MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF AZERBAIJAN REPUBLIC

AZERBAIJAN UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES

LEYLA JAFAROVA, ARIF HUSEYNOV, MATANAT MIRZAYEVA, GULLU MAMMADOVA,

SAHILA MUSTAFAYEVA

ENGLISH
GRAMBRIDGE
(Manual)

Azarbaycan Respublikasi Tahsil Nazirliyi Elmi-Metodik

§urasi «Avropa Dillari va Odabiyyatiw bolmasinin
12.03.2011-ci il tarixli, 03 nbmrali iclas protokoluna
asasan dars vasaiti kimi tasdiq edilmi$dir.

“Science and Education”

Baku -2012
 Editor-in-chief: Doctor ofPhilology, prof.
Dunyaxnin Yunusov

Editor: Senior teacher

Sahila Mustafayeva

Reviewers: Doctor of Philology, prof.

Nigar Valiyeva
Doctor ofPhilology, prof.
Balakhan Huseynov
Ph. D., associate professor
Edison Haciyev
Ph. D., associate professor
Abbas Abbasov

Leyla Jafarova, Arif Huseynov, Matanat Mirzayeva, Gullu Mammadova,

Sahila Mustafayeva.
English Grambridge (Manual). Baki, “Science and Education”, 2012,368 p.
*

4602000000
7VO98- 2012
© “Science and Education”, 2012
 PREFACE
he manual deals with teaching communicative grammar, which
relates grammatical structure to meaning, use and situations, i.e.
reflects interdependence of grammar and communication. In fact, it is
sometimes not the form but the meaning or appropriate use of a
grammatical structure that represents the greatest long-term learning
challenge for students.
The manual is intended for the first and second year university students for them
to improve and extend the range of their communicative skills in the language; It also
supplies the essential information about grammatical forms and structures and can
therefore be used as a general reference book or coursebook on English grammar.
Grammar is presented through various graphic organizers by means of contextualized
grammar explanations that help students easily understand and comprehend each
language structure. The main value of the manual is a wide collection of selected
exercises and activities both for classroom work and self study. All exercises are
varied; thematically coherent and purposeful; and give students many opportunities to
personalize and own the language. A variety of communicative activities provide
students with the practice and skills they need to communicate properly that helps to
integrate grammar and communication and promotes eliciting self-expression and
personalized learning. In addition, the manual includes 9 progress tests (3 per term)for
the purpose of continuous assessment and 3 achievement tests( 1 per term) to evaluate the
main points of what has been taught through the term.
The manual is compiled according to the existing syllabus of the English grammar
course. (Term I, Term II, Term III). The structure of the manual is easy to follow. It
comprises three parts - Book I, Book II, Book III, each consequently corresponding to
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Term III. Accordingly, Book I includes the grammar points (+practice section)
concerning General classification of the Parts of Speech; The Verb, general
classification; The Verbal Categories; The Present Indefinite Tense Form; The Past
Indefinite Tense Form; The Future Indefinite Tense Form; The Future Indefinite in the
Past; The Present Continuous Tense Form; The Past Continuous Tense Form; The
Future Continuous Tense Form; The Future Continuous in the Past; The Present Perfect
Tense Form; The Past Perfect Tense Form; The Future Perfect Tense Form; The Future
Perfect in the Past; The Present Perfect Continuous Tense Form; The Past Perfect
Continuous Tense Form; The Future Perfect Continuous Tense Form; The Future Perfect
Continuous in the Past; The Passive Voice; The Sequence of Tenses; Direct and Indirect
Speech; The Noun, its morphological characteristics and syntactic functions; The
Semantic Characteristics of the Noun; The Category of Number; The Category of Case;
The Indefinite Article;The Definite Article; Special Difficulties in the use of Articles; The
use of the Articles with geographical and peisonal names; The Pronoun (personal,

3
possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, demonstrative, definite, indefinite, negative,
interrogative, conjunctive, relative); The Numeral; The Adjective, its morphological
structure and meaning; Substantivized Adjectives; Degrees of Comparison of the
Adjective; The Adverb, its characteristic features and meaning; Degrees of Comparison
of Adverbs; Interrogative, conjunctive, relative adverbs. Book II includes the grammar
material (-rpractice section) concerning The Conjunction (coordinating and
subordinating); The Preposition; The Interjection; Modal Words; The Particle;
Homonymous parts of speech in English; The Non-Finite forms of the verb; The
Infinitive; The Bare Infinitive; The Functions of the Infinitive; Constructions with the
Infinitive; The Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction; The Subjective Infinitive
Construction; The For-to-Infinitive Construction; The Gerund; The Functions of the
Gerund; Gerundial Constructions; The Gerund and the Infinitive; The Gerund and the
Verbal Noun; The Participle; The Functions of the Participle; Constructions with the
Participle; The Objective Participial Construction; The Subjective Participial
Construction; The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction and NAC without
Participle; The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction and PAC without
Participle; Modal Verbs: Can, May, Must, To be (to), To have (to), Should, Ought (to),
Shall, Will (would), Need, Dare. And finally Book III includes the grammar points
(+practice section) to be covered through Term III: The Category of Mood; The
Imperative Mood; The Indicative and the Subjunctive Mood; The Past Subjunctive
Mood; The Past Perfect Subjunctive Mood; The Conditional Mood; The Present
Subjunctive Mood; The Suppositional Mood; The Sentence; The types and kinds of the
Simple Sentences; “It ” as the subject of the sentence; The Predicate; The Simple Verbal
and Phraseological Predicate; The Compound Nominal Predicate; The CVMP; CVAP;
Mixed types of the Predicate; The Agreement; The Object: direct, indirect, cognate
objects; “It’’ as the object of the sentence; The Attribute; The Apposition; The Adverbial
Modifier; The Word Order; The Inversion (grammatical and stylistic); The Composite
Compound Sentence; The Composite Complex Sentence; The Nominal Clauses (subject,
object and predicative clauses); The Attributive Clauses (restrictive and non-restrictive);
The Attributive Appositive Clauses; The Adverbial Clauses.
We hope that the manual will help students learn to use grammatical structures
accurately, meaningfully and appropriately; make teaching grammar easier and more
effective and promote realization of the communicative value of grammar.
rr^t • i • r. .. xi_ :___ i:x_, xi___ .______ 4-___ 2-1 __________ J 4 1___ 1_____
mere is no Claim iui uic uugiiiaiuy ui me inaiciiai cuvcicu 111 me uuu\. me
materials are selected, adapted and adopted from the existing sources indicated in the list
of references.

4
 THE CONJUNCTION
LINKING WORDS/CONNECTORS

________ Coordinating Conjunctions

1. Copulative
2. Disjunctive
3. Adversative
4. Causative-consecutive

_____________ Copulative Conjunctions_________________________

and, nor, as well as, both and, not only.«but also, neither... nor

She came and left.

