core and the dowels. Foam near the front
von Mises stress, safety factor and maximum temperature.
and rear parts showed higher stress values owing to the
As shown in Fig. 7, for aluminium, the maximum stress of
rotational twist of the rim. The stresses could be reduced by
228.9 MPa was observed near one of the mounting points,
increasing the stiffness of centre wall edge. The maximum
owing to the existence of a sharp edge contributing to the
value of the stress was 0.82 MPa which was well within the
stress concentration. The stresses induced are lower than
yield strength of the core material. The maximum stress of
the yield strength of aluminium, while magnesium and
99.6 MPa was observed on Aluminium tubes placed near
titanium displayed marginally higher maximum von Mises
mounting points (Fig. 9a). The inclusion of these tubes
stress values compared to that of aluminium. But, in the
majorly affected the overall results by reducing the stress
case of the CFRP wheel rim, the maximum stress value was
levels produced due to clamping force by adding only 0.04
121.0 MPa which was lowest among the four materials,
kg of extra mass to the Rim.
and also within the strength limits of the composite.
The resultant force due to the contact patch (comprising
Normal, Lateral and Longitudinal)led to a slight twist in Conclusions
the Rim with respect to the wheel hub. The ’Well’ area was
deforming under load with respect to the vertical surface, The finite element analytical results showed that using
resulting in higher stress values near the edge. Maximum carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) in stackup con-
deformation for aluminium wheel rim of 1.335 mm (Fig. 8) figuration for wheel rims offered the following advantages:
was observed at the bottom portion, coinciding with the
• Maximum von Mises stress in the CFRP wheel rim was
point of action of the remote force. For magnesium wheel
lower by 47% as compared to metallic wheel rims
rim, the maximum deformation was 2.120 mm higher than
• The factor of safety increased to 2.981 for CFRP wheel
aluminium, while titanium wheel rims showed a defor-
rims with an increase of 43.4% with respect to
mation of 0.837 mm which was the lowest among the all
aluminium wheel rims
the rim materials. For CFRP wheel rims, the second highest
• The maximum deformation for CFRP wheel rims was
maximum deformation of 1.546 mm was noticed. At the
higher than that of aluminium wheel rims which could
edges, the carbon fibre did not reinforce the Well and
be attributed to the high stiffness and low peak stress
vertical portion edge. To make up for the foam material
observed for CFRP wheel rims.
used to fill the edges caused by the carbon fibre draping,
• The overall wheel rim mass for CFRP was the lowest
additional layers were applied on the ’Well’ area, joining
compared to its metallic counterparts which would
both the parts to take up tensile loads caused due to
mean lower vehicle mass and in turn better handling
bending, but a significant reduction was not observed due
characteristics of the Formula student car.
to the twist produced in the Rim. Additional layers were
added in the rim ’Bead’, resulting in a slight reduction in While the metallic wheel rims could be machined conve-
the deformation. niently using the traditional machining, in the case of
A maximum temperature of 223.6 C was observed at CFRP wheel rims, non-conventional machining techniques
the centre section of the aluminium rim as shown in Fig. 9. like abrasive water jet machining and electrical discharge
Brakes assembly mounting was located at the rear of the machining are required for producing the desired geomet-
Rim, one side of the assembly being the wheel centre rical features with the necessary tolerances since conven-
entirely enclosed by the rim, and the other side, the sus- tional machining give rise to issues related to polymer
pension assembly was tightly packed allowing minimum composites like delamination, debonding, fibre pull-out
air to circulate. Slots provided in the vertical portion allow and charring of matrix due to high temperatures at the heat
air to circulate and keep the brake disc and caliper in affected zones.
contact with the moving air, allowing convective heat
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Department
transfer. For magnesium wheel rim, the maximum tem-
of Aeronautical and Automobile Engineering, Manipal Institute of
perature was 264.5  C, while that for the Ti wheel rim was Technology for permitting access to the Computational facility to
383.8  C. For CFRP wheel rims, the least value of the peak carry out the modelling and finite element analysis for this work.

