Unit 2 Tutorials: Drafting an Essay

INSIDE UNIT 2

Steps and Strategies in the Writing Process

Brainstorming
Prewriting
Outlining and Drafting
Revising, Copyediting, and Proofreading

Essay Construction

Defining Your Essay Topic

Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation
Developing Your Thesis Statement
Introductions
Body Paragraphs and Topic Sentences
Conclusions

Comparison/Contrast and Informative Writing

Characteristics of Comparison/Contrast Essays

Writing Effective Comparison/Contrast Essays
Model Comparison/Contrast Essays
Types and Characteristics of Informative Writing
Ethics and Analysis of Informative Writing
Model Informative Essays

Brainstorming
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

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 In this lesson, you will learn about brainstorming strategies and how they enable writers to begin
writing projects. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Brainstorming in the Writing Process
2. Brainstorming Strategies
2a. Clustering/Mapping
2b. Listing
2c. Freewriting
2d. Five Ws
2e. Directed Writing
3. Choosing a Topic

1. Brainstorming in the Writing Process

As part of the first step in the writing process, brainstorming involves the use of a number of techniques to
generate ideas and clarify thinking.

Writers use these techniques to discover and focus their thoughts about a given subject. In other words,
brainstorming enables writers to discover what they know or believe about a topic. Brainstorming also helps
them to generate ideas.

Once writers discover what they know or believe about a topic, they can use a brainstorming technique to
search through that knowledge for related ideas, and to set boundaries for their topic.

EXAMPLE Brainstorming can help writers who have been assigned to write a three-page essay about a
specific topic to determine not only what they can write about, but also what they cannot.

 TERM TO KNOW

Brainstorming
The use of a variety of techniques to generate ideas and/or clarify thinking.

2. Brainstorming Strategies
Now that you know what brainstorming is good for, how do you do it? There are a number of different
brainstorming techniques, but all of them share a similar purpose.

Though it's unlikely that any writer would use all of these techniques at the beginning of every writing project,
consider how each of the following methods might help you with a writing project. It's possible that your

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 brainstorming needs will be different each time you begin the writing process.

2a. Clustering/Mapping
Clustering, or mapping, is a way to generate ideas using words and shapes, and lines that show the connections
between them. To use this technique, begin by thinking about your subject.

EXAMPLE Suppose that your subject is "pie." To create a map (or cluster) of pie, write "pie" and then
surround it with all of the other words that you can associate with it.
Clustering is a visualization of how a writer can progress from a broad subject to specific examples and can
even discover a different translation of the central term—one that is unrelated to any other term in the cluster.

2b. Listing
Lists are also useful for generating thoughts related to a topic, question, or problem. As shown below, lists can
present thoughts in a more structured way than clustering.

Things about pie:

Dessert—others include ice cream, cake, etc.

Mostly have it at parties—e.g., Thanksgiving, other holidays
3.14
Many different types—cherry, apple, pumpkin (Thanksgiving)

Unlike a cluster, which can take any form, lists tend towards hierarchical arrangement, as the first ideas are
placed higher.

2c. Freewriting
Freewriting, which is also referred to as stream-of-consciousness writing or free association, is perhaps the
simplest brainstorming technique, but it can produce great results.

To freewrite, just start writing. Write anything and everything that comes to mind as quickly as you can. Keep
writing until you can't think of anything else (or your hand hurts from holding a pencil, or your keyboard is
steaming). Don't slow down (or stop) to correct grammar or even to "make sense."

Freewriting gives you something to work on. It's much easier to work on something than on nothing (e.g., a
blank page that remains blank while the writer struggles to come up with something that makes sense and is
grammatically correct).

Freewriting might look something like this:

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 I like pie but I don't know how to write about pie because when I think about pie I don't think about writing I
think most about my grandmother and Thanksgiving. She made a great pumpkin pie. There are so many
kinds of pie, like cherry and apple and I don't want to list them all, but the number 3.14 also means pi in
math....

Note that this example contains most of the information in the list example above. However, it's presented
differently because it was created differently.

2d. Five Ws
The five Ws are:

Who
What
Where
When
Why

To use the five Ws technique, ask these questions about your topic, or in response to a question or problem
you've been asked to write about.
Here's an example of results produced by the five Ws technique:

Who: For me and my grandmother, who used to make pies.

What: A kind of dessert that comes in different kinds, like cherry, apple, and my grandmother's
pumpkin.

When: It's been ages.

Where: Anywhere I want.

Why: Because pie is a cultural thing, but we don't think of it that way, for some reason.

Most of the writer's responses in this example did not produce useful information (in part as a result of the silly
topic). In response to the last W, however, the writer made an insightful statement: an answer to a question (why)
that may not have been asked without using the five Ws brainstorming technique.

2e. Directed Writing

Directed writing is writing in response to an assignment. Writing assignments often include not only a topic, but
also related questions (or prompts) that are designed to encourage the open-minded thinking involved in
brainstorming.

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 Here's a response to an assignment to write about what pie means to you:

It's not a topic I might have chosen myself, but to answer your question, yes, I think that pie has a cultural
significance for me. Much of my family moved out of state, but when I was a child, we would all get together
at my grandmother's house for holidays like Thanksgiving, and there would always be one or even two
pies, so for me, now, when I think of pie, I think of being a child back there.

Note that this response sounds a bit like an essay. There may be a thesis statement in it, or an interesting
narrative that might help the writer to come up with a thesis statement.

Any of the brainstorming techniques described here can help you to begin the writing process. It's up to you to
find which of them works best in a particular situation. The "best" technique is the one that enables you to find
ideas, generate content, and beat "writer's block" before it starts.

3. Choosing a Topic
Brainstorming is particularly helpful when you need to find a topic to write about. Writing assignments often
include a broad subject, but not a specific topic. In academic writing, a topic is the focus of an essay or other
written work; it's what the essay is about.

Any of the preceding brainstorming techniques can help writers to identify topics.

EXAMPLE If you were assigned to write an essay about pie, you might use clustering or mapping to
decide what you want to write about pie.
Take another look at the brainstorming examples above. Connections have been drawn between "types" and
"desserts" and "party." Those connections might be interesting, but the connections between the party and the
subtopics of "Thanksgiving" and "grandma," and the notion of dessert, might be the most productive. Beginning
with no more than "pie," the writer was led to think about her grandmother.

Perhaps, then, this writer is most interested in the way that food (in this case, pie) can trigger memories.

EXAMPLE This brainstorming process could turn into an essay about how the writer remembers details
about a grandmother (who may have died years ago) because of the sight, smell, or taste of a dessert she
made only once or twice a year. The relationship between food and memory can certainly be a topic worth
writing about.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned how to begin the writing process by brainstorming. There are five main
brainstorming techniques that you can try: clustering/mapping, listing, freewriting, the five Ws, and
directed writing. The technique that will work best for you may vary depending on the specific writing
task at hand. When choosing a topic, brainstorming enables you to organize your thoughts, and to

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 bring to the surface anything that you might already know about that topic.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Brainstorming
The use of a variety of techniques to generate ideas and/or clarify thinking.

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 Prewriting
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about prewriting and the way it is used for organizing thoughts, narrowing
the focus of a writing project, and outlining or planning the essay. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Prewriting in the Writing Process
2. Narrowing Focus
3. Outlining Methods
3a. Traditional
3b. Less Defined
3c. Storyboarding

1. Prewriting in the Writing Process

There's a lot that has to happen before experienced writers actually begin the drafting process, and much of
that work falls into the category of prewriting.

Prewriting is the planning and organizing that a writer does before actively beginning to write. It features
several distinct phases or purposes, each of which will have to be tailored to a particular writing project.

Prewriting includes:

Planning, conducting, and organizing the research that needs to be done before any real writing can begin.
Narrowing down the writing project's focus and making sure it's one that can be fully explained given the
time and space constraints on the writer or the writing project.
Outlining the project, or making a plan for what to write.

It's important to do this kind of prewriting because the organizing and clarifying of thoughts and plans that it
provides gives writers greater control over their projects and usually saves them time in the long run.

 TERM TO KNOW

Prewriting
A stage in the writing process in which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan for the writing
project prior to composing a first draft.

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 2. Narrowing Focus
One of the most important benefits a writer can get from prewriting is a narrow, manageable focus. It's
important for the goals of a writing project to be realistic.

The most common way writers get into trouble with writing projects is that they bite off more than they can chew
given the limitations put on their time and the number of allowed pages or words involved.

Keeping a focus narrow makes it possible to fully explain the ideas and fully answer the questions that drive an
essay. There's nothing worse than a writing project that can't take into account the relevant details involved in its
claim, or one that can't support the broad argument it's trying to make.

When planning an essay during the prewriting step of the writing process, a writer should consider her
audience and purpose, then ask whether the focus of the argument is tight enough that she will be able to do it
justice in the time and space allowed.

This will help the writer narrow in on a working thesis—one that can be used as the basis of the outline and,
eventually, of the essay itself.

 BIG IDEA

A main reason why writers bother with these early stages of the writing process is to help narrow their focus
and keep that focus during the rest of the writing process.

3. Outlining Methods
Once you've got your focus narrow enough to be manageable, the next thing to do is create an outline for your
essay. Outlines vary depending on the writer and the writing project at hand.

Generally speaking, outlines are the prewritten plans for an essay or other piece of writing and generally
include a working thesis and the primary ideas to be discussed, as well as some form of structural plan or
organization. Metaphorically speaking, an outline is the blueprint, not the house!

Outlining makes for a stronger piece of writing, as well as a faster, more focused writing process. There are
multiple kinds of outlines, just as there are multiple ways of making them. In this lesson, we will cover three
different forms that an outline can take.

As you will see, each of these three methods of outlining would contain more or less the same information and
be equally useful in writing the essay. Here, as in many other aspects of the writing process, it all comes down
to personal preference or assignment requirements.

 TERM TO KNOW

Outline

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 The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the
primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

3a. Traditional
The first type is a traditional outline, which is highly detailed and includes headings and subheadings.

IN CONTEXT

Suppose you are writing an argument about health insurance, and your thesis is that universal health
care is better than trusting for-profit companies to make the right decisions about their patients. You
might make an outline that plans out the three main headings you'd need to cover:

1. Problems with existing care. You may include, for example, people who have been denied
coverage because their needs are too expensive. Or, you may discuss how companies target
mostly the young, healthy people on whom they'll make the most money.
2. Ways that a nonprofit system might help America. You'd likely use information about other
countries, like France or Canada, that already use universal health care, and how much better their
health care system seems to be for the people who actually need it.
3. Reasons that the system hasn't caught on in America. This heading could encompass business
opposition and a general fear of government control over something as important and vital as
health care.

3b. Less Defined

Another form of outline, one a little less rigid and detail oriented, might work in certain circumstances.

IN CONTEXT

You might simply write out your thesis, stating that universal health care should be implemented in
America, then quickly note down any reasons and presumed evidence.

Again, this may include the problems you see with for-profit companies working in the industry, how
much better other countries seem to be at taking care of themselves, and the reasons why Americans
don't seem predisposed toward universal health care.

3c. Storyboarding
A third, perhaps less common, form of outlining is called storyboarding. This involves drawing a series of panels
or squares with notes and images detailing a writing plan.

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 IN CONTEXT

For the working thesis on universal health care, you could break up your outline into three pieces or
panels:

1. Problems with the current health care system

2. Possible alternatives to the current system
3. Reasons why universal health care hasn't been adopted

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about prewriting in the writing process, a stage that helps with narrowing a
focus down to something manageable within the constraints of the writing project's rhetorical situation.
Prewriting also involves outlining, or creating a plan for later drafts. Three possible outlining methods
are traditional outlines, less defined outlines, and storyboarding.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the
primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Prewriting
A stage in the writing process in which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan for the writing
project prior to composing a first draft.

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 Outlining and Drafting
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to use an outline to move into the drafting stage of the writing process
with control and intent. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Outlines and Drafts in the Writing Process
2. Using an Outline
3. Preventing Plagiarism

1. Outlines and Drafts in the Writing Process

As you may know, a draft is an individual iteration of an essay or other piece of writing. One thing that
experienced writers assume about their writing process is that multiple drafts are a fact of life, at least if they
want to get anywhere close to meeting their potential.

Thus, writers tend to view an outline as the beginning of a longer and more productive process, as well as a
transition into the drafting stage.