Aliand Vali were at the meeting, but they didn’t stay long.
She went there happily and full of hope.
He had a cosy and serene home.
Gold is not only beautiful but it is also useful to many industries.

_________________ Disjunctive Conjunctions

or, either... or, or else, else

He was compelled to think this thought, or else there would not beany use to strive, and he
would have lain down and died. n ; : u.'./e! :

Adversative Conjunctions
but, while, whereas,however, yet, nevertheless

His nerves had become blunted, liumb, while his mind was filled with weird visions and
delicious dreams.
She seemed to be asking a very serious question, but she couldn’t put that question into words.

Causative-consecutive Conjunctions
so, for, hence, thus, therefore

5
There would be plenty of time for this, for he was not in a position to marry.
It was Sunday, so they were at home.
He is a good friend, hence I was not embarrassed to ask him for help.

Subordinating Conjunctions
1. Subject clause That she is not a native of the country is not true.

2. Object clause He looked to the south and knew that somewhere beyond those blue
hills lay the Great Bear Lake.
3. Predicative clause What I mean is that you’re the first man I have ever met.
4. Adverbial clauses Even though he was tired, he went on reading the material,
(adverbial clause of concession)
He walked into the Green Park that he might cross to Victoria
Station and take the Underground into the City, (adverbial clause of
purpose)
It was so cold that we had to stop the game, (adverbial clause of
result)
If the man ran, he would run after him; but the man did not run.
(adverbial clause of condition)
As Jacob has made me captain, I must call the roll, (adverbial clause
of cause)
These were the thoughts of the man as he strove onward, (adverbial
clause of time)

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS/LINKING WORDS/CONNECTORS

I. DENOTING CONTRADICTION
notwithstanding (the fact that)
1. Notwithstanding (the fact that) all the work was finished on time, my boss didn’t
appreciate it.
despite/ in spite of (the fact that)
Despite (the fact that) a good amount of coal is used, winters are still very cold for people.
Despite / in spite (of) his illness, he went on working.
regardless of/ irrespective of
Regardless of their criticism / Regardless of the fact that he was criticized, Paul went on
tn A WV*V* Fnr
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a) though Though it didn’t taste delicious, she behaved as if it were so.
I spent hours trying to make a cake. I didn’t like it, though.
b) although Although I wasn’t quite sure, now it’s clear for me that there are
disadvantages of having a car in a big city.
c) even though Even though she had a bad cold, she went to the concert.
much as Much as everybody expects that he will be the winner, he has no self­
(although) confidence.
otherwise Write it down; otherwise you are likely to forget it.
on the one hand On the one hand I don’t want to study; on the other hand, I have to
on the other submit my assignment tomorrow.
hand
however The subject has been publicized widely; however, there are many
people who know nothing about it.
The subject has been publicized widely. There are many people who

6
 know nothing about it, however.
while While I understand why he refused to help her, I can’t agree that he
was right.
whereas John likes funny films whereas his wife likes romantic ones.
even so It is a very old car. Even so it still works very well.
all the same I have got a headache, but I’m going to the party all the same.
nevertheless The road to the forest is long and difficult; nevertheless, it is worth
spending time on it.
nonetheless Reading practices are boring for me, nonetheless I have to deal with
them to improve my comprehension.
yet = but It has been raining for two hours; yet, (but) it is not enough for the
crops.
except that = The car had various notable qualities, except that it was used a lot.
save that They found out nothing more save that she had borne a child.
IL DENOTING ADDITION
in addition You should read English novels everyday. In addition, you should
study your package.
in addition to + In addition to being a good teacher, he is also a very good father.
gerund
likewise The clams were delicious. Likewise, the eggplant was excellent.
furthermore Smoking is harmful to the health. Furthermore, it is an expensive
habit.
also He has many projects on this subject and he also makes great
investments to carry out them.
besides Besides going to an art course, she has an English course on Fridays.
She, has a course during weekdays. Besides, she attends a seminar on
Japanese culture at weekends.
moreover / even They have all the material to study. Moreover/Even more, they have
more the best teachers.
I what’s more
to tell the truth / It is very expensive. Admittedly/To tell the truth, it is not really
admittedly what we want.
let alone I haven’t even seen him, let alone talked to him.
III. DENOTING CON DITION
as long as / so a) on condition that: My father says that I can go wherever I like
long as as long as I get back before 7 o’clock. iZ .
b) during the time: You shall never hit my sister as long as I live.
on condition that I’ll move to another flat on condition that I find one in a low
payment.
provided / She’ll go to the conservatoire providing she passes the proficiency
providing (that) test.
except if... I won’t go to the party except if they invite me.
even if ... I’ll prepare my project for Tuesday even if it takes all day.
whether or not I’ll go there whether you come or not.
if If the United States signed the Kyoto Protocol, the ozone emission
would be far lower, and the Earth would be far safer.
unless Unless you make regular exercises, you won’t get thinner.
assuming / Assuming you were the richest man in the world, what would you do?
assume (that)
as if / as though Brian talks as if / though he were the King.
Brian talked as if / though he saw the accident.
 ----------------- _----------
Brian talked as if / though he had seen the accident.
if only ... then If only Azerbaijan had won the World Cup, then it would have
become a more famous country.
main clause, + I’ll help you only if you promise to study.
only if + clause
only if + clause, + Only if you promise to study, I will help you.
invert clause
or else/otherwise Any employee has to be punctual, or else he will be fired. You don’t
have to do it in this way as I did.
in order that + I left the room quietly in order that I shouldn’t wake up my baby.
clause
in order to + I left the room quietly in order not to wake up my baby.
verb
so as to + verb The students were seated separately so as to prevent cheating.
(in order to)
so that + clause a) We talked slowly so that nobody was able to hear us.
b) We talked slowly so that nobody would hear us.
in case / in case In case you forget to pay your debt, remind me of it at the weekend.
of In case of emergency you can call me.
in the event that He left some money in the event that he might not come in a week.
lest They decided to leave at once, lest the enemy should find their
position.
IV. DENOTING RESULT
so/thus The problem was very difficult, so I wanted help from my
mathematics teacher.
consequently/as I forgot to take my credit with me; consequently, I couldn’t pay the
a result bill.
hence She is very rude, hence nobody likes her.
therefore It was a long conference, therefore all the audience got bored.
accordingly You want to buy a car. Accordingly, you have to take a driving
license.
that’s why He always deceives people, that’s why I don’t appreciate him.
that is Those who don’t have the legibility to vote can’t enter this program,
that is people under 18 years old.
in turn I took them some flowers and I was given a book in turn.
|V. DENOTING REASON
now that Now that this project has finished, we can start another one.
since Since they want to live a healthier life they swim everyday.
because I couldn’t go abroad for textile fair because I had some problems
while getting my visa.
seeing that Seeing that everything is changing day by day, we begin to be more
hopeful about the future.
on the grounds On the grounds that recent inventions facilitate our lives, we live a
that safer life.
as As they hadn’t taken enough precautions, they had many troubles.
for Everybody asks everything of him, for he is an intelligent and a
sophisticated person.
owing to (the Lots of students were able to complete their university education
fact that) owing to the fact that many businessmen gave scholarships
throughout their campus life.
due to (the fact Why I left for England is due primarily to my dreams of studying law