123
948 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (August 2022) 103(4):939–948

Funding Open access funding provided by Manipal Academy of dimension, inflation pressure, and wheel load. Proc. Inst. Mech.
Higher Education, Manipal. The authors declare that no funding was Eng. Part D J. Autom. Eng. 233(14), 1–7 (2019)
received for this work. 7. M.P. Saurabh, J.D. Sameer, Modelling and analysis of a motor-
cycle wheel rim. Int. J. Mech. Eng. Robot. Res. 2(3), 148–156
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no known (2013)
competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have 8. D.C. Rohan, Design and analysis of a composite wheel rim.
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. J. Mat. Sci. Mech. Eng. 2(6), 50–56 (2015)
9. C. Shekhar, L. Rao, R. Krishna, Design and structural analysis of
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons car alloy wheel using with various materials. Int. J. Adv. Sci. Res.
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, Eng. Trends 5(7), 114–120 (2020)
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as 10. X. Jiang, X. Hu, H. Liu, D. Ju, Y. Fukushima et al., Study on
long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the casting design and analysis of magnesium alloy wheel. Mul-
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate tidiscip. Model. Mater. Struct. 882–894 (2021)
if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this 11. V. Karthi, N. Ramanan, J.J.M. Hillary, Design and analysis of
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless alloy wheel rim. Int. J. Innov. Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 3(2), 71–77
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not (2014)
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended 12. M.K. Chapman, Development of a composite wheel rim for an
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted FSAE car. UNSW Canberra DFA J. Undergrad. Eng. Res. 4(1),
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright 1–6 (2011)
holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons. 13. T. Shinde, R. Chavan, P. Savadekar, D. Shinde, N. Jagtap, Failure
org/licenses/by/4.0/. analysis of a wheel hub of formula student racing car. J. Inst. Eng.
(India) Ser. D 102(1), 73–78 (2021)
14. P.G.G. Bhagwat, et al., Design and Analysis of A 10’’ Carbon
References Fiber Wheel for a Formula SAE Racecar. PhD Thesis (2017)
15. A. Ressa, Development of a carbon fiber wheel rim. PhD Thesis,
1. T. Korkut, E. Armakan, O. Ozaydin et al. Design and compara- (2013)
tive strength analysis of wheel rims of a lightweight electric 16. K.R. Salunkhe, S.S. Pimpale, Design, FEM analysis and of alloy
vehicle using al6063 t6 and al5083 aluminium alloys. J. Achiev. wheel rim of a four wheeler. Int. Adv. Res. J. Sci. Eng. Technol.
Mater. Manuf. Eng. 99(2), 57–63 (2020) 4(9), 229–235 (2017)
2. S. Choudhary, M. Saifudheen et al., Design and analysis of wheel 17. H.W. Walther, Development of a Lightweight Laminated Com-
rim with magnesium alloys (zk60a) by using solidworks and posite Wheel for Formula SAE Race Vehicles. PhD Thesis,
finite element method. Int. Res. J. Autom. Technol. 1(3), 1–16 University of Kansas (2016)
(2018) 18. F. Abed, Z. Mehaini, C. Oucif, A. Abdul-Latif, R. Baleh, Quasi-
3. A. Doria, L. Taraborrelli, Out-of-plane vibrations and relaxation static and dynamic response of GFRP and BFRP bars under
length of the tyres for single-track vehicles. Proc. Inst. Mech. compression. Compos. Part C 2, 1–10 (2020)
Eng. Part D J. Autom. Eng. 230(5), 609–622 (2016) 19. W.F. Milliken, D.L. Milliken et al., Race Car Vehicle Dynamics,
4. V. Tsinias, G. Mavros, Efficient experimental identification of vol. 400 (Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, 1995)
three-dimensional tyre structural properties. Proc. Inst. Mech. 20. D. Crolla, Encyclopedia of Automotive Engineering (Wiley, New
Eng. Part D J. Autom. Eng. 233(1), 1–19 (2019) York, 2015)
5. C. Vilar, A. Jesús, F. Antonios, Computational modelling of a 21. T.K. Garrett, K. Newton, W. Steeds, Motor Vehicle (Butterworth-
solid and deformed automotive rotating wheel in contact with the Heinemann, Oxford, 2000)
ground. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Autom. Eng. 233(1),
1–12 (2019)
6. A. Strigel, U. Peckelsen, H. Unrau, F. Gauterin, Estimation of Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
feasible ranges of functional tire characteristics based on tire jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

123