 HINT

Think of the outline as a map telling you where to go next. If you have a map, it's harder to get lost, and it's
less likely that you'll be delayed by an obstacle like writer's block.
However, it's important not to think of your outline as set in stone. It's not a contract, but more like a mental
guide. As with everything else in the writing process, you're in charge of the outline. If you ever feel the need to
add, to cut, or to rearrange something in your outline, do it.

Remember that your outline, as well as later drafts of the essay itself, should always be driven by the working
thesis, which itself can be changed throughout the writing process.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the
primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Drafting

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 The act of composing a piece of writing.

2. Using an Outline
Now that we're a little clearer about what an outline is, let's look at how using one can help you proceed through
the writing process, through drafting and revision.

IN CONTEXT

Suppose you are working on an essay about fake plants. For the purpose of this hypothetical essay,
let's say your argument is going to be that fake plants are worse than no plants because all they do is
remind people that the living room, the store, or the restaurant that they're in doesn't have any plants
in it. A bare bones outline of this essay might look something like this:

1. Fake plants worse than no plants

a. Remind us what's missing (diner example with dust)
b. Token gestures that discourage real effort (indoor plants at restaurant)
2. Types of situations with fake plants
a. Stores, restaurants, public buildings, living rooms?
b. Include fake tree cell towers, or no?
3. Conclusion: Make real gestures in life, not simulacra
a. Appeal to notice fake plants, to not use them, or to at least use them knowing what's really
going on

What do you notice? Besides the fact that it's necessarily brief and doesn't use complete sentences, it looks like
a fairly thorough set of notes, right? It's a map for where you want to go with the essay, including the three main
points you want to make. It begins with the thesis about how fake plants are worse than no plants, followed by
some examples to make the topic real for your readers.

Next is an exploration into the most common situations in which people encounter fake plants, and all the
associations therein. There is also a note in this section, asking whether or not to include a discussion about
fake tree cellphone towers.

 HINT

Not all writers do this, but sometimes when writing an outline, it's helpful to include material like this—
subjects or side arguments that you're not completely sure are necessary for your argument, but that you
don't want to forget. As you're writing, you may find a good way to include this piece of information, or you
may not. Remember that this is your outline, not something you absolutely have to follow. Therefore, it's fine
to include options like this.

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 Finally, the last planned section includes a call to action for people to live a life of real gestures—to have plants
or to not have plants, but to do either consciously.

The chances are very good that as you actually begin to write your first draft, you'll find that, for instance, you
need to do much more work in the first section in order to convince your intended audience that fake plants are
really that bad, and that they're worth writing and reading about. Therefore, one thing you might end up doing is
borrowing some of the material you'd intended to use at the end in order to front-load your argument about
why this matters—the whole part about living a life of real gestures, and how that is implicitly a much bigger
argument that stretches far beyond the realm of plastic indoor plants.

This is absolutely fine. Just because you write an outline one way doesn't mean it is set in stone. After all, part of
the reason you take a map on a journey is so you'll have multiple options when it comes to reaching your
destination!

3. Preventing Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a subject that you're likely familiar with, at least vaguely. In an academic context, plagiarism
involves presenting someone else's ideas or writing as your own, whether intentionally or unintentionally.

Regardless of the intention, this behavior is considered unethical, and sometimes even illegal. Intentional or
deliberate, plagiarism generally incurs some punitive reaction from a teacher or educational institution.
Unintentional plagiarism comes about when a careless writer fails to give credit to whoever first came up with
the idea or work that's been taken.

It's important to address plagiarism in this discussion because having an original outline and original working
thesis will help prevent both types of plagiarism.

If students, or any writers for that matter, have an outline and a working thesis, they will have already clearly
expressed and organized their ideas in their own words and will therefore be less likely to unintentionally take
another's ideas or words as their own.

Also, if writers have done their due diligence in the prewriting stage, there will generally be less incentive to
take another's ideas or words intentionally. After all, they'll have already done half the work, right?

 TERM TO KNOW

Plagiarism
The presentation of another person's ideas or writing as your own, either intentionally or unintentionally.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the relationship between outlines and drafts in the writing process.
Outlines provide direction and structure for an essay so writers can benefit from using an outline to
move into early and later drafts. You also learned how using an outline can help prevent plagiarism,

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 both intentional and unintentional. Because outlines encourage writers to put their ideas in their own
words early on, plagiarism may be less likely to occur later in the writing process.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Drafting
The act of composing a piece of writing.

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working thesis, the
primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Plagiarism
The presentation of another person's ideas or writing as your own, either intentionally or unintentionally.

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 Revising, Copyediting, and Proofreading
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn what the revising, editing, and proofreading steps of the writing process
look like, and how each contributes to creating a successful finished draft. Specifically, this lesson will
cover:
1. Final Stages of the Writing Process
2. Purpose of Revising
3. Purpose of Editing
4. Purpose of Proofreading

1. Final Stages of the Writing Process

It’s important to remember that writing is a process, not a product. For every finished, polished, solid essay,
there were multiple drafts that developed towards that finished piece. Those drafts are necessary for the final
piece, so you can’t skip any of the steps and still hope to have a successful final version.

After you complete a draft, you’ll need to:

Revise
Edit
Proofread

These steps might sound similar, but they’re actually distinct parts of the process. Considering them one by one
allows you to focus on each individual element carefully. The more work you do after your draft, the better your
essay will be. If you don’t do any of that work, then you might have wasted all of that writing you did in the first
place.
An essay that’s turned in with errors that could have been fixed through editing, revising, or proofreading can
cause you to lose credibility with your reader. Therefore, think about these final stages as the quality control of
your writing process.

2. Purpose of Revising

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 The first of the final stages of the writing process will be revising. This is a different stage than editing, which will
look at the sentences themselves to assess how well they articulate the argument.

Revising is also different than proofreading, where you’ll check your writing to make sure that it follows the
rules. There’s no sense in doing those two steps, editing and proofreading, if you’re going to take out, add in,
or otherwise change all those sentences themselves.

Revising is the stage when you think about the big picture of your arguments, assessing your overall
argumentation, support, evidence, assertions, etc.

In this step, you might:

Add in relevant details that you missed the first time through.
Take out irrelevant content that you now realize doesn’t really help your argument.
Reorder the body paragraphs to change the way your reader works through the argument.
Conduct additional research if you find that your argument needs more support or evidence to back up
your claims.
Rethink the thesis statement if it no longer matches your argument.
Rewrite your introduction and conclusion to reflect those changes.

Many people revise by printing out a draft and writing on it with red pen, doing a reverse outline, or looking
through how each paragraph contributes to the thesis. You can do your revision either on paper or on your
computer, depending on your personal preference.

 TERM TO KNOW

Revising
The act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project.

3. Purpose of Editing
Once you’ve revised and have a draft that you’re sure contains all the info that you want and no info that you
don’t want, you’re ready for editing to make sure that the sentences are pulling their weight.

When revising, you focused on reseeing and rethinking the whole argument’s ideas, support, and organization.
Here, you’re going to zoom in a little more closely, just looking at how those ideas are expressed in language.

In other words, this is where you get to think about how your words are working—making sure that they mean
what you intend and match the overall tone you want. Editing is also where you assess how your transitions
connect ideas in sentences and paragraphs to create a smooth flow of ideas.

During this stage, you’ll want to check that your essay has all the elements of style:

Clarity of ideas

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 Precise language
Effective word choice
Sentence variety
Complete sentences

More specifically, you might:

Look to see if you’re repeating your ideas or including redundant information.

Replace any words that are vague or imprecise with stronger ones that strike the right tone and create vivid
impressions.
Add in or change up your transitions so that you’re connecting ideas into sentences and paragraphs
intelligently and clearly.
Check that all of your sentences are complete and that you use a variety of sentence lengths and
structures.

 TERM TO KNOW

Editing
The act of improving the sentence construction, word choice, and the overall style of an essay or other
piece of writing.

4. Purpose of Proofreading
You’ve now got to do a final check to make sure that everything in your essay is where and how it should be.
Proofreading is where you zoom in your closest to check for the smallest errors in grammar and mechanics.

This is separate from revising and editing because this is where you’re making sure that your text is ready for
primetime. You’re not adding anything new or fundamentally changing the way things are expressed; you’re just
making sure everything is clean and correct.

Again, remember that writing is a process, not a product. Thus, you might notice something to revise or edit
while you’re proofreading, and that’s fine. Go ahead and fix any issues that you notice but do focus on the small
nitty-gritty details of grammar and mechanics.

When you proofread, you should look for:

Typographical errors (which are usually called typos)

Grammatical errors, such as shifts in verb tense or errors in plurality or pronoun agreement
Spelling errors
Punctuation errors
Capitalization errors
Any other basic formatting concerns, such as indented paragraphs, double spacing, margins, or font type

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  HINT

One method of proofreading is to enlarge the font on your screen to at least 20 points so that you can see
some errors that might have otherwise been hiding in the small print.
After proofreading, your essay is ready to be seen by the world.

 TERM TO KNOW

Proofreading
The act of fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, commonly confused
words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that after you finish drafting your essay, the final stages of the writing
process are revising, editing, and proofreading. While these three steps may sound the same, they
each have a separate purpose.

The purpose of revising is to think about the big picture of your arguments by assessing your overall
argumentation, support, evidence, and assertions. The purpose of editing is to look at how your ideas
are expressed in language by evaluating whether your words are working the way you intend. Finally,
the purpose of proofreading is to make sure everything is clean and correct by focusing on small
details of grammar and mechanics. Once you’ve completed these steps, your essay is ready for your
readers.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Copyediting
The act of improving the sentence construction, word choice, and the overall style of an essay or other
piece of writing.

Draft Revision and Rewriting

The act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project.

Proofreading
The act of fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization, punctuation, commonly confused
words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

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 Defining Your Essay Topic
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to figure out which essay topics are too broad, which are too narrow,
and which are just right for the scope of an assignment. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Defining Topic Scope
1a. Overly Broad Topics
1b. Overly Narrow Topics
2. Determining a Topic from a Prompt

1. Defining Topic Scope

First, it’s important to know that a topic is the controlling idea or focus of an essay or other writing project. A
great topic will set you up for a strong essay by being focused and rich, falling in the sweet spot between broad
and narrow.

Broad simply means too big; narrow means too small. The specifics of those sizes will depend somewhat on
the assignment’s parameters, its length, its focus, its purpose, etc.

However, if you can spot broad and narrow topics, you can find your place between the two poles. Before you
commit to a topic, do some prewriting to see how much content you generate about a proposed topic.

If you don’t have much to say, you might have a topic that’s too narrow. If you have too much, then you might
have a topic that’s too broad. Either way, you can expand or contract that topic as needed before you begin
writing your essay.

1a. Overly Broad Topics

A topic that is too broad will feature too much content—so much that you couldn’t hope to possibly fit it all into
one paper. You’ll notice that broad topics lack specifics and won’t immediately present the reader with useful
information.

 TRY IT

Look at the following essay topic: The history of dogs.

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 How can you tell that this topic is too broad? +

A good clue is that it seems like the title of a really long reference book; you can thus tell that it’s just
too broad. Think about what this topic demands. You’d need to start with the prehistory of dogs, when
they were still wolves. Then you’d need to explain how wolves were domesticated to become early
dogs.

Would you be looking at that from a biological perspective or an anthropological one? The topic
doesn’t say, so you’d have to assume both. Then you’d need to discuss how dogs ended up all over the
world and in hundreds of different breeds in different sizes. Which breeds would you focus on? Where
would you end this history? What kinds of roles and jobs of dogs would you look at? Again, this topic is
just too broad.

How could you narrow this topic? +

If you wanted to narrow it down, it might be wise to pick one of these questions and focus in on it more
specifically. You could go from the history of dogs to dog breeds, to dogs as pets, to the difference
between working dogs and pets. That’s still a big topic, but it’s much more focused than the whole
history.

1b. Overly Narrow Topics

Conversely, a topic that is too narrow won’t feature enough content; you’ll be finished covering the whole topic
way too soon. You’ll notice that narrow topics are so specific that you really don’t have enough to say to fill in a
whole essay.

 TRY IT

Look at the following essay topic: Recent additions to the American Kennel Club breed list that have
become popular in North America.

How can you tell that this topic is too narrow? +

This is at the other end of the spectrum. When you narrowed down from the history of dogs, you
stopped before you got to a topic this specific. That’s one clue that this might be too narrow. But how
else might you know? Imagine doing a quick brainstorm of what you’d need to discuss in this essay.

You'd need to consider what the American Kennel Club is, what these recent breed additions are, and
which ones have become popular in North America. That’s just three little points; there’s not too much

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 to say. This shows not only how narrow this topic is, but also how brainstorming about a topic can help
you find out if it’s too narrow.