x
 that)________ - at London School of Economics.
i --- ------- r.—rt:
inasmuch as We must be more careful now inasmuch as the situations are getting
(because) worse and more difficult.
in so far as / The research suggests that the drug will be successful, in so far as
insofar is/ .. unc;Qan draw conclusions from such a small sample size. -
in as far as
VI. TIME EXPRESSIONS________________________________________ E_i22_L_±____
when 1. at that time
2. after ' ' ‘
3. by the time
1. I liked to fish when I was a kid.
2. When I had finished the puzzle, I called the company.’
3. When I arrived, they had already left.
as soon as As soon as he finished the book, he went to the library to get another
one.
no sooner + than No sooner had she called to warn us about the runaway gorilla than
we heard a strange noise coming from downstairs.
hardly/barely Hardly had she realized how rude what she had just said was when
/scarcely... he looked uneasy. ■
when
by (the time) By the time she warned us about the thief, every precious thing in our
house had been stolen.
once Once I pass the exam, I will fly to Malaysia to spend my holiday.

PRACTICE ON THE CONJUNCTIONS

Practice 1. Identify the form and meaning of the conjunctions.

Mark realized that he needed to meet with his advisor in order to get a
signature on his study list. First he tried to call on his advisor’s office. After
waiting for a long time Mark decided to walk over to the Administration Building.
There was a long line, but he waited. Consequently, he stood in line for two hours.
Mark didn’t want to leave without a signature. Then he would feel as if he had
wasted his time.
Eventually, he met with Mr. Campanile, his advisor, and got his signature. As
a result, Mark was eligible to register. However, this was not a guarantee that he
would get all of the classes that he needed. While some classes were open to all
students, other classes required the signature of the instructor: in fact two of the
classes that Mark wanted were “Signature Only” classes. Mark found out that
besides getting the instructor’s signature, he needed to explain why he wanted to
 be added to each class. He would have to make appointment with two more people.
Furthermore, these instructors might not sign his add cards. If that happened, he
would have to go back to his advisor and make a new study list.
Practice 2. Circle the coordinating conjunctions and underline the elements
that each connects.
Jane is happy and nervous today. Her mother is flying to Los Angeles from
New York and will be staying with her for two weeks. Jane cleaned her appartment
until it was shining and spotless. She was going to get flowers, but she didn’t have
any time. On her way to the airport, she thought about making reservations for
dinner, but she wasn’t sure whether her mother would prefer Chinese or Thai food.
She knew that her mother liked neither pepper nor curry.
Once she was on the road, Jane turned on the radio and realized that her
mother was going to be late. The weather was good, but the snow near Chicago
had caused a delay. Jane had time to go shopping or to sit in a cafe and read a
book.
An hour later, Jane again headed toward the airport, and she took her time.
She was very surprised to see her mother wait in the outside for a taxi! Her mother
had heard about the Chicago snowstorm and decided to take an earlier flight. She
didn’t have time to call Jane, but she knew that Jane was careful and would arrive
early to pick her up.
What a mix-up! Jane could have gotten to the airport earlier, but she didn’t.
Her mother could have called from the plane, but she didn’t. They were both
hungry and tired. Jane offered to take her mother to either a Chinese or a Thai
restaurant, but her mother just wanted to get to Jane’s apartment and take a nap.
Practice 3. Rewrite the sentences. Omit the underlined words and use the
word in brackets. Use the past perfect where necessary.
1. Sue studied several maps, and then she decided on an interesting route for her
bike ride, (before) 2. She changed her clothes, and then she checked the tires on
her bike, (after) 3. She put fresh water in her water bottle, and next she left home,
(before) 4. She rode for several miles, then she came to a very steep hill, (after) 5.

10
She rode to the top of the hill, and then she stopped to drink some water and enjoy
the view, (before) 6. She rode for ten more miles, and then she got a flat tire, (after)
7. She fixed the flat tire quickly, and then she continued her ride, (before) 8. It
started to rain, and then she decided to go home, (after) 9. She rode 30 miles before
she stopped, (by the time) 10. She took a long, hot shower, and finally she ate a
huge plate of pasta, (after)
Practice 4. Find out all types of conjunctions.
Jennifer is an American student. As she is planning to major in international
business, she decided that it would be important for her to know how to speak
Japanese. She managed to get some money from her father and left for Japan for
six months.
She has now been in Tokyo for three months, taking classes in Japanese
language and conversation. When she first arrived, she missed home a lot, so she
quickly made friends with other Americans she met. Instead of living with a
Japanese host family, she decided to move in with two other American women and
now she spends all her time with her new friends. She takes Japanese classes every
day, but she seldom spends any time with the students who do not speak any
English. As a result, she rarely speaks Japanese and has not made much progress in
the language. She hasn’t learned much about Japanese culture either.
Jennifer is having a great time in Tokyo with her American friends, but now
allprl tr> fpl1 hpr that hp Axzi 11 hp comma
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to Tokyo on business, and he wants her to help him while he is there. He wants her
to help to interpret for him, as well as advise him on Japanese culture and customs.
She is feeling very anxious about meeting her father.
Practice 5. Using the information in brackets respond to the following
statements with not only... but also.
Example:
1.1 heard that Samuel has to work on Saturdays. (Sundays)
Samuel has to work not only on Saturdays but also on Sundays.

11
2. Shirley Temple could dance well, (sing ) 3. The language laboratory is great for
improving pronunciation, (listening comprehension) 4. Nola should exercise twice
a week, (go on a diet) 5. Becky has to take a text on Friday, (finish a project) 6.
Thomas Jefferson was a great politician, (inventor) 7. The dictionary shows the
pronunciation of a word, (part of speech) 8. The International Student Office will
help you to locate an apartment, (get a part-time job) 9. It rained all day last
Tuesday, (last Wednesday)
Practice 6. Identify the conjunctions and rephrase them for formal usage.
In the last forty years, familylife trends have changed dramatically in the
United States. In the past, it was expected that everyone would get married in their
early twenties. Now having to choose either between a family or a career, many are
opting for the career and remaining single. Others are postponing first marriages
until their thirties or forties.
If and when couples decide to marry, many are deciding to limit their family
size. Not only couples are having fewer children but they are also deciding to have
no children at all. On the other hand, some singles are either deciding to raise their
own or adopt children by themselves. In addition, many same-sex partners are not
only choosing to form binding relationships but also to become parents.
In the past, women worked either for personal satisfaction or to earn extra
money for luxuries. Today both the husband and the wife must work in order to
survive. Because of this, husbands and wives do not always adhere to traditional
sex roles. Now either the husband might do the cooking and cleaning or the wife
might do the cooking and cleaning.
Both because of the greater stress of modern life and the greater freedom that
each partner feels, divorce is becoming more and more common. Neither the rich
are immune nor the poor. In some states, the divorce rate approaches fifty
percent. Marriage cannot be all bad, though. Not only many people get divorced
but these same people also get remarried one or more times throughout their
lifetimes.
Practice 7. Choose and underline an appropriate logical connector from the
options in parentheses. There may be more than one correct choice.
Both Northern and Southern California have mountains and a beautiful
coastline, (and; but; furthermore) the two halves of this state have a number of
differences. Southern California, (however; on the one hand; consequently), is
famous for oranges, Hollywood, and the movie and television industries. Northern
California, (therefore; however; on the one hand), is famous for its wine
production, San Francisco, and its wonderful national parks.
Most residents of either half of the state will be happy to tell you why their
half is better than the other: (nevertheless; in fact; so; in addition), they may even
argue with you (since; if; due to) you disagree with them, (yet; however;
moreover), most California residents travel around the state on vacation.
Recently, some people have suggested that Northern and Southern California
be split into two states, (but; on the other hand; however) where would the split
occur? Which cities in the middle of the state would go into which state?
(Furthermore; moreover; in addition), what would each new state be called? '
This proposal will probably not take place. Such a split would be
complicated (and; in addition to, but also) expensive, (not to mention; besides; as a
result), what would Californians then have to complain about?
Practice 8. Underline and define ali the conjunctions.
The father of Russian science, as well as outstanding poet, founder of
Russian literature and creator of the Russian literary language, is how Mikhail
Lomonosov is known.
A son of a peasant, Lomonosov was bom in 1711 in the village of
Denisovka (now Lomonosovo), Archangel gubernia. His thirst for learning
revealed itself when he was still young, and he easily mastered reading and
writing through church books.
When he was 19, Lomonosov set out on foot for Moscow, where he
entered the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy by hiding his peasant origin and
pretending to be of noble birth - the Academy was closed to peasants. Here he

13
 studied Latin - the language of science at that time - and mastered it in a short
space of time. During this period of his life he experienced great want, for his
only income was a stipend of three dollars a day. He distinguished himself in the
field of science, however, and in 1736 was included in a group of students sent
abroad to complete their studies in chemistry and metallurgy.
While abroad Lomonosov also occupied himself with philosophy, physics,
mathematics and foreign languages. On his return to St. Petersburg, he was
accepted in 1742 as an associate of the Academy of Sciences in physics. Four
years later he was appointed professor and elected a member of the Academy.
Practice 9. Underline and define all the conjunctions.
New Zealand was, in the 1880s, the most remote of the provinces, but
Rutherford managed to get a good education. He was as original as Einstein, but
unlike Einstein he did not revolt against a formal instruction; he was top in
classics as well as in everything else. He started the research on the subject of the
wireless waves with the equipment such as one might dig up today in an African
laboratory. That did not deter him. “ I could do research at the North Pole,” he
once proclaimed, and it was true. He brought his wireless work to Cambridge,
anticipated Marconi and then dropped it because he saw the field - the radio­
activity - more scientifically interesting. His work led him directly to the atomic
energy industry, spending thousands of millions of pounds. He himself never
earned, or wanted to earn, more than a professor’s salary. In his will he left
precisely the value of the Nobel prize.
As soon as Rutherford got on to the radio-activity, he was set on his life’s
work. His ideas were simple, rugged, material. He thought of the atoms as though
they were the tennis balls. He discovered the particles smaller than the atoms, and
discovered how they moved or bounced. Sometimes the particles bounced the
wrong way. Then he inspected the facts and made a new but always simple
picture. In that way he moved, as certainly as a sleepwalker, from unstable radio­
active atoms to the discovery of nucleus and structure of the atom. In 1919 he
made one of the significant discoveries of all the time: he broke up the nucleus of

14
 nitrogen by direct hit from alpha particle. That is, man could now get inside the
atomic nucleus.
Practice 10. Add the appropriate conjunctions - and, but, or, or nor.
1. Jane lives in Los Angeles, .......................... her mother doesn’t. 2. Her mother
will visit ......................... will stay at her place. 3. Jane was going to make
reservations at either a Chinese ................... a Thai restaurant. 4. Jane’s mother
likes food that is neither hot................................. spicy. 5. The weather was good in
Los Angeles ..................................... there was bad weather near Chicago. 6. Jane
thought that she had enough time to go shopping ........................ have coffee.
7. Jane’s mother had changed her flight,.......................... she didn’t call Jane to tell
her. 8. Jane’s mother thought that Jane would call the airline................... would be
on time for the other flight. 9. Neither Jane......................... her mother had called.
10. One........................ both of them should have called.
Practice 11. Complete the sentences using the conjunctions although, and,
because, but, or, since, so, unless, until, when.
1. Things were different I was young. 2. I do it I like it. 3. Let us
wait here the rain stops. 4. You cannot be a lawyer you have a law
degree. 5. She has not called she left last week. 6.1 saw him leaving an hour
two ago. 7. This is an expensive very useful book. 8. We were getting
tired we stopped for a rest. 9. He was angry he heard when happened.
10. Walk quickly you will be late. 11. He had to retire of ill health.
12. We will go swimming next Sunday_____ it's raining. 13. I heard a noise
____ I turned the light on. 14. Would you like a coffee tea? 15. Do you
know she will arrive? 16.the car is old it still runs well. 17. Do you
want a pen____ a bit of paper? 18.1 would like to go I am too busy.
19. She will die___ the doctors operate immediately.