How could you broaden this topic? +

If you were going to broaden this topic, you could ask what the controversy or point of interest is. Why
did you start with this topic in the first place? Maybe you’re interested in how the American Kennel Club
decides which breeds constitute a new addition. That might be a more interesting question that could
point you towards an appropriate topic.

Or maybe there’s some debate over whether the American Kennel Club’s rules are fair and inclusive.
That might be a good point of conflict that could broaden this to debates about American Kennel Club
policies for admitting new breeds.

Or you could go another route. If this is too narrowly focused on North America, you could broaden the
scope to the whole world and think about an international perspective. Maybe there is an international
counterpart to the American Kennel Club. The topic could then be international kennel club regulations
and how they compare to the American Kennel Club.

Either way, you’d be keeping the core interests of the topic the same but expanding the focus to
include more issues.

2. Determining a Topic from a Prompt

Sometimes you may get to choose a topic based solely on personal interest; however, in many cases, you will
get an assignment and have to work from that prompt.

There are thus some specific steps you can take to ensure you still pick an appropriate topic when given a
prompt.

 STEP BY STEP

1. When choosing a topic from an instructor’s prompt, the first and possibly most important thing to do is
carefully read the assignment and ask any questions you might have.
2. Once you know what you’re meant to write—all the assignment's expectations and requirements—then
you can start from a strong place. You might take the prompt and do some prewriting about the prompt
to see if you find anything compelling or anything that sparks your interest.
3. After that, you’re ready to work through the stages of the writing process. As you draft, revise, and edit,
think often about the connections to the prompt in order to catch yourself if you’re veering off topic.

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 Sometimes, the prompt will be a question. In those cases, the prewriting stage would be a good time to try
answering it in a few ways and seeing what happens. Other times, the prompt will be a broader topic, so you
can practice narrowing it to a precise one.

Once you have an idea about how your beliefs and opinions fit within this topic, you can work on drafting a
thesis statement. This should not merely restate the assignment’s prompts in your own words. If you’ve done
your work brainstorming, you should have a unique approach to the topic that reflects your interest.

IN CONTEXT

Consider the following prompt: Write a one-page essay describing a skill necessary for college
success.

To decide on a topic, you’d first check the assignment parameters, as those will tell you how to craft
your topic. How long is this meant to be? One page. That says that this will be pretty brief, and you’ll
thus want a fairly narrow topic.

This prompt also specifically instructs you to think about a skill that will help ensure college success.
Therefore, you know that this assignment will be descriptive and informative.

 TRY IT

Here are a few options for topics based on the prompt discussed above. Read them and decide which one
you think is best.

1. Writing
2. Distinguishing between a comma splice and correct comma use among two clauses
3. Understanding the different modes of writing

Which of the options is the best choice? +

Based on what you’ve learned so far, you can probably tell that Understanding the different modes of
writing is the best choice. This topic is sufficiently focused on one element of writing, so the author of
this paper will have enough detail to give, but not too much ground to cover.

Which of the options is too narrow? +

Distinguishing between a comma splice and correct comma use among two clauses is too narrow.
There’s only one thing to explain—the difference between a comma splice and the correct use of a
comma in a sentence with two clauses. That’s not a lot of material to work with.

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 Which of the options is too broad? +

Writing is way too broad. Writing is a huge subject. Does this refer to the physical act of forming words
with a pencil, or something more specific? You just don’t know; this is too vague and unfocused to give
you a clear path to a one-page paper.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the importance of defining the scope of an essay topic. When you’re
writing, you want to make sure that your topic is neither too broad nor too narrow. You can narrow down
overly broad topics by choosing a specific question to focus on; you can broaden overly narrow topics
by considering other related aspects that might interest you.

You also learned how to determine a topic from a prompt, which is a specific assignment that your
instructor may give you. It’s important to return to the prompt throughout the writing process to ensure
that you are meeting the parameters of the assignment.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 23
 Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how awareness of the rhetorical situation can and should impact the
drafting process, leading you to a deeper understanding of yourself and your writing. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. What Is the Rhetorical Situation?
2. Meta-Awareness and the Rhetorical Situation
3. Practicing Meta-Awareness

1. What Is the Rhetorical Situation?

The rhetorical situation encompasses a writer's purpose, presumed audience, personal background, and
cultural-historical context, as well as how that context influences that writer's writing choices.

Readers use the rhetorical situation to deepen their understanding of written work. They rely on empirical
evidence, reason, and guesswork to discern the writer's purposes, presumed audience, and more. This enables
them to engage with the written work and increases their critical awareness.

In turn, writers can make use of the rhetorical situation to prepare and evaluate their writing projects, and to
increase their self-awareness.

 TERM TO KNOW

Rhetorical Situation
In writing, the conditions and environment in which a text is composed, including the writer's purpose,
audience, background, and cultural-historical context, as well as how those factors influence the
composition.

2. Meta-Awareness and the Rhetorical Situation

Although the writing process may sometimes seem overly structured and formulaic, it is a process that you, the
writer, can control completely. You should reflect on the process to understand the choices you make as you
participate in it. This is a type of self-awareness that is referred to as meta-awareness.

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 "Meta" is the act of thinking about your own thinking. In the context of writing, "meta" means self-reflection on
your writing, and on your writing process. Whenever writers think about the rhetorical situation of their work,
they perform a "meta" act. After all, what is writing but a writer's thoughts, made concrete? Meta-awareness is a
key component of effective brainstorming and prewriting.

To perform meta-analysis, writers should focus on their work and ask themselves questions about it:

1. What are my biases?

a. How do I avoid, embrace, or explain them?
b. If I haven't done so, should I?
c. Have my biases led me to faulty reasoning?
2. What are my assumptions about this topic?
3. Who is my intended audience?
a. What language, approach, and style will persuade them?
b. Have I deliberately alienated my audience?
c. If so, what is the value of doing this?
4. What is my purpose in writing this, and what do I want my audience to know or do after reading it?
5. Which context influenced my writing choices?
6. Is there anything in my background that draws me to this topic or thesis?
7. Is anything happening in my surroundings, personal life, etc., that motivates my interest in, and thoughts
about, this topic?
a. If there is, how can I use this information in my essay?
b. If there is not, how can I show the relevance of my topic?

 HINT

Alienating members of an audience can cause them to be uncomfortable, or it can galvanize them. Both of
these responses can be useful, depending on your purpose.

 TERM TO KNOW

Meta-Awareness
In writing, a writer's consciousness of how the elements of the rhetorical situation have influenced that
writer's composition.

3. Practicing Meta-Awareness
Read the following paragraph from a draft essay on food choices and corporate culture. It was taken from the
middle of the essay, so you will be unaware of some of the context. However, as you read, try to guess the
rhetorical situation in which it was written.

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 I've done a lot of traveling, and one thing I've learned is that it's best to avoid businesses that cater
exclusively to non-locals. In places like the Turnpike Travel Plaza, it's clear that those in charge of planning
were perfectly aware of the captive nature of their customers, and it's also clear that they weren't
particularly interested in developing lasting relationships with those customers. If they were, they would
have built more options into the services and products they offer. But since everyone involved understands
that there aren't any other options, they didn't, and most of us don't complain.

Do you think that the writer of this paragraph is managing her biases? What if you knew that the writer avoids
fast food and mass-produced food? Would it affect your analysis of the rhetorical situation if you were provided
with additional context, like if the paragraph began with a scene in which the writer prepared an omelet in a
Burger King parking lot, while passersby stared? Is the tone of the paragraph preachy?

It's important for the writer to avoid a preachy tone so that readers are not alienated, especially if her intended
audience isn't limited to people who share her views on food. A less-preachy tone could help the writer to reach
a wider audience, including readers who are tired of being lectured about their food choices.

All writers are influenced by their backgrounds and cultural contexts, which factor into their topic choices and
what they write about those topics.

EXAMPLE Suppose that the writer of the sample paragraph grew up in a rural area where home-
cooked food was the only food option. What if her parents made it a priority to know where their food came
from since they were involved in food production? That kind of background would impact the writer's view
of fast food and chain restaurants (like the one in the Turnpike Travel Plaza). She would need to avoid
alienating potential readers who might have, say, happy childhood memories of trips to fast-food
restaurants.
The writer of the sample paragraph should develop meta-awareness of her background and address it in the
essay, to manage any perception of bias by readers. The writer needs to present her views on food choices
and the corporate environment in which many people currently make their choices, in a balanced way.

 BIG IDEA

It's easier to describe meta-awareness than to accomplish it. It's developed through a continuous process,
one that does not end in complete awareness. However, by beginning and pursuing the process, you can
increase your meta-awareness in an ongoing way.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the rhetorical situation is comprised of the factors that influence a
writer's composition. You also learned about the concept of meta-awareness as it relates to the
rhetorical situation, and the ways in which practicing meta-awareness can expand writers'
understanding of their writing and rhetorical situations.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 26
 Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Meta-Awareness
In writing, a writer's consciousness of how the elements of the rhetorical situation have influenced that
writer's composition.

Rhetorical Situation
In writing, the conditions and environment in which a text is composed, including the writer's purpose,
audience, background, and cultural-historical context, as well as how those factors influence the
composition.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 27
 Developing Your Thesis Statement
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the role and importance of thesis statements within an essay.
Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. What Is a Thesis?
2. Qualities of a Good Thesis
3. Thesis Questions

1. What Is a Thesis?
A thesis is a single sentence that expresses the core idea driving a writing project's goals and structure. Theses
most often appear near the beginning of an essay.

In short essays, the thesis is usually placed in the first paragraph, but this isn't always the case. It's common
practice to position the core idea near the start of the essay and then use the rest of the essay to explain it, and
to provide the sub-claims and evidence that support it.

It's also common for a thesis to change during the writing process, most often during the research and drafting
stages. This is normal, and it often indicates that the writer has done some critical thinking about her work.

If a writer's thoughts and opinions don't change during the writing process, she may not have learned much (or
anything) as a result of it. However, the eventual production of a solid draft of the thesis is important because it
anchors the writing process and ensures that the project is on track.

 HINT

It's important to understand the difference between a thesis and a topic. Topics are broader than thesis
statements—a single topic can contain several thesis statements.

 TERM TO KNOW

Thesis
A single sentence that expresses the controlling idea of a written work.

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 2. Qualities of a Good Thesis
What's the difference between a good thesis and one that needs more work? A good thesis presents a topic
that makes readers want to keep reading.

The best way to write a good thesis is to begin by making sure that your topic interests you. No matter the topic,
it's likely that there's something about it—some thesis within it—that interests you and your potential readers.

A thesis must also be compelling. It must make readers want to understand more about your argument, either
by involving them in it or by making its claim in such a way as to encourage them to keep reading.

A thesis, especially one that is presented at or near the beginning of an essay, should act like a road sign,
signaling readers about what's ahead. Readers should not be surprised by the reasoning and evidence you use
to support your essay's central claim.

A solid claim also differentiates a strong thesis statement from an inferior one. Your claim should be specific
and clear. Even complex ideas can be stated as thesis statements when they reflect a strong grasp of the
subject matter and efficient use of language.

3. Thesis Questions
A thesis can also be thought of as an answer to a question that's worth asking. A thesis question drives the
composition of an argument. Open-ended questions are often most effective because they help you to
generate, revise, and focus your thesis as you write.

Thesis questions can take a number of forms:

Questions of fact
Questions of preference
Questions of definition
Questions of interpretation
Questions of policy

Questions of fact commonly include those that challenge the truth of a currently held belief.

EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of fact may state, "The U.S. has long been recognized as the
world leader in technical innovation, but recent evidence suggests that this may no longer be true."
Questions of preference are driving questions that ask whether something is preferable to something else.

EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of preference may state, "Science fiction is a more
intellectually worthwhile genre of writing than fantasy or adventure."
Questions of definition generally address the meaning of words or concepts.

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 EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of definition may state, "A two-by-four no longer measures two
inches by four inches due to a change that occurred in the logging and lumber industries decades ago."
Questions of interpretation are one of the most common types of thesis questions in academic writing. These
questions ask how something can be described or analyzed.

EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of interpretation may state, "Martin Luther King, Jr. argued for
a positive peace—one that included justice—rather than a negative peace, which simply meant the absence
of conflict, but I will argue that there is no difference for those who live with oppression."
Questions of policy ask what should be done about a social or legal issue.