15
Practice 12. Circle the coordinating conjunctions and underline the elements
that each one connects.
Mat and Jeff first came to San Francisco in 1980, after they had graduated
from college. Both of them had grown up in small towns. Jeff was from Wisconsin,
and Matt grew up in Kansas, but neither one enjoyed living in a small town. There
wasn’t enough freedom or excitement for their tastes. Each one decided to move to
San Francisco because he had heard that it was a beautiful city, and that it was
filled with interesting people. When they first met, they were surprised and delight
to discover how many things they had in common and how similar their interests
were. Jeff liked weightlifting, and so did Matt. Matt loved opera, and Jeff did too.
Jeff wasn’t entirely comfortable with “big-city” life, nor was Matt, but neither one
missed living in a small town at all. They both liked dogs and wanted to have one
for a pet, so they decided to look for an apartment and live together. They both
thought it would be cheaper and more fun to have a roommate. However, when
they moved in together and began living with each other, they found that there
were also a lot of differences between them. Jeff was very neat, but Matt wasn’t.
He preferred to let the dirty dishes pile up until there were “enough” to bother
with, and he did not pick up his clothes or keep things neat. Jeff, on the other hand,
always wanted things to be washed immediately, even if there were only one or
two dishes. Matt liked staying out late every Friday night, but Jeff always wanted
to get up early on Saturday mornings to clean the house and to finish chores so
they could spend the afternoon relaxing or playing with their new puppy in the
park. They soon realized that they would either have to start making compromises
or start looking for separate apartments, which neither Matt nor Jeff wanted to do.
Fortunately, their similarities outweighed their differences, and they settled into a
pleasant life together.
Practice 13. Combine these pairs of sentences to make them less redundant.
Example:
Jeff lives in San Francisco. Matt lives in San Francisco.
Jeff lives in San Francisco, and so does Matt.
Both Jeff and Matt live in San Francisco.

16
 1. Jeff likes cleaning. Matt doesn’t like cleaning. 2. Jeff may go home for a visit
on his vacation. Jeff may travel to France on his vacation. 3. Matt doesn’t plan to
return to his hometown to live. Jeff doesn’t plan to return to his hometown to live.
4. Jeff likes getting up early. Matt doesn’t like getting up early. 5. Jeff always
wanted to have a dog. Matt always wanted to have a dog. 6. Matt might take the
dog to the park this afternoon. Jeff might take the dog to the park this afternoon.
7. Matt likes dancing at nightclubs. Matt likes meeting friends at nightclubs.
8. Matt comes from a small town in Kansas. Jeff comes from a small town in
Wisconsin.
Practice 14. Connect the sentences with coordinating conjunctions. Make any
necessary changes to remove redundancy.
My mother doesn’t smoke. My father doesn’t smoke. My father gave up
smoking years ago. My mother only quit last year. My mother had wanted to quit
for a long time. She knew it was bad for her health. She wasn’t able to smoke only
one or two cigarettes. She had to give it up entirely. My mother sometimes still
wants a cigarette. My mother won’t smoke a cigarette no matter how much she
wants to. My father is proud of her for quitting. My father gives my mother a lot of
praise for quitting.
Practice 15. Insert the required conjunctions where necessary.
Early on the seventh morning ... he had left his native place, Oliver entered
slowly the little town of Barnet. The window-shutters were closed; the streets were
empty. The sun was rising in all its beauty;... light only served to show the boy his
own loneliness ... desolation, ... he sat upon a door-step. He had been sitting on the
step for some time ...he saw that a boy, who had passed him carelessly some
minutes before, had returned ... was now surveying him from the opposite side of
the way. Then the boy crossed over ...walked close up to Oliver. It was a
snubnosed, flat-browed, common-faced dirty boy, ... he had the airs and manners
of a man. He wore a man’s coat, which reached nearly to his heels. He had turned
the cuffs back to get his hands out of the sleeves.

17
Practice 16. Point out all the compound sentences and state how they are
connected.
It was in the neighborhood of Berkeley Square and I had come out of a
drawing-room, warm, scented and full of “portable property”. The hall door was
closed behind me, the East wind caught me in the face, and I walked into a child.
She may have been five years old. With a scanty red petticoat widespread over
her humped-up knees, she was sitting on the pavement and beating it with a bit of
withered branch decorated with three or four brown leaves. In time to the beating
she chimed a song. Blackish-brown curls hung all about her round, smutty face; the
remains of a hat rested beside her on the pavement; and two reckless, little black
devils looked out of her eyes.
She was so delightful a contrast to the “portable property” that it was
impossible not to stare at her. So I went down the street crabwise.
She knew I was going crabwise, she knew the position of the “bobby” at the
comer; she knew everything all round her. And when she saw me she began to flirt
with me. She put her head on one side like a terrier asking for cake, and looked up
through the tangle of curls. She smiled.
I smiled, and went round the comer. There was a little patter of hobnails and she
came round the comer. If she was queer on the ground, she was queerer on her
feet; she had clapped her hat - the last bit of a large girl’s hat - on the back of her
head; her short, red petticoat gaped, her brown legs were thrust into a woman’s
boots. She shuffled along behind, beating the railings with her branch. Sometimes
she banged up alongside, shot a shy glance at my top-hat, and fell back again.
People passed and stared at her, but she paid no attention. In Oxford Street we
stopped and held a conversation. It began and ended thus: “Would you like some
sweets?” I left her sucking a sixpence, staring after me with her great black eyes,
and beating a shop window with her branch.
But when I looked round again she was dancing to a barrel-organ with some
other children, her petticoat little red teetotum in the crowded street.

18
Practice 17. Join the sentences by means of the coordinating conjunctions and
state the type of coordination {copulative, disjunctive, adversative and
causative-consecutive).
1. The sky was blue and clear. The winds were silent. 2. His friends had gone away
to Egypt. He had stayed behind. 3. It was raining hard. The wind was cold and
piercing. 4. He didn’t know I could read French. He never asked me to help him. 5.
Please, hurry, we shall be late. 6. Salim split the wood. His sister piled it. 7. The
boys played games, mother sewed. Father read aloud. 8. The fence was already
whitewashed. Tom could play with the boys. 9. We called on him. He was not at
home. 10.1 could not make a report; I had not read the book.
Practice 18. Point out the coordinating conjunctions and comment on the way
they are joined.
1. It was high summer, and the hay harvest was almost over. 2. All the rooms were
brightly lighted, but there seemed to be complete silence in the house. 3. One small
group was playing cards, another sat about a table and drank, or tiring of that,
adjourned to a large room to dance to the music of the victrola or player-piano.
4. His eyes were blood-shot and heavy, his face deadly white, and his body bent as
if with age. 5. You’ll either sail this boat correctly or you’ll never go out with me
again. 6. Time passed, and she came to no conclusion, nor did any opportunities
come her way for making a closer study of Mischa. 7. She often enjoyed Annette’s
company, yet the child made her nervous. 8. She ran through another set of rooms,
breathless, her feet scarcely touching the surface of the soft carpets; then a final
doorway suddenly and unexpectedly let her out into the street. 9. It was early
afternoon, but very dark outside, and the lamps had already been turned on.
10. Brown never smoked cigarettes, yet he took the one offered, fumbling painfully
with thick fingers, blushing to the roots of his hair.
Practice 19. Point out the conjunctions and comment on the way they are
joined.
Once upon a time there was a boy whose name was Jack. Jack lived with his
mother. They were very poor, and the old woman made her living by spinning. But

19
Jack was so lazy that he did nothing but lie in the sun in the hot weather in
summer, and sit by the fire-place in winter. So people called him Lazy Jack.
His mother could not make him work. At last one Monday she said to him:
“If you don’t begin to work for your porridge, I will turn you out of the
house.”
These words made Jack do something.
So on Tuesday, he went out and hired himself for a day to a neighboring
farmer for a penny. But when he was going home in the evening, he lost the penny.
“You silly boy,” said his mother, “you should have put it into your pocket.”
“I’ll do so another time,” answered Jack.
On Wednesday, Jack went out again and hired himself to a cowman. The
cowman gave him a jar of milk for his day’s work. Jack took the jar of milk and
put it into the large pocket of his jacket. But the milk was all spilled long before he
got home.
“Oh! You should have carried it on your head,” said the old woman.
“I’ll do so another time,” answered Jack.
On Thursday, Jack hired himself again to a farmer. In the evening the farmer
gave him a large soft cheese for his work. Jack took the cheese and went home
with it on his head. By the time he got home the cheese was all spoilt. He lost part
of it, and part of it was in his hair.
“You foolish boy,” said the mother, “you should have carried it very carefully
in your hands.”
“I’ll do so another time,” answered Jack.
On Friday, Lazy Jack again went out and hired himself to a baker. The baker
gave him nothing for his work but a large cat. Jack took the cat, and began to carry
it very carefully in his hands, but in a short time the cat scratched him so much that
he let it go. When he got home, his mother said to him: “You silly boy, you should
have tied a string to it, and dragged it along after you.”
“I’ll do so another time,” answered Jack.

20
 On Saturday, Jack hired himself to a butcher, who gave him a shoulder of
mutton for his work. Jack took the mutton, tied a string to it, and dragged it along
after him. By the time he got home, the meat was quite spoilt.
This time his mother was very angry, for the next day was Sunday, and she
had only cabbage for Sunday dinner.
“You foolish boy,” said she to her son, “you should have carried it on your
shoulder.”
“I’ll do so another time,” answered Jack.
On the next Monday, Lazy Jack again went out, and hired himself to a cattle
keeper, who gave him a donkey for his work. Jack put the donkey on his shoulders
and began to walk slowly home.
Now it happened that on his way home he passed the house of a rich man.
This man had only daughter, who was a beautiful girl, but she was deaf and dumb.
She had never laughed in her life, and the doctors said she would never speak till
somebody made her laugh.
Now it happened that this young lady was looking out of the window'when
Jack was passing with the donkey on his shoulders. The sight was so funny and
strange that she burst out laughing, and at once found that she could hear and
speak.
The father was so happy that he married his daughter to Lazy Jack, and Jack
became a rich gentleman. They lived in a large house, and Jack’s mother lived with
them in great happiness until she died.
Practice 20. Identify the form and meaning of the highlighted connectors.
Example:
and: form: coordinating conjunction; meaning: additive
since: form: subordinating conjunction; meaning: reason
Every person who has lived in a new culture has had some experience with
culture shock, and I am no exception, since I, too, have had an experience with
culture shock. Although I have lived in the United States for almost one year,
sometimes I still feel homesick, and still miss my family. When I first came to the

21
US, I was very excited. Because everything was new, everything was interesting. I
enjoyed my independence from my parents; I also enjoyed experiencing new
situations and making new friends. Although everything was a little strange, I
nevertheless enjoyed these new experiences. Eventually I got used to many of the
differences, but even though I was used to them, I still wasn’t comfortable. In
fact, little by little I grew tired of the differences. Because the things in America
weren’t new to me anymore, the differences weren’t interesting. Indeed, they had
actually becoming boring. As a result, I began to miss things about Indonesia,
such as food, friends, and the warm tropical climate, more and more. I soon
become depressed and homesick. I stayed in my room, because I was tired of
speaking English all the time. Even though I studied hard, my grades weren’t
good. I wanted to go home.
Because of these feelings, I decided to see my advisor; so that I could get
some advice about returning home without finishing my studies. He told me two
important things about culture shock. First, I learned that any person in a new
culture has a similar kind of experience, and that culture shock can’t be avoided.
Furthermore, I learned that culture shock is not only universal, but also
temporary. As a result of his advice, I realized that I should be patient, and that I
shouldn’t go home just yet. My advisor also suggested that I try to keep busy and
talk about my culture shock with my friends. I followed this good advice, and as a
result, my culture shock has become less troublesome. In spite of the fact that I
sometimes still miss my life in Indonesia, I don’t feel as depressed as I did.
Moreover, I no longer want to return home before I finish my studies. I know that
I can adjust to this new life.
Practice 21. Use the appropriate sentence connector from the list below to
show the kind of addition relationship expressed in the last sentence of each
pair or group of sentences. More than one connector could be appropriate for
most contexts. Try to use each connector in the list once.
also moreover besides
in addition what is more in fact

22
 furthermore as well
actually as a matter offact
1. The poinsettia is a beautiful plant, but be careful with it around animals. It is
poisonous. 2. Jerry has plenty of sunscreen if you’d like to use some when we go
to the beach. He has four different kinds. 3. I can’t go skating because I have to
work on Saturday. I need to get a new pair of skates. 4. The Aztec deity
Quetazlcoatl was the god of the sun and the air. He was the god of wisdom and a
teacher of the arts of peace. 5. Ladies and gentlemen of the jury: I will show you
that the defendant could not possibly have committed this crime. This is an
innocent man before you! I will reveal who really should be on trial today. 6. Our
teacher asked us if we had ever read El Cid. I hadn’t. I had never even heard of it.
7. Gina is very talented musically. She plays the flute with the symphony
orchestra. She occasionally plays bass violin with a jazz group. 8. You have an
error in article usage in the third paragraph of your report. You need to correct a
spelling error in that paragraph. 9. Well, I admit I ate a lot of the cookies that were
in the kitchen. I probably had about a dozen.
Practice 22. Make up two sentences for each of the following instructions. Use
an addition connector to link ideas between sentences. An example has been
given for the first one.
Example:
I enjoy volunteer work with children at the hospital because I like children.
Besides that, it gives me work experience for my future career in medicine.
1. Give two reasons why you enjoy something you often do in your spare time.
2. Give two reasons why you like one movie or television show you’ve seen better
than another. 3. State two advantages of flying over driving when a person goes on
a long trip. 4. State two uses for computers. 5. Give two reasons why people tell
stories about themselves. 6. Give two reasons why you would want to improve
your English grammar skills. 7. State two differences between English and your
native language. 8. Give two reasons why someone should visit a particular city or