EXAMPLE A thesis answering a question of policy may state, "The best way to decrease the rate of
sexual assault on women is not to teach women how to protect themselves, but to teach men how and why
to control their behavior."
Asking and answering thesis questions can help writers before they begin drafting and can guide and inform
their work throughout the writing process.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that a thesis statement is the controlling idea of a piece of writing, typically
expressed in a single sentence toward the beginning of an essay. The qualities of a good thesis include
an interest to the writer, a compelling argument, an indication of what will be discussed in the essay,
and a solid claim that can be backed up with evidence. Sometimes, posing a thesis as an answer to one
of the types of thesis questions can help a writer to stay on track during the writing process by keeping
any ideas focused on the central inquiry.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Thesis
A single sentence that expresses the controlling idea of a piece of writing.

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 Introductions
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the basic requirements for the introductory paragraph of an essay, as
well as the purpose the introduction serves and how that purpose is best achieved. Specifically, this
lesson will cover:
1. Approaching Your Introduction
2. Purpose of Introductions
3. Using a Hook

1. Approaching Your Introduction

An introduction is the most important part of any essay because it is the first thing readers learn about the text
and thus has the burden of convincing those readers to keep reading.

As you tackle this crucial portion of text, you should disregard the common myth that introductions have only
one paragraph. This is true for the five-paragraph essay format, but not necessarily for all texts.

Ultimately, it's up to the writer to decide how much time and space she needs to introduce the subject, topic,
and thesis of any given essay or writing project.

Another prevalent myth about introductions is that they should be written first. If anything, introductions should
be developed later, as they can often become a barrier for writers, especially on the very first draft.

 HINT

Save the task of writing your introduction for when you know exactly what you're introducing, after you've
written the rest of the essay.

2. Purpose of Introductions
There are two critical things introductions need to do:

1. Establish the essay's topic, including any conflict or controversy that will be addressed.

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 2. Include a clear articulation of the thesis.

Often, especially in longer and more complicated essays, the thesis as stated in the introduction is itself a
summary of the more detailed argument that will follow. Still, the introduction should introduce the thesis in one
way or another; it typically includes a statement of the general line of reasoning that the body of the essay will
take.

 DID YOU KNOW

This statement of the general line of reasoning is called a nut graph. This part of the introduction tends to
state things such as, "First, I will explore x. Then I will expand on x by looking at y, and then I will
demonstrate how y is really z," or something to that effect. It gives readers a very quick outline of the
essay's main points—a map for them to use as they proceed through the text.
Let's review a couple of sample introductions and see what they are (or are not) doing. As you read the
introduction below, look for how it establishes the essay's topic and where the thesis might be:

Modern life often means people work long hours to buy possessions that they don't have time to enjoy. But
many people have decided to leave the rat race. A simpler lifestyle can reduce stress, teach self-reliance,
and encourage family and social unity. I will show several of the benefits of simplifying your lifestyle and
use empirical evidence to demonstrate the ways in which the American workforce has been systematically
trained to work harder and longer than it needs to.

It seems fairly straightforward, right? It introduces the topic, complete with a conflict regarding the choices we
make about work, and it states the thesis in no uncertain terms, advocating for an alternative lifestyle.

In this next introduction, however, things get a little more complicated:

Every society in history has had criminals, which presupposes that they also had a notion of crime. But what
is crime? Literally, crime is defined as whatever actions a government says are criminal. Simple, right? But
to truly explain crime—that is, to explain its nature and why some acts are illegal while others are not—is a
much more difficult task. And that's why we need the death penalty.

In this sample, it should have been fairly easy to identify both the topic and the thesis. Yet something is missing.
There isn't any kind of reasoning yet, so it is difficult to know how or why the writer is connecting this broad topic
of crime to the death penalty, especially given the historical stance the introduction seems to be taking.

Therefore, take this as an example of how an introduction can technically do everything it needs to do and still
fail in a very important way.

3. Using a Hook

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 No discussion about introductions would be complete without mentioning hooks. If you recall, we started off by
talking about how introductions are the most important part of a text because they come first and therefore
have the burden of convincing the reader to keep reading.

That's where hooks come in. Hooks are actions or strategies that introductions can use to try to catch the
reader's interest.

A few of the most common hooks are:

A provocative anecdote or situation

A compelling quotation
A concession
An interesting fact or statistic
An analogy, to compare one thing to another
A definition of a key term

 HINT

Quotations, if overused, will have the opposite effect and bore readers, especially readers who are already
familiar with the quotation or the subject.

Concessions are particularly useful in essays that will make a controversial argument, as they tend to help
build credibility for the writer.

A definition typically works well when it's not just a dictionary definition, but also an explanation as to how
the term's meaning is being debated or how it's central to the essay's claim—something to make it clear why
it's not only important to the essay, but to the reader as well.
Let's look at some more example introductions and see if you can identify the type and effectiveness of the
hook or hooks they use. It should be fairly easy to determine the type in this first essay:

Every morning, crews hose down Bourbon Street in the French Quarter of New Orleans. They cover the
pavement and sidewalks with soapy water, washing away all evidence of the previous night's activities.
Before the bars open and any of the tourists who left the spilled beer and daiquiris manage to stumble out
of bed, the streets will again be washed and ready, waiting for them and their money. Years of observation
have taught me there's something about the way we behave when we know we're not going to spend much
time in a place, especially when we're paying for it. It's the nature of tourism that changes our perceived
responsibilities as humans, and the problem isn't just with tourists.

You can see how using Bourbon Street as a provocative anecdote or situation helps the essay establish its topic
and also makes the reader more interested in reading about tourism.

Now, here's a completely different argument's introduction:

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 Racetrack Playa, in Death Valley National Park, is well known for the phenomenon of tracks left by
hundreds of rocks plowing across the nearly flat playa surface. Rock movement by pebble- to boulder-
sized pieces of dolomite and granite leave tracks in the playa surface, showing the direction of motion via
grooves cut in the playa mud. Remarkably, multiple rocks commonly show parallel tracks, including
apparently synchronous high-angle turns. The phenomenon of rock motion has excited considerable
interest, and various mechanisms for rock motion have been proposed, but owing to the harsh nature of
the playa surroundings, and the difficulty of access, there has been no unambiguous determination of the
mechanisms for rock motion.

In this introduction, the author chooses to foreground the mystery surrounding the subject, making the moving
rocks of Death Valley more real because of it. If the essay had simply started talking about all the research and
scientific experimentation that was done, chances are many readers would lose interest.

Finally, here is the last sample:

Commensalism is the name for a biological interaction in which one organism benefits and the other
derives neither benefit nor harm. In a stable environment—like that which occurs in isolated environments
—organisms evolve to lose anything that isn't necessary to their daily needs. But when that environment
changes, and the organisms upon which others depend can no longer survive, entire ecosystems can
crash. Though much less commonly known than the related terms of parasitism and symbiosis,
commensalism is common when multiple species live together in non-predator-prey relationships.

In this introduction, there is a definition being used, introducing the relatively uncommon term around which the
argument will be built, and simultaneously displaying the essay's topic. It's also implying that the reader's
assumptions about symbiosis and parasitism are incorrect, which is a challenge—another way to engage and
hook readers.

 BIG IDEA

Regardless of the hook used, the purpose of an introduction is to front-load the "So what?" part of the
essay, compiling all the reasons your readers need in order to believe whatever the rest of the essay will try
to convince or tell them about.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that when approaching your introduction, it's important to keep in mind that
the length of this portion of the essay will depend on the content and goal of the text. Therefore,
waiting to write the introduction until have you have written the majority of the essay can be a helpful
strategy. You also learned that the purpose of introductions is to establish the topic of the essay and
clearly communicate the thesis. Finally, you explored the benefits of using hooks, which are actions or
strategies that introductions can employ to try to catch the reader's interest.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 34
 Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 35
 Body Paragraphs and Topic Sentences
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how topic sentences and supporting sentences work together to form
effective body paragraphs in an essay. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Purpose of Body Paragraphs
2. Topic Sentences
3. Supporting Sentences
4. Body Paragraphs in Action

1. Purpose of Body Paragraphs

In academic essays, a strong paragraph spans several sentences but tackles only one central idea. While
there's no such thing as the correct number of sentences in a paragraph, a paragraph can be too long or too
short. It all depends on what purpose the paragraph is supposed to serve in the writing project.

While there's nothing inherently wrong with very long paragraphs, they're often a sign that more than one idea is
being discussed, so they should be broken up into two or more paragraphs. Also, an overly long paragraph
puts a strain on readers.

Breaks between paragraphs are used as places to rest while reading—places to process what is read and to
prepare to continue on through the text. Therefore, it should make sense that not giving your readers enough
of these breaks will hurt your essay's readability, even if you don't change a word in it.

On the other hand, having paragraphs that are too short is also usually a problem. Again, there's nothing
inherently bad about them, but short paragraphs are often a sign that an idea has not been completely
developed, or that one fully realized paragraph has been arbitrarily divided into two.

For readers, too-short paragraphs can be overlooked amongst longer ones; or, when they come in numbers,
they can create a jittery, jarring reading experience, which is arguably just as bad as having no paragraph
breaks at all. Besides, if the purposes of a paragraph are to have a central claim and to support it, then a
paragraph should be long enough to do both.

As with the sentences in a paragraph, there is no correct number of paragraphs for an essay; the number
should reflect the needs of the text itself and the author's goals, which are always going to vary from text to text
and from person to person.

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 2. Topic Sentences
In order to discuss more clearly the form and function of a paragraph, it's important to discuss its key parts.
Nothing is more central to an academically sound paragraph than its topic sentence. This is the sentence that
most clearly expresses the thesis of a paragraph.

In many ways, the paragraph is like a miniature essay, and like an essay, a paragraph's thesis often comes at or
near the beginning. It is often, but by no means always, the topic sentence that starts a new paragraph, with all
the rest following it as support.

Having focused paragraphs with solid topic sentences helps to anchor readers within the text and make it
easier for them to absorb the writer's ideas rather than having to pay attention to how those ideas are being
displayed.

For the writer, having focused paragraphs with solid sentences is also useful, as during the revision and editing
process it's easier for the writer to look at each paragraph and see whether or not the single idea it articulates
supports the main thesis of the essay. This question is much easier to answer—whether yes or no—when the
paragraph itself is clearly focused.

 TERM TO KNOW

Topic Sentence
A sentence expressing the main idea of a paragraph.

3. Supporting Sentences
Now, if a topic sentence is the central thesis of the paragraph, what does that make all the other sentences? In
composition, they are referred to as supporting sentences. These are the sentences in a paragraph that
support its thesis, or main idea. In this way, a paragraph is, again, like a miniature essay.

Supporting sentences exist to explain or demonstrate the truth of the topic sentence, and they can do so
through the expression of ideas, facts, data, logic, or other means of intellectual support.

When writing, it's important to pay attention to what each supporting sentence is contributing to the paragraph
as a whole. It's equally important to cut, change, or relocate irrelevant sentences—any that don't do enough to
support the thesis—even if they are interesting or relevant elsewhere, or for other purposes.

 TERM TO KNOW

Supporting Sentence
A sentence that bolsters the main idea of a paragraph by providing intellectual support.

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 4. Body Paragraphs in Action
Now, let's take some time to look at a couple of paragraphs in order to see how topic and supporting sentences
work (or don't work) together.

Read the paragraph below. As you do, look for the topic sentence and any supporting sentences.

Commensalism is the name for a biological interaction in which one organism benefits and the other
derives neither benefit nor harm. In a stable environment—like that which occurs in isolated environments
—organisms evolve to lose anything that isn't necessary to their daily needs. But when that environment
changes, when the organisms upon which others depend can no longer survive, entire ecosystems can
crash. Though much less commonly known than the related terms of parasitism and symbiosis,
commensalism is common when multiple species live together in non-predator-prey relationships.

So, what did you find? The first sentence clearly seems to be the topic sentence. But what about the second
sentence? It doesn't really seem to be supporting the first—or at least, not supporting it very well. Also, the third
sentence seems to be supporting the second sentence more than the first, so perhaps that's the topic
sentence? The fourth and last sentence is definitely a supporting sentence here, but it could be its own topic
sentence in some other paragraph.

In any case, if, as you were reading this, you got a little confused, don't worry. This paragraph was chosen as an
example because it demonstrates what happens when a paragraph doesn't have a clearly stated central topic.
This one seems to have two, or maybe even three. The writer would certainly benefit from a little revision time
and should probably work a little harder to make sure she knows exactly what this paragraph wants to say and
why.