23
country. 9. Give two reasons why someone should get to know you. 10. State two
things that you are very good at doing.
Practice 23. Add a statement after each sentence below that would express
another possibility. Use on the other hand or alternatively to signal the
connection.
Example:
I could get a job this summer.
On the other hand, I could take a few courses in summer school.
1.1 could stay home this weekend. 2. You might want to get a cat for a pet. 3. The
theory of the Big Bang, explaining the origins of the universe. 4. If you’re looking
for a used car to buy, you could check the classified ads in the newspaper.
5. Legalizing heroin in the United States could help decrease crime. 6. Parents who
are upset with the violence that their children see every day on television could
write letters to the television stations.
Practice 24. Use an exemplifying, identifying or clarifying connector from the
list below that would be appropriate for each blank. The first has been done
as an example.
for example especially to illustrate that is
for instance in particular as an example in other words
1. Many words in English have origins in Greek myths. Chaos, for example, is a
word the Greeks used to describe the unordered matter that existed before creation.
2. Some natural objects have English names that derive from Roman words for
mythological characters. Planets,.........................,have been given such names,
................... ,here are a few of them. Jupiter is named after the god of the sky.
Neptune, in Roman mythology, was the god of springs and rivers. And Saturn was
one of the gods of agriculture. 3. Some names of metals in English also derive
from myths. The metal uranium, ..........................,comes from the Latin Uranus
(the god of the sky). The metal tellurium comes from the Latin Tellus (the goddess
of the earth). 4. Sometimes we may refer to an idea as chimerical;......................... ,it
is unrealistic or fanciful. This word comes from the name for a Greek monster, the

24
Chimeaera, which had a lion’s head, a goat’s body, and a dragon’s tail. 5. Some
English names for bodies of water also derive from Greek words. This is true
. ............................ ..in the case of oceans. The name for the Arctic Ocean,
............................. ,comes from the Greek word for bear: arkto. The name for the
Atlantic Ocean derives from Atlantides, who were sea nymphs. And the word
ocean itself comes from Oceanus, the oldest member of the mythological race, the
Titans. 6. Some governments are known as plutocracies; ........... they are
governments run by the wealthy. The word plutocracy comes from Plutus, the god
of wealth.
Practice 25. Add an identification statement after the following sentences to
further specify information conveyed. Use namely or specifically to indicate its
relationship to the sentence before it.
Example:
There is one thing I really like about you.
Namely, you never blame other people when something is your fault.
1. I’d like to know a few things about you. 2. I have one bad habit I wish f could
break. 3. There are several things you might do to improve your financial situation.
4. There are two movies I’d like to see. 5. There are a few things about my future I
often wonder about. 6. There is one thing I would like to have accomplished by
this time next year.
Practice 26. Use the exemplifying, identifying or clarifying connector from the
following list that would be appropriate for each blank in the numbered
sentences. Use each one only once.
for example to illustrate that is namely
for instance in particular in other words specifically
1. Commerce has never been shy to borrow and profit from classical myths.
,we have Mercury automobiles, Midas mufflers, Ajax detergent,
Zephyr and Bellcrophon books, and Electra records, to name but a few. Mobil gas
stations,.................... fly the banner of the winged horse Pegasus. 2. The critics
found the book tedious, sloppy, and juvenile,................,they detested it. 3. There is

25
one thing you can do before you leave,..................... ,you can make sure that all the
documents we worked on today have been backed up. 4. Greek and Roman place
names crop up everywhere in the eastern United States. Just glance at a map of New
York State, .................... ,there we find the towns of Troy, Ithaca, Rome, Carthage
and Corinth, among others. 5. You should never make anyone lose face,
........................ ,you shouldn’t do or say anything that will embarrass a person in
front of another person.
Practice 27. Circle the appropriate connector from the options in parentheses.
There may be more than one correct choice.
Both Canada and the United States have large minorities that speak other
languages than English. Canada has a large French-speaking minority. The United
States, (on the other hand, furthermore, consequently, yet) has a large Spanish­
speaking minority. (But, However, So) the way the two countries deal with this fact
are rather different.
Canada has adopted a policy of bilingualism and has two official languages.
All students study both languages in school. (Moreover, Nevertheless, Therefore)
all official government activities are conducted in both languages.
However, in the United States there is a movement to make English the only
official language, (so, so that, as a result), some people may be officially
discouraged from using languages other than English at work. In some parts of a
country, there are very few facilities available to people who can’t speak English,
(and, but, yet, so) (under such circumstances, on the other hand, in addition to)
Spanish speakers may be required to provide their own translators in such places as
hospitals or government offices. (In spite of Even though, Consequently) all
students in the public schools are taught English, (hut, and, for, no connector)
English-speaking students are not usually required to study Spanish.
These differences in bilingualism may result from geography. In Canada, the
French speakers are actually a majority in certain parts of the country, primarily in
the Province of Quebec. In the United States, (however, on the other hand, in spite
of this, therefore) Spanish-speaking communities are spread around the country.

26
Large numbers of Spanish speakers are found in New York, Florida, New Mexico,
and California, (as a result, under such circumstances, in addition, besides) there
are substantial numbers in many other large cities. (Although, However, In spite of)
they do not constitute a majority in any single region.
Practice 28. Underline the correct alternative.
1. Your essay is badly organized and full of spelling mistakes. Though/
nevertheless, it contains some very interesting ideas. 2. To the east the trees were
left standing, while/ in contrast to the west they were cut down. 3. I felt guilty
about leaving the company even so/even though I knew I had made the right
decision. 4. The course taught me a lot about jewellery design. Even though/even
so, there is still a lot I need to learn. 5.1 had expected my mother to be happy with
the news. Instead/although tears came to her eyes and she started to cry. 6. Herbs
are usually grown in temperate climates, whereas/on the other hand spices are
mainly from tropical areas. 7. We were very short of money so/as a consequence
we had to spend the night on a park bench. 8. I turned the ignition, but the car
refused to start. As/meanwhile the lions were getting ever closer. 9. She wrote the
questions on the blackboard while/at the same time the students copied them into
their books. 10. Previously/before I went to Australia, I’d never seen a koala.
11. Modem farming methods have destroyed the habitat of many birds. As a
result/so that their numbers are in decline. 12. I’ll have to buy some ladders
unless/if not I can borrow a pair from Ray. 13.1 first met Kevin in the 1970s at that
time/when he had long hair and a beard.

27
THE PREPOSITION
(THE POSTPOSITION)

28
 A. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
at at an appointed, hour (at 9 o 'clock) at night
at Ramadan at Christmas
at last /first at sunset
at the beginning / end ofsth at lunch
at present at the age of 25
at noon at times
at dawn at midnight
at the weekend (British)

in in an hour in a week
in (the) spring in the 19th century
in the evening in the end (eventually)
in the beginning (in the early stages) in her (early/late) twenties
in the Middle Ages in time
in three years / in three year’s time in March
in a year in 1997
in the meantime
in the morning

on on the day / on Tuesday on the weekend (U.S)

on weekdays on (one ’5) birthday
on 12 December on Christmas Day
on the third morning on the evening ofAugust, 15
on Tuesday, April, 1991
on time He came on time. If not, he would have missed the train.
in She was in time for the exam, so she could review the notes on the subject.
(good) She forgot about the accident in time, (adverb - within a period of time)
time
until / I waited till midnight.
tm
before! He left the office after (before) 6.
after
for He has been living there for 3 years.
by I will finish it by Monday.
since I haven 't eaten anything since morning.

B. PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE
- --- —
_ at the theater / cinema (idea of action not the place)
_Arrive at (a point, village, etc.)-, arrive in (a town, country, etc.)
at sea (on ship voyage) at school / university / work
at the sea / river / lake (near, at our headquarters
beside) at the doctor’s
at a conference /party / at 47 Frown Street
concert But:
at home in Frown Street
at Jim’s (house)
at Grand Hotel
at Mitsubishi Motors
on on the left /right on a farm

29
 on the menu / list on TV / the radio
on a bus / train / ship /plane fruit on the tree
a ring on the finger on the bed
a scar on sb’s face on the front / back page
on page two _ on an island
on the ground/floor / table on Earth
on the sofa on the West coast of Spain
on the chair
on the corner: The post office is on the corner.
He sits on the corner of the bed.
at the corner: He was waitingfor me at the corner of the street.
in the corner: of (a room) There is a bookcase in the corner of the room.
on the river on the road on the street
We have been on the roadfor hours.
He has a black coat on him.
But:
He was in a black suit/cloak.
He came in muddy boots.
in in a room / house / town / country
in the east of
in front / in a line / row / queue /street /photograph /picture / mirror
in hospital; in prison
in bed in the world
sth in sb's hand in an armchair
in a car / taxi in front of the building
in shooting range in the sky
in the river (they are swimming) in the middle
at the river (they may be having a picnic). They may be beside (on or in) the river,
on the river (a ship, vessel or the location of a place)
at sea (travelling) on the sea (on ship, etc.)
at the sea (in, near or in the sea (swimming)
around)

C. PREPOSITIONS OF DIRECTION
through through the forest
into walk into the room, pour into the jar
toward/towards toward (towards) the house
by by the river, by the window
mid/midst in the midst of a group/in our midst
along along the road (river, corridor, line, etc.)

D. PREPOSITIONS OF RELATIONS

for in during on at after within

among among the people

between between the child and his mother
by killed by a man
with killed with a stone
above He lives above us. (our flat)
above the average
30
 over snow over the fields
There was an eagle above/over the rabbit.
beyond They lived beyond the mountains.
This career is beyond my imagination.
across He lives across the river/ocean.
They passed across the desert/the street.
below below sea level, below the average
under under the bridge, under the bed
beneath beneath the sofa
underneath exploration underneath the sea
but, except (except for) Everybody came but I. {except Jim)
But for / Except for his occasional smoking there is
nothing negative with him.
All but Jane came to the dinner.
You can’t blame him. He is but a child.
apart from a) exceptfor
b) besides, as well as
save (also save for) = except sth They knew nothing about her save her address.
beside The child sat beside me.
next to She is sitting next to/by/beside me.
by They live by the shopping mall.
She went by me.
A few days passed by without talking to anyone.
past__________________________________ She went past me.
near They live near (to) us.
via We went to ■Pittsburg via Philadelphia.
He sent his letter via airmail.
after Your success of lessons comes after your success at
getting along with others.
-before I had two choices before me.
Jbehind She stands behind the tree.
at the back of There is a short biography of the author at the back
of the book.
at the beginning ... At the end of the lesson, she asked some questions.
at the end ...
Hi the beginning (at first) r.. l __ —1 ~~_______________
Jiri itit ueguiturig, uric uamu Aurrttj
_ in the end (finally)
get into get into a car, a bus
get on get on a bus, train, plane, ship
get out of get out of a car
get off get off a bus, train, plane, ship

across - through across the desert

made of, out of, from, with
made o/7made out of A cake made from eggs, milk, and flour.
made from This chocolate is made with cocoa fruit.
made with_____________________

31
 PREPOSITIONS HOMONYMOUS WITH ADVERBS
about above across after along around
behind below beyond by down in past before
near off on opposite over inside
through under UP without outside

ADVERBS PREPOSITIONS

They stayed inside. They stayed inside the building.

I can’t go beyond. I can’t go beyond that hill.
They went along. They went along the lake.
We walked around. He walked around the park.

PRACTICE ON THE PREPOSITIONS

Practice 1. Complete the sentences by choosing a verb and a preposition from

those listed below. Use each choice only once.
VERBS PREPOSITIONS
approve decide about
comment pay for
complain praise of
consent rely on
count think to
Example:
The Olympic team was praisedfor its extraordinary dedication and discipline.
l.You can’t-------------------------- the weather being nice every' day. 2.1 refuse to-
------------------------- the repair of a machine under warranty. 3. The teacher-------
---------------- the excellent work of the class. 4. The couple--------------------- ------
—getting married quickly and without ceremony.5. The candidate-------------------
------- withdrawing from the race rather than risking defeat. 6. It doesn’t make
sense to------------- winning the lottery. 7. I advise you to------------------------- the
impact your example will have on your younger brothers and sisters. 8. None of
my friends------------------- smoking in public places. 9. Do the students always—
------------- the food in the cafeteria? 10. She----------------------------------------
doing things herself, without relying on her family for everything.

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Practice 2. Insert the required prepositions.
There was once a princess whose mother died when she was born. She grew
up very beautiful, ... lovely golden hair. Her father wanted her to marry ... her will.
So she thought... a plan to put off the wedding. She asked to make her three new
dresses. One was to be golden ... the sun, the second was to be silver ... the moon,
and the third must sparkle ... the stars. She also asked ... a fur cloak ... a hood made
... a thousand different skins ... a thousand different animals.
The princess said ... herself, “It will be very difficult to make these clothes,
and the wedding will be put off... a long time.”
But her father set all his best workmen to make the three dresses, and his
hunters took a tiny piece ... the fur ... a thousand different animals and a cloak ... a
hood was made. So the dresses and the cloak were soon ready and the wedding
could not be put off much longer.
Practice 3. Choose the appropriate prepositions.
One day a young man went to seek his fortune. He walked all that day, and
all the next day; and ... the third day, ... the afternoon, he saw a man ... a field who
was looking ... a