Let's look at another paragraph—one that won't cause so much confusion. It contains some fairly complex ideas,
so take your time reading it. It is an excerpt from an essay titled "Reconstruction" by Frederick Douglass, a
writer, social reformer, statesman, and escaped slave.

There is cause to be thankful even for rebellion. It is an impressive teacher, though a stern and terrible
one. In both characters it has come to us, and it was perhaps needed in both. It is an instructor never a day
before its time, for it comes only when all other means of progress and enlightenment have failed.
Whether the oppressed and despairing bondman, no longer able to repress his deep yearnings for
manhood, or the tyrant, in his pride and impatience, takes the initiative, and strikes the blow for a firmer
hold and a longer lease of oppression, the result is the same: society is instructed, or may be.

This paragraph, while full of complicated ideas and a nuanced approach to them, should still have been easier
to grasp. Did you find the topic sentence? It's the first sentence of the paragraph. You can hopefully see how
every other sentence in the paragraph supports it, either by explaining why we should be grateful, or going into
detail as to what about rebellion gives us cause to be grateful.

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 Did you notice the slightly circular form here, how the first ("It is an impressive...") and last ("society is
instructed...") supporting sentences seem to come back around to the same point? By the end, we readers are
in a much better position to appreciate why or how rebellion is a good teacher. As mentioned above, the
paragraph is like a miniature essay, almost self-contained in this case.

Finally, let's look at one more paragraph—a very different, and in many ways, much simpler, paragraph—that
should also help demonstrate how topic and supporting sentences can work together.

During the months that followed the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, everything changed for Hawaii.
Martial law was declared, and the radio carried stories of internment camps forming in California, though of
course no general was dumb enough to try that in the islands. Japanese women stopped wearing their
kimonos to the market anyway, and even my great grandmother, descendant of Irish farmers that she was,
began keeping her own kimono, a gift from a former maid, in the back closet.

Here, again, the first sentence is the topic sentence, expressing the paragraph's thesis. Even though the
paragraph is much more narrative, the argument it makes in its topic sentence—that everything changed—is
supported by the information contained in all the rest of the sentences. Whether historical, cultural, or personal,
we're still being given supporting evidence about the change.

Now that you've seen three different ways sentences can interact in a paragraph, you should be in a better
position to read other paragraphs and to write your own.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the purpose of body paragraphs in an essay is to express a single,
focused idea through several well-crafted sentences. A body paragraph includes a topic sentence that
expresses a main idea, and supporting sentences that provide evidence to sustain that idea. You also
looked at three body paragraphs in action to see how these sentences do, and sometimes do not,
work together effectively.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Supporting Sentence
A sentence that bolsters the main idea of a paragraph by providing intellectual support.

Topic Sentence

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 A sentence expressing the main idea of a paragraph.

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 Conclusions
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the role of conclusions in essays, as well as the different approaches
you can take to writing conclusions. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Purpose of Conclusions
2. Summary Approach
3. Expansion Approach
4. Hybrid Approach

1. Purpose of Conclusions
The first thing that should be noted when beginning a discussion about conclusions is that after the introduction,
the conclusion is the most important part of an essay. It's the last point, the last idea, the very last words—words
that will be rattling around in your readers' heads when they put your text down and are sitting and thinking
about what they just read.

Therefore, it makes sense for you, or any writer, to pay special attention to how the last paragraphs and
sentences of a text come together. Remember that, like an introduction, a conclusion doesn't have to be just
one paragraph. Rather, the writer should find whatever approach works best for a particular project.

Besides putting a physical end to the text, the conclusion needs to wrap up the essay and give readers a feeling
of cohesion and closure.

One way writers do this is by referring back to the introduction, to create a sense of circular motion.

EXAMPLE If a particular technique was used in the first paragraph—like an anecdote, definition, or
quotation—revisiting or mentioning it at or near the end of a text is often a good idea.
However, even if a technique was not used earlier, you can still include it in the conclusion. After all, a conclusion
is always more than just a summary of what's come before it.

2. Summary Approach

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 Even though a conclusion should be more than a simple summary of the essay, summaries are a big part of
many highly effective conclusions.

This approach entails briefly noting the essay's major points and restating the thesis—in different words than
before, of course. This is a fairly basic form of conclusion.

However, it can be particularly useful in essays that espouse a long, complicated, or multi-part argument.
Consider the following summary conclusion:

Before that night, I never thought much about what it means to be male. Before then, I never worried about
the ways I might be perceived as a threat to women. I knew, as you saw, that I had no ill intentions, but
before that night, I never thought about how little we know about the intentions of others. Before that night,
I thought all that mattered was that I was a good person, and that I acted like it, because before that night, I
didn't understand the hundred and thousand ways that all of us are already part of a bigger system, and
that our actions, and our inactions, are only part of the problem.

Though you don't have the rest of the essay, suffice it to say that just about all of the points here were raised
earlier in the body of the essay, though not in so close a context, and never with the refrain "before that night" to
build momentum.

Even though this is an example of what's generally considered to be a basic form of conclusion, summaries can
do a lot of work for an argument when they're structured effectively.

3. Expansion Approach
Another approach to conclusions is to expand the discussion beyond the scope of the essay's thesis. These
types of conclusions work most often by raising questions that still need answers, or which are not possible to
answer in the time and space allowed.

Sometimes they list work or research that still needs to be done, or even bring up related ideas that weren't
able to be incorporated into the text, due to space and time constraints.

This kind of conclusion has the advantage of being able to up the ante of the main points, by gesturing toward
the urgency or importance of your ideas, as well as showing that you know more, and have thought more about
your topic than can be incorporated in the space allowed.

You can also stake out territory for research or thinking that you might want to do later. This is particularly
common in subject-specific arguments.

EXAMPLE A graduate student's first research paper about a subject she might want to pursue can
become a dissertation later.
The expansion approach is also common in arguments trying to persuade readers to take a specific action, as it
can gesture toward other, broader reasons for doing so, without actually having to go into detail about them.

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 The conclusion below, taken from an essay about evolution and technological development, gestures toward a
broader argument.

In many ways, we are the ultimate specialists, though our specialization—tool using—has allowed us to
spread across more of the planet than any other large animal in Earth's history. But the tools we now use
are so complicated and diverse and all-encompassing, that virtually none of us are capable of
understanding or using—much less building or maintaining—every piece of technology that impacts our
lives. Taken to this extreme, our specialization is, like in the plants and animals we try so hard to separate
ourselves from, as much a weakness as it is a strength. We owe it to ourselves to learn to grow plants, to
raise crops and livestock, to survive in wild lands without packaged food. We don't have to actually do this,
but if we did have to, we should be able.

As you can see, this conclusion isn't restating the argument, but rather bringing up a broader topic, one beyond
the scope of the essay itself.

4. Hybrid Approach
In modern academic essays, it's very common for conclusions to incorporate some elements of the summary
and expansion approaches, taking advantage of the strengths of both.

The following hybrid conclusion does just this, first by summarizing the main claims that the earlier argument
made, and then by expanding upon it, to perform a call to action while gesturing toward the many other aspects
of modern life that—like the blue roses this essay is about—are more illusion than reality.

We like our flowers to be big and unblemished, to last long in a vase, and we like them to come in just the
right color. We don't want to think about what has to happen first. We don't want to think about the natural
borders that have to be crossed, and we don't want to think about all the work that has to be done to
produce the perfect bloom. And we especially don't want to be told that something isn't possible. After
hundreds of years' worth of selective breeding, after decades of research and manipulation, after all of our
high-tech tricks, the closest thing to a truly blue rose you're likely to see will have been created by a very
simple, very old trick. I find this to be a comfort: to make a blue rose yourself, put a plain white rose in a
vase of blue dye, and in doing so, get yourself a little closer to the process.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the purpose of conclusions is to wrap up essays by giving readers a
feeling of cohesion and closure. There are three primary approaches that writers can take in crafting
conclusions: the summary approach, the expansion approach, and the hybrid approach, which
combines elements of the first two approaches.

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 Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 44
 Characteristics of Comparison/Contrast Essays
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about the role of comparison/contrast essays and the basic principles to
keep in mind when writing them. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Purpose of Comparison/Contrast in Writing
2. Choosing a Topic for a Comparison/Contrast Essay
3. Structure of a Comparison/Contrast Essay
3a. Introduction
3b. Body Paragraphs
3c. Conclusion

1. Purpose of Comparison/Contrast in Writing

We are constantly comparing and contrasting in our daily lives.

EXAMPLE We compare and contrast which breakfast cereal and which television brand to buy; we
compare and contrast people we know, places we've visited, movies we've seen, and foods we like.
When writing a comparison/contrast essay, writers will engage in critical thinking and go beyond mere
description or a presentation of facts. When you think about similarities and differences between two things,
you not only come to a deeper understanding of the things themselves, but you see more clearly the
connection between the two and why that’s meaningful.

Remember that when writing any essay or composition, the author should have a clear purpose or goal she
hopes to achieve with that piece of writing. If the writer's purpose is to compare (discuss similarities) or contrast
(discuss differences) between two subjects, then a comparison/contrast essay will achieve this goal.

A comparison/contrast essay can be an effective way to draw connections between two subjects and convey
the important similarities and differences between them. In other words, a comparison/contrast essay should
increase the audience’s understanding of how two subjects within a category are similar or different. This type
of essay isn’t always written in a single mode. In fact, it sometimes utilizes elements from multiple modes, such
as informative, persuasive, or argumentative.

EXAMPLE An author may use a comparison/contrast essay to argue reasons why Fresh Foods Market is
a better place to buy groceries than Herman’s Market. Or, an author may choose to use a

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 comparison/contrast essay to simply inform the reader in an objective way about the similarities or
differences between Fresh Foods Market and Herman’s Market.
While either approach is acceptable in a broader academic setting, in this course we’ll focus on using a
comparison/contrast essay as a type of informative writing with the purpose of informing the reader of
similarities and differences between two subjects. You do not have to argue that one subject is better than
another. You simply have to inform your reader how the two subjects are similar or how they are different from
one another.

Because the goal of informative writing is to inform readers about something, it's important for writers to be as
objective as possible when writing in this way. They should do their best to set aside personal feelings and
opinions and simply report information as clearly and as honestly as they can. The goal of informative writing is
not to persuade the reader or to argue a point, but rather to inform the reader about something using an
objective tone.

Striving for objectivity is a worthwhile task for informative writers. When writing in the informative mode, it's
especially important that writers be aware of their personal biases and/or assumptions about the subject(s)
they're writing about. Being aware of personal biases and assumptions, and addressing them accordingly,
brings writers closer to an objective perspective, no matter the subject.

 HINT

Complete objectivity is nearly impossible because writers always interpret information in terms of their
perspective and experiences. However, a writer should do her best to avoid bias or nonobjective language
in informative writing. One important way to achieve this is to avoid use of first-person references in your
writing ("I," "me," "my"). Statements such as "I think," "I believe," or "in my experience" are not appropriate for
objective, informative writing.

2. Choosing a Topic for a Comparison/Contrast

Essay
The key to a good comparison/contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in a meaningful
way. The point of writing a comparison or contrast is not to state the obvious, but rather to highlight subtle
differences or unexpected similarities.

EXAMPLE If you wanted to focus on comparing or contrasting two subjects, you would not pick pies and
whales. There is no meaningful connection to be made in that case.
One approach for this type of essay is to contrast two subjects in a similar category.

EXAMPLE You might choose to contrast two restaurants. You could focus on the differences in a variety
of aspects, such as the prices, the atmosphere, the service, or the menus.
An additional approach for this type of essay is to focus on comparison of two subjects. If you use this approach,
you likely would not choose, say, two types of pie because they share so many of the same properties already.

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 Although not a required element of comparison essays, selecting two subjects that initially seem divergent can
make the essay more interesting.

EXAMPLE You may choose to compare orca whales with wolves. At first glance, they may seem to have
little in common other than the fact that they are animals. However, both live and hunt in packs, both are
primarily carnivores, and once born, both wolves and orcas usually stay with the pack or pod in which they
were born for the remainder of their lives.
When choosing a topic, sometimes it is helpful to think about things in your everyday life that can be compared
or contrasted.

EXAMPLE You may choose to contrast your daily routine as a child to your daily routine as an adult. Or,
compare the personalities of your children, who are two separate individuals but may have many things in
common with one another. Or, contrast your family’s holiday traditions to your significant other’s holiday
traditions.
Don’t forget to consider the “So what?” question when deciding on your topic. Why are you choosing this topic?
Why should anyone care or be interested? Is it at all meaningful? You should be able to explain why it is useful
that the reader understand the similarities and differences between these two subjects.

3. Structure of a Comparison/Contrast Essay

Remember that all academic essays follow a general essay structure, which includes certain key components.

Since a comparison/contrast essay is a type of academic essay, it should also contain these components:

An introductory paragraph that contains a thesis statement

Body paragraphs that support the thesis statement and highlight the similarities and/or the differences
between the two subjects
A conclusion that provides a sense of closure to the essay

3a. Introduction
The comparison/contrast essay begins with an introductory paragraph. It's the first thing readers learn about the
topic, and as such, it bears the burden of convincing readers to keep reading. If it fails, it falls to reason that it
doesn't matter how well the conclusion is written. So, what goes into making an introduction?

There are two critical things introductions need to do:

Establish the essay's topic, including any conflict or controversy that the writer will address
Include a clear articulation of the thesis

In a comparison/contrast essay, the thesis should clearly state the two subjects that are to be either compared,
contrasted, or both, along with the points of comparison/contrast that will be further explored in the body of the
essay. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide useful information to the reader.

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 IN CONTEXT

Consider the following thesis:

While paper and plastic bags from the grocery store serve the same general purpose, they differ in
environmental impact and convenience.

This statement sets up the two subjects to be contrasted (paper and plastic bags) and introduces the
points of contrast (environmental impact and convenience). In other words, the thesis informs the
reader that the essay will explore the environmental impacts and convenience of paper bags and
plastic bags. As a shopper, this may inform your decision the next time the cashier asks, "Paper or
plastic?"

3b. Body Paragraphs

Following the introductory paragraph are the body paragraphs. The body paragraphs contain the primary
points or ideas of the essay, making up the body of the work; they expand upon the points in the thesis
statement and provide further details. Each body paragraph should contain a topic sentence and supporting
sentences that support the thesis statement.

The number of body paragraphs your comparison/contrast essay contains will vary depending on how many
points of comparison or contrast you are discussing in your essay. However, a typical comparison/contrast
essay will have anywhere between four to six body paragraphs.

 DID YOU KNOW

There are two primary ways in which the body paragraphs for a comparison/contrast essay can be
organized: the point-by-point method and the block method. You'll learn more details about these two
methods and how to use them in another lesson.

3c. Conclusion
Lastly, your essay should end with a strong conclusion to bring the essay to a close. Besides putting a physical
end to the text, the conclusion needs to wrap up the essay and give readers a feeling of cohesion and closure.
One way writers do this is by referring back to the introduction, to create a sense of circular motion.

Recall that there are three main approaches a writer can take when drafting a conclusion:

The summary approach

The expansion approach
The hybrid approach

As a reminder, the summary approach entails briefly noting the essay's major points and restating the thesis in
different words.

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 The expansion approach expands the discussion beyond the scope of the essay's thesis. These types of
conclusions work most often by raising questions that still need answers, or which are not possible to answer in
the time and space allowed. Sometimes they list work or research that still needs to be done, or even bring up
related ideas that weren't able to be incorporated into the text due to space and time constraints.

Finally, the hybrid approach incorporates some elements of both the summary and expansion approaches,
taking advantage of the strengths of both.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the purpose of comparison/contrast in writing is to examine the
similarities and/or differences between two subjects. When choosing the topic for a
comparison/contrast essay, the writer should be sure to choose two subjects that have a meaningful
connection, and the writer should have a compelling reason to compare or contrast the two subjects.
Finally, the structure of a comparison/contrast essay will always include an introduction, body
paragraphs, and a conclusion, but the finer structural details can vary depending on the topic itself and
the overall goal of the essay.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

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 Writing Effective Comparison/Contrast Essays
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how to begin drafting your comparison/contrast essay by utilizing the
writing process to brainstorm and prewrite, as well as draft an effective working thesis and organize
the rest of your essay. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Brainstorming and Prewriting
2. Drafting a Thesis Statement
3. Methods of Organization
3a. Point-by-Point Method
3b. Block Method
4. Using Transitions

1. Brainstorming and Prewriting

Recall that a comparison/contrast essay serves the purpose of examining the similarities and/or differences
between two subjects. When you compare things, you show their similarities; when you contrast things, you
show their differences.

The first step in writing a comparison/contrast essay is to brainstorm ideas and decide upon a topic. It's
important that you find two things that have enough similarities or differences in order to be able to effectively
compare or contrast them. If you choose two things that are too similar, you’ll struggle to find meaningful
differences. If you choose two things that are too different, you’ll struggle to find meaningful comparisons.

EXAMPLE You can easily find similarities or differences between two pets, such as cats and dogs. On
the other hand, comparing or contrasting a chocolate cake with country music makes no sense.
During the brainstorming stage of the writing process, you can use a variety of activities to help you generate
ideas for your topic. It can be helpful to make a list of similarities and differences between your two subjects,
then choose the ones that are most important to use in your comparison/contrast essay.

This will help you to see the multitude of similarities and differences, and then focus in on the most important
ones to use in your essay:

Similarities Differences

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 Both are cold-blooded reptiles. Crocodiles are larger than alligators.

Both eat a similar diet. Crocodiles have a pointed snout, and alligators have a rounded
snout.

Both can move quickly on land. Crocodiles live in saltwater, and alligators live in freshwater.

Both live in a water environment. Alligators live only in the U.S. and part of China, while crocodiles
live across the globe.
Clustering, or mapping, is another way to generate ideas using words, shapes, and lines that show the
connections between those ideas.

When deciding upon a topic, here are some helpful tips to keep in mind:

1. There are unending things that you can compare/contrast, and choosing two might seem overwhelming.
Some common themes for a comparison/contrast essay may include events (Battle of Fort Sumter versus
Battle of Sewell’s Point), situations (riding the bus versus driving to work), people (a CEO versus a CFO of a
company), and places (London versus Tokyo).
2. A good approach for beginner writers can be to pick two things that are in the same overarching category
(foods, animals, locations, people, events, etc.) but differ in some significant ways. This can make it easier
to see the similarities as well as the differences.
3. Don’t forget to consider the "So what?" question when deciding on your topic. Why are you choosing this
topic? Why should anyone care? Is it at all meaningful? You should be able to explain to your readers why it
is useful that they understand the similarities or differences between these two topics.

Below is a short list of some additional example topics that could work well for a comparison/contrast essay.
Note how the two subjects being compared or contrasted belong to a shared category, given in parentheses:

Ghandi and Martin Luther King Jr. (historical figures)

The 1960s and today (two eras in time)
Pop music and country music (genres of music)
Oprah Winfrey and Ellen DeGeneres (talk show hosts)
Online college courses and in-person college courses (ways to take college courses)
Communism and socialism (belief systems)
Solar power and wind energy (energy types)

After you've determined your topic and listed points of comparison or contrast, you can begin to narrow your
focus by drafting a working thesis statement, thinking about the best way to organize your information, and
creating an outline.
As you narrow your focus, you will need to determine which points of comparison or contrast are most
important. The number of points of comparison or contrast that you settle on will be driven by the topic you
choose. However, for the comparison/contrast essay you’ll be writing for this course, you will need to focus in
on two or three main points of comparison or contrast.

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 As you know, an outline can be a useful tool during prewriting to help you further develop the ideas and
organization of your essay. Creating an outline will help you plan the way in which you want to organize your
body paragraphs, and which details you want to include in each. This will help you to produce a sort of roadmap
for your essay.

2. Drafting a Thesis Statement

A good thesis statement is the cornerstone of any academic essay. During the brainstorming and prewriting
steps, you will have selected a topic and chosen your strongest main points to either compare or contrast within
your essay. This will help you further develop your thesis statement.

A good thesis statement should convey the main points of your essay and should avoid being overly generic.

EXAMPLE A thesis statement such as “Dogs and cats have many similarities, but they also have some
differences” doesn’t do a very good job of informing the reader of exactly what will be covered in the
essay, because it is very vague. What are those similarities and differences? Why should the reader care?
Instead, a good thesis statement should provide more information on which points of comparison or contrast
will be discussed in the essay. Below are some templates you can consider as you begin to draft your thesis
statement. A good thesis statement is not required to follow one of these patterns, but as a beginning writer,
you may find that they provide a helpful starting point.

For an essay contrasting two subjects, your thesis statement may look something like this:

{Subject 1} and {Subject 2} may appear similar, but they differ in {first point of contrast}, {second point of
contrast}, and {third point of contrast}.

Or, if you are comparing two subjects, your thesis statement might look something like this:

{Subject 1} and {Subject 2} do not appear to have a lot in common, but they are very similar in {first point of
comparison}, {second point of comparison}, and {third point of comparison}.

A thesis statement might meaningfully contrast two subjects using the template above, like this:

Paris and Tokyo are both large metropolitan cities, but they differ in terms of their job opportunities,
average income, and living expenses.

Notice how the primary emphasis in the above thesis is about how the two cities differ based on the three
points the author chose to focus on: job opportunities, income, and living expenses. This thesis statement gives
the reader a clear idea of the specific points of contrast that will be covered within the body of the essay.

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 3. Methods of Organization
Now that you have your working thesis statement, you’re ready to begin thinking about how to organize the
body paragraphs within your essay.

There are two primary ways in which the body paragraphs can be organized:

The point-by-point method

The block method

The organizing strategy that you choose will depend on your audience and purpose and should also align with
your thesis statement.
You may also consider your particular approach to the subjects as well as the nature of the subjects themselves;
some subjects might better lend themselves to one structure or the other.

3a. Point-by-Point Method

The point-by-point method, also known as the alternating format method, is one method of paragraph
development and organization for a comparison/contrast essay.

When you use the point-by-point method, you are choosing one point of comparison and then writing one
paragraph about each of your subjects that shows how they are similar or different.

IN CONTEXT

If you are comparing two fast-food restaurants, McDonalds and Burger King, you would first determine
your points of comparison. Let’s say you're going to focus on similarities in costs, menus, and taste.

Your first body paragraph would consider the costs at McDonalds, and your second body paragraph
would consider the costs at Burger King. Your third and fourth body paragraphs would consider the
menus at McDonalds and Burger King, and your final two body paragraphs would consider the taste of
the food at both restaurants.

This method of organizing is usually easier for the reader to follow, as the main points of the body paragraphs
alternate in sequence between subjects.

To demonstrate this method, let’s take the thesis statement, "Paris and Tokyo are both large metropolitan cities,
but they differ in terms of their job opportunities, average income, and living expenses." In this case, the author
is focusing on the differences between the two cities in regard to three main points.

The organization of the essay using the point-by-point method would look like this:

Introduction + thesis statement

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 Body paragraph 1: Job opportunities in Paris
Body paragraph 2: Job opportunities in Tokyo
Body paragraph 3: Average income in Paris
Body paragraph 4: Average income in Tokyo
Body paragraph 5: Living expenses in Paris
Body paragraph 6: Living expenses in Tokyo
Conclusion

3b. Block Method

The block method, also known as the subject-by-subject method, is another method of paragraph development
and organization in a comparison/contrast essay.

As the name implies, if you choose the block method, you will consider all of your points of comparison or
contrast for one subject in the first two or three body paragraphs of your essay, and then discuss the same main
points for the second subject in the remaining body paragraphs.

IN CONTEXT

If you're contrasting your local grocery store with the giant superstore outside of town, you would first
determine your points for contrast. You might choose to focus on the differences in prices,
convenience, and atmosphere.

You would begin the body of the essay by devoting one paragraph each to these three points about
your local grocery store; then, you would write three paragraphs that show how the superstore is
different according to those same points.

 HINT

If you choose this method, pay special attention to transition use to help guide your reader.
To demonstrate this method, let’s again take the thesis statement, "Paris and Tokyo are both large metropolitan
cities, but they differ in terms of their job opportunities, average income, and living expenses."

The organization of the essay using the block method would look like this:

Introduction + thesis statement

Body paragraph 1: Job opportunities in Paris
Body paragraph 2: Average income in Paris
Body paragraph 3: Living expenses in Paris
Body paragraph 4: Job opportunities in Tokyo
Body paragraph 5: Average income in Tokyo
Body paragraph 6: Living expenses in Tokyo

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 Conclusion

4. Using Transitions
Given that comparison/contrast essays analyze the relationship between two subjects, it is also helpful to have
some transitions on hand that will cue the reader to such analysis.

These words and phrases help to highlight the points you are trying to make by signaling the relationships
between the subjects in a clear way.

Below are some sample transitional words and phrases that you may use to indicate a comparison or contrast.

Comparison Words/Phrases Contrast Words/Phrases

Both Alternatively

Similarly In contrast

Likewise One difference/another difference

One similarity/another similarity Conversely

In comparison Whereas

Like Nevertheless

Similar to Unlike

In the same way On the other hand

Also Despite

Compared to However

In a similar fashion While

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned how to begin putting your comparison/contrast essay together by first
starting with brainstorming and prewriting, then moving on to drafting a thesis statement.

There are two methods of organization for the body of a comparison/contrast essay that you can
choose from: the point-by-point method and the block method. The specific way in which you organize
your body paragraphs will be largely determined by your topic and subjects, your audience, and your
purpose. Whichever method you choose, using transitions effectively can help readers follow along
with your main points.

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 Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

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 Model Comparison/Contrast Essays
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will examine a model comparison/contrast essay to understand the characteristics
that make it effective, as well as analyze the essay to better understand its components. Specifically,
this lesson will cover:
1. Identifying the Purpose and Topic
2. Analyzing the Organization
2a. Introduction
2b. Body Paragraphs
2c. Conclusion

1. Identifying the Purpose and Topic

Remember that the purpose of a comparison/contrast essay is to inform the reader of the similarities and/or
differences between two subjects. Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while contrast in
writing discusses elements that are different. Whatever the two subjects may be, a comparison/contrast essay
should effectively and meaningfully draw connections between them.

The sample essay provided in full below this tutorial identifies two clear subjects—the Northern and Southern
colonies in colonial America—and discusses the ways in which they differed. It is, therefore, a contrast essay.
These two subjects are within the same category (early American colonies), which ensures that there will indeed
be some similarities, but there is also plenty of room to expand upon differences between them.

The essay's thesis statement, "The Northern and Southern colonies were very different socially, politically, and
economically," clearly articulates the main idea of the essay and highlights the main points of contrast that will
be explored in the body of the essay.

Additionally, the essay is written using academic language and employs a non-biased tone, which makes it
appropriate for an informative essay. This also tells us that the writer’s purpose is to inform, rather than to
persuade, argue a point, or entertain the audience. Having an understanding of early American history and the
foundations on which the nation was built is a meaningful topic that a variety of readers may find interesting and
worthwhile.

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 2. Analyzing the Organization
Recall that there are two common ways to organize a comparison/contrast essay: the point-by-point method and
the block method. However, all academic essays include an introduction paragraph with a thesis statement,
body paragraphs which support the thesis statement, and a conclusion.

2a. Introduction
Let’s begin by examining the introductory paragraph of this model essay:

Before the founding of the United States of America, the Eastern portion of the continent was slowly being
settled and developed by English colonies. Although these colonies were ruled by England and were
settled by individuals who primarily came to the New World from England, they differed significantly in a
variety of ways. Perhaps the most stark contrasts can be seen between the Northern and Southern
colonies. The Northern and Southern colonies were very different socially, politically, and economically.

Notice how the introductory paragraph introduces the topic and sets the groundwork for what will be discussed
in the remainder of the essay. It provides signal phrases (bolded above), such as “differed significantly” or
“stark contrasts,” which signal to the reader that this is a contrast essay.

Additionally, this introductory paragraph includes a thesis statement (underlined), which clearly notes the points
of contrast the essay will explore. The thesis statement communicates the essay’s main idea. It clearly tells us
that the essay will explore ways in which the Northern and Southern colonies differed in regard to society,
politics, and the economy.

2b. Body Paragraphs

From here, the author could set up the rest of her essay using either the point-by-point method or the block
method. Which organizational method does the essay use, and how do you know? Take a look at the excerpt
below, from the first two body paragraphs:

One way the colonies differed was in their social order. The Northern colonies were more town-centered,
and the culture revolved around church members since religion was central to these colonies. Conflicts
that occurred typically were of a religious nature. The Puritans who lived in the Northern colonies aimed to
live an idealized Christian life where they were free to practice their religion. Additionally, education was
more organized in the North, with the implementation of schools and universities.

The social order in the South, on the other hand, revolved around plantations, and the culture was primarily
organized around wealthy landowners and the elite class of white males. Women and slaves were second-
class citizens in this culture, with few rights. Education systems tended to develop more slowly in the South

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 as well. Students who were educated were typically educated at home since formal schools were far less
common.

In these body paragraphs, the author is discussing the first main point: societal aspects. She emphasizes the
primary social differences between the colonies. She also uses some comparison and contrast words and
phrases (underlined) as transitions to signal to the reader that a comparison or contrast is being made and to
help the essay's flow. Use of these words or phrases is a helpful way to illuminate similarities or differences for
the reader more clearly and is part of an effective comparison/contrast essay.

As you may have figured out, this author chose the point-by-point method. We can see that the author discusses
the social order of the Northern colonies in one paragraph, followed by the social order of the Southern
colonies in the next paragraph.

2c. Conclusion
Lastly, consider the concluding paragraph of this essay, as seen below:

The settling of the colonies in the early 1700s set the early groundwork for the America that was to come.
The colonies in the North and South developed along very different lines. In discussing the social, political,
and economic differences between the two colonies, we can reach a greater understanding of their
significance in American history. Today's America continues to reflect these differences when one
considers the impacts of the different approaches in these two different parts of the country.

Notice how the conclusion reinforces the original thesis statement, effectively summarizes the main points of
the essay, and explains the significance of the topic choice. This is an example of a summary conclusion, one of
the three approaches to writing an effective conclusion.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you analyzed how a model comparison/contrast essay employs common techniques and
organization typical of this type of writing. By identifying the purpose and topic, you could tell that the
writer chose to contrast two early American colonies. When analyzing the organization of the model
essay, you saw how the introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion came together to form a
successful composition using the point-by-point method.

Best of luck in your learning.

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 Types and Characteristics of Informative Writing
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn about what separates informative writing from other types of writing, and
the different methods of writing in the informative mode. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Purpose of Informative Writing
2. Types of Informative Writing
2a. Process Writing
2b. Analytical Writing
2c. Classification Writing
2d. Definition Writing
2e. Cause-and-Effect Writing

1. Purpose of Informative Writing

As you've learned, informative writing is a common form of essay writing. Some informative writing is also
academic writing; some is not. Informative writing informs readers about something; it describes or explains
something to them. It is intended to convey information without bias, unlike argumentative writing, for example,
which is persuasive.

While the line between these two forms is sometimes crossed, informative writing usually refers to writing that's
not meant to convince readers of anything.

EXAMPLE Suppose a professor writes a short article for the campus website that describes careers for
graduates of the program in which he teaches. It's likely that one of his goals is to persuade students to
enroll in his classes, but his main purpose is to share information. This latter purpose is one of the primary
signs of informative writing.
Because the goal of informative writing is to inform readers about something, it's important for writers to be as
objective as possible when writing in this way. They should do their best to set aside personal feelings and
opinions and simply report information as clearly and as honestly as they can.

 HINT

The best way to maintain objectivity is to use the rhetorical situation. Performing a meta-analysis of
personal biases and assumptions, and addressing them accordingly, brings writers closer to an objective

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 perspective, no matter the subject.

2. Types of Informative Writing

There are five main types of informative writing:

Process writing
Analytical writing
Classification writing
Definition writing
Cause-and-effect writing

Pay attention to the fact that while these methods of informative writing differ in certain characteristics, the
characteristic they all share is objectivity.

2a. Process Writing

Process writing describes the steps of a process in detail.

EXAMPLE A student is assigned to write an essay about conducting research. Her finished essay will
detail the steps involved in conducting research (e.g., going to the library or searching online, locating
sources, creating a list of citations, etc.).
Process writing is used in a variety of settings. Following is a paragraph that details the steps in a process that is
quite different from the one involved in the previous example.

When brewing beer, the first task is sanitization. When all equipment has been thoroughly cleaned to
remove bacteria, the next steps are cooking the barley (or other grain) and making the wort (i.e., the sugar
mix that the yeast uses to make alcohol).

2b. Analytical Writing

Analytical writing is often used in academic essays, especially those pertaining to composition and literature.
Analytical writing evaluates a written work, an image, or a set of data.

EXAMPLE Students who are assigned to write an essay about the portrayals of masculinity, femininity,
or class in Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre would be expected to analyze the novel.
The following piece of analytical writing is an excerpt from a review of the 2012 remake of the 1990s sci-fi movie
Total Recall.

I could complain that the newest version of Total Recall fails to invoke the beautifully ambiguous, surreal
quality of the first movie, but if I did, I'd have to admit that the story from which the "original" got its material

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 (i.e., Phillip K. Dick's "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale") is guilty of the same crime. This movie, like
many before it, is another version of an older story, not the same story.

Note that this paragraph is not only about the surface details of the movie. It also considers the film's context
and history, while informing readers about the current version. It's not a critique, which would require more
judgment or argument than is provided in this excerpt.

2c. Classification Writing

Classification writing is used to divide or organize things into categories.

EXAMPLE The teacher of a music history class asks his students to write about the categories of
instruments (e.g., woodwind, brass, string, etc.).
Read the following excerpt from an article about freshwater kayaks.

Many of those who have never tried it believe there's only one way to paddle a river: whitewater. But in
places like South Dakota's Big Sioux River, you will see all kinds of watercraft during the summertime:
touring kayaks loaded with gear, sporters strapped to their little six-foot boats, and longer, more stable,
sit-on-top kayaks. There's a lot to choose from.

Classification writing does more than just list things in categories. It filters and interprets data, and accounts for
readers' familiarity (or lack of familiarity) with the subject.

2d. Definition Writing

Definition writing characterizes and/or describes something. Good definition writing does so in new and
thoughtful ways.

EXAMPLE A student in a composition class begins to write an essay about same-sex marriage but ends
up redefining marriage as a legal, civil union, not necessarily a religious one.
The following example of definition writing could be an excerpt from a magazine or website devoted to
ranching or rodeos, settings in which the quarter horse is commonly found.

Not everyone considers the quarter horse to be a distinct breed, like the Arabian or Appaloosa, but there
are qualities that all quarter horses share, like their small, stocky build and ability to outrun other breeds
over short distances. The name "quarter horse" refers to their ability to cover distances of a quarter mile or
less faster than other breeds.

2e. Cause-and-Effect Writing

Cause-and-effect writing details why or how a cause produces (or will produce) a specific effect.

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 EXAMPLE A graduate student in a political science program writes a dissertation that demonstrates
how raising the federal minimum wage impacts small communities.
The following paragraph is a less academic example of cause-and-effect writing. It is an excerpt from a fictitious
letter to the editor about how city workers who paint over graffiti are less than effective.

Every time the city sends workers to repaint the underside of the bridge, the "artists" arrive right after they
finish. Sometimes the walls remain gray for one night, as if the artists are waiting for the paint to dry so they
can start again. From a graffiti-control standpoint, it's a waste of time, but maybe that's not the city's goal.
Maybe this is how we fund the arts nowadays. I'll wait and see how long it takes for the art to reappear next
time.

Although this passage does not identify graffiti as a problem, or specify a solution, it comes close to doing so.
Simply stating a cause-and-effect relationship sometimes amounts to an argument about what should be done,
even when the argument is only implied (as is the case in this passage).

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned that the purpose of informative writing is to provide the reader with
information in an objective tone. There are several main types of informative writing that you might
encounter, both inside and outside of an academic context: process writing, analytical writing,
classification writing, definition writing, and cause-and-effect writing.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 63
 Ethics and Analysis of Informative Writing
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will learn how ethics and informative writing intersect, and analyze examples that
illustrate that intersection. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Ethics and Informative Writing
2. Analyzing Informative Writing
2a. Travel Writing Excerpt
2b. Scientific Study Excerpt

1. Ethics and Informative Writing

Good informative writing communicates information and ideas objectively. When writing informatively, writers
must do their best to maintain a perspective that is free of bias, and to exclude unstated assumptions from their
work.

Although it is not possible to satisfy these requirements completely (since all writing requires interpretation of
information), writers must make their best effort to do so. This sometimes requires them to reveal biases and
personal background information to readers.

Readers should be able to assume that writers are communicating as honestly and accurately as they can. When
written work is labeled as informative—explicitly or inferentially—readers expect information to be presented in
an objective, neutral way. It is unethical for informative writers to misrepresent, omit, ignore, or skew
information.

 THINK ABOUT IT

If, as you flipped through a health magazine, you came across an article about a new vitamin supplement,
would you assume that the writer is not a paid representative of the company that makes the supplement?
Would you also assume that whatever the writer claims about the supplement is true, and that she hasn't
omitted important information? Written work that does not satisfy these assumptions is not good
informative writing—it's advertising. Readers read advertisements differently than articles that they assume
were written from a neutral perspective.
Informative writers are held to a higher ethical standard with respect to objectivity than those who write
advertisements.

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 EXAMPLE Suppose a student writes an article for a college newspaper about a series of meetings in
which administrators consider whether to allow certain political groups to operate on campus. If the student
misrepresents what happened at the meetings—to make his article more inflammatory or interesting, or to
persuade readers to support or oppose a position—he is behaving unethically.
It's important to note that if the student in the preceding example wanted to express his opinion about the issue,
he could write an editorial—an article in which readers expect to find personal opinion. Because editorials are
not informative writing, the objectivity standard is not applied as strictly to them.

2. Analyzing Informative Writing

Informative writing encompasses a variety of written work that addresses different subjects, written in different
ways for different purposes. While they may appear to have very little in common, the two examples you are
about to examine both demonstrate effective writing in the informative mode.

2a. Travel Writing Excerpt

The following example demonstrates how informative writing can be used to accomplish a writer's goals without
betraying readers' trust. It was taken from a book of travel journalism titled Oregon, Washington, and Alaska—
Sights and Scenes for the Tourist. As you read this excerpt, look for evidence of the writer's biases and
assumptions (if any), as well as his purpose.

Crater Lake is situated in the northwestern portion of Klamath county, Oregon, and is best reached by
leaving the Southern Pacific Railroad at Medford, which is 328 miles south of Portland, and about 90 miles
from the lake. The lake is about six miles wide by seven miles long, but it is not its size which is its beauty
or its attraction. The surface of the water in the lake is 6,251 feet above the level of the sea, and is
surrounded by cliffs or walls from 1,000 to over 2,000 feet in height, and which are scantily covered with
timber, and which offer at but one point a way of reaching the water.

The depth of the water is very great, and it is very transparent, and of a deep blue color. Toward the
southwestern portion of the lake is Wizard Island, 845 feet high, circular in shape, and slightly covered with
timber. In the top of this island is a depression, or crater—the Witches' Cauldron—100 feet deep, and 475
feet in diameter, which was evidently the last smoking chimney of a once mighty volcano, and which is now
covered within, as without, with volcanic rocks. North of this island, and on the west side of the lake, is Llao
Rock, reaching to a height of 2,000 feet above the water, and so perpendicular that a stone may be
dropped from its summit to the waters at its base, nearly one-half mile below.

So far below the surrounding mountains is the surface of the waters in this lake, that the mountain breezes
rarely ripple them; and looking from the surrounding wall, the sky and cliffs are seen mirrored in the glassy
surface, and it is with difficulty the eye can distinguish the line where the cliffs leave off and their reflected
counterfeits begin.

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 The writer of these paragraphs seems to have met his ethical responsibility to write objectively. This writer's
purpose was to share information about a beautiful location, Crater Lake. He uses facts (e.g., the elevation of
the lake and the height of the cliffs) and personal data (e.g., the observation that the water is so clear and still
that it's hard to tell the cliffs from their reflection) to inform readers about the setting.

 HINT

This kind of personal detail is commonly included in travel writing because, in addition to providing
information about a place, good travel writing lets readers know what it's like to be there.
This example may be actually overly objective. Most travel writers include more about their experience in a
place than this writer has.

EXAMPLE If he mentioned that the cold wind makes it a good idea for visitors to bring a coat, even
during summer, or talked about the bright sun or the fresh, clean air, the account would be more vivid and
memorable, and readers would have a better idea of what it is like to be there.
However, though the excerpt provides lots of facts and little description, it is a valid example of objective (and
ethical) informative writing.

2b. Scientific Study Excerpt

The following example is an excerpt from a report of the results of a scientific study about trends in word usage
on Facebook. The study considered the words used by members of different age groups, ethnicities, and
genders, the ways in which the words were used, and with what frequency.

Our technique leverages what people say in social media to find distinctive words, phrases, and topics as
functions of known attributes of people such as gender, age, location, or psychological characteristics. This
yields a comprehensive description of the differences between groups of people, and allows one to find
unexpected results...

Gender provides a familiar and easy to understand proof of concept for open-vocabulary analysis. We
scale word size according to the strength of the relation and we use color to represent overall frequency;
that is, larger words indicate stronger correlations, and darker colors indicate frequently used words. For
the topics, groups of semantically-related words, the size indicates the relative prevalence of the word
within the cluster as defined in the methods section.

Many strong results emerging from our analysis align with our results and past studies of gender. For
example, females used more emotion words (e.g., "excited"), and first-person singulars, and they mention
more psychological and social processes (e.g., "love you"). Males used more swear words, object
references (e.g., "Xbox").

One might also draw insights based on the gender results. For example, we noticed "my wife" and "my
girlfriend" emerged as strongly correlated in the male results, while simply "husband" and "boyfriend"
were most predictive for females. Investigating the frequency data revealed that males did in fact precede
such references to their opposite-sex partner with "my" significantly more often than females. On the other

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 hand, females were more likely to precede "husband" or "boyfriend" with "her" or "amazing" and a greater
variety of words, which is why "my husband" was not more predictive than "husband" alone. Furthermore,
this suggests the male preference for the possessive "my" is at least partially due to a lack of talking about
others' partners.

This writer's purpose is quite different from that of the writer of the previous example. Though both writers
provide information to readers, the information in this example is more complicated than that in the last. It
requires readers to do more interpretation.

 THINK ABOUT IT

Although this excerpt is a good example of objective informative writing, do you detect any bias? Why, for
example, is the last paragraph focused on the possessiveness of male speech? Does it indicate that the
writer has made some assumptions that she has not revealed to readers? Whenever writers convey
complex information, interpretation is necessary. Writers cannot eliminate all bias from their work, but they
must write as objectively as possible.
The excerpt in this section was taken from the article summary, so it does not contain many details about
research methodology, experimental controls, etc. However, it still demonstrates the writer's interest in
conveying what the study was about, and not just what was discovered. It begins by identifying filtering
techniques that were used. Before readers are presented with the findings, they are invited to examine the
methods used to arrive at those findings.

 HINT

This presentation sequence (i.e., what was studied, why it was studied, how it was studied, what was found,
what it means) is commonly used in scientific writing. Transparency is a priority, as is informing readers how
results were achieved, not just what those results are. This enables readers to evaluate the writer's biases
and assumptions—which in turn enables writers to avoid ethical complications.

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you learned about the role of ethics in informative writing, including the ethical
requirements related to this type of writing. You also performed an analysis of informative writing by
examining a travel writing excerpt and a scientific study excerpt. These examples demonstrated how
informative writers must take and maintain an objective perspective that is as free of bias and unstated
assumptions as possible.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

© 2024 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 67
 Model Informative Essays
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this lesson, you will examine two different informative essays in order to analyze the techniques their
writers used. Specifically, this lesson will cover:
1. Jenna Pack's "Breaking Down an Image"
2. Dan Richards' "Digital Ethics"

1. Jenna Pack's "Breaking Down an Image"

In an analytical essay titled "Breaking Down an Image," the writer (Jenna Pack) analyzes the following image of a
sports watch superimposed on a blurred male figure:

To evaluate this advertisement, Pack focuses on the elements of the image, including the placement of the
watch in a bottom corner of the ad, which compels viewers to focus their vision there instead of on the indistinct
male figure. Pack notes that although the male figure is not in focus, it is still meant to convey a message to
readers. She concludes that the intended audience for the ad is men, particularly male sports enthusiasts.
Pack uses a number of criteria to analyze the ad, including the following:

Audience
Context
Purpose
Tone

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 Arrangement
Location
Scale
Text
Typography
Font size and type
Color
Connotations
Readability

By breaking down the advertisement into its component parts, Pack is able to make conclusions about the
image—not only regarding the intended audience and purpose (i.e., to sell watches), but also about less
obvious aspects of the image's rhetorical situation.

EXAMPLE While analyzing color and connotation, Pack writes that the red hues, particularly those at the
bottom of the image, "...could connote warmth, raising the heart beat, getting the blood pumping, which all
symbolize that the watch is effective for athletes."
As she evaluates the components of the ad, Pack questions everything—from the colors used in it to why the
artist made the time display on the watch larger than the watchmaker's logo (an odd strategy for an
advertisement).

It is recommended that you read Pack's entire essay (a copy is attached below). Although its focus is only on an
advertisement, it demonstrates that understanding can be increased through careful analysis of any subject.

 TRY IT

The next time you view an advertisement, analyze it. See what kinds of conclusions you can make about it.
As Pack writes in the introduction to her essay, "images have power, which is why we need to understand
how to analyze them."

2. Dan Richards' "Digital Ethics"

In an essay titled "Digital Ethics," the writer (Dan Richards) defines a new word: "netiquette." It is a hybrid word
that combines "network" and "etiquette." Richards defines netiquette as the social code of the internet.

Instead of just providing the meaning of the word, Richards' essay—a copy of which is attached below—explains
why it is needed. To do so, he introduces the concept of digital ethics:

Because ethics refers to the way groups and individuals relate to, treat, and resolve issues with each other,
digital ethics then encompasses how users and participants in online environments interact with each other
and the technologies and platforms used to engage.

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 ....One of the most immediate reasons why digital ethics are important is because how we present, indeed
construct our persona(s) affects the way in which our communication and intentions will be received. The
notion that individual ethics impact our arguments is nothing new. Much of how we understand and
categorize argumentation today stems from Aristotle's "appeals," which are generally understood as the
means of persuasion—how we support our arguments for specific audiences.

Richards applies terms from Aristotelian ethics (logos, pathos, and ethos) to the concept of online persona. He
asks what it means to consider pictures posted on Facebook (for example) as part of a persona (regulated by
ethos) in the online world. Richards asserts that an online persona's conduct is bound by "netiquette," the code
of online behavior.

Additionally, Richards considers the ways in which the definition of the "netiquette" may impact readers'
behavior. He sets parameters to limit "netiquette" and asserts that all systems of etiquette, online or otherwise,
cannot be strictly enforced. He demonstrates that online interaction is a reflection of real-world interaction,
regulated by the same kinds of codes. Penalties are applied when codes are violated.

Richards concludes his definition essay by discussing online ethos and the persona-building process of social
media users. He explains how construction of an online persona impacts a person's ability to make arguments—
in job applications (for example), and in less formal settings.

He asks readers to consider the following question: "Social media sites often reveal meaningful insights into a
person's character; and, if online self-presentation is a core component to rhetoric, then how well will your
arguments stand?"

 SUMMARY

In this lesson, you looked at two examples of informative essays: Jenna Pack's "Breaking Down an
Image" and Dan Richards' "Digital Ethics." These two texts helped demonstrate the extent (in terms of
depth and detail) to which writers of informative essays engage with subjects, whether the subject is
the analysis of an image or the definition of a new term.

Best of luck in your learning!

Source: THIS TUTORIAL WAS AUTHORED BY SOPHIA LEARNING. PLEASE SEE OUR TERMS OF USE.

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 Terms to Know
Brainstorming
The use of a variety of techniques to generate ideas and/or clarify thinking.

Copyediting
The act of improving the sentence construction, word choice, and the overall style of an
essay or other piece of writing.

Draft Revision and Rewriting

The act of re-envisioning an essay or other writing project.

Drafting
The act of composing a piece of writing.

Meta-Awareness
In writing, a writer's consciousness of how the elements of the rhetorical situation have
influenced that writer's composition.

Outline
The prewritten plan for an essay or other piece of writing that generally includes a working
thesis, the primary ideas to be discussed, and the planned structural organization.

Plagiarism
The presentation of another person's ideas or writing as your own, either intentionally or
unintentionally.

Prewriting
A stage in the writing process in which the writer generates ideas and creates a plan for the
writing project prior to composing a first draft.

Proofreading
The act of fixing errors in grammar, mechanics, spelling, capitalization, punctuation,
commonly confused words, and formatting in an essay or other piece of writing.

Rhetorical Situation

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 In writing, the conditions and environment in which a text is composed, including the writer's
purpose, audience, background, and cultural-historical context, as well as how those factors
influence the composition.

Supporting Sentence
A sentence that bolsters the main idea of a paragraph by providing intellectual support.

Thesis
A single sentence that expresses the controlling idea of a piece of writing.

Topic Sentence
A sentence expressing the main idea of a paragraph.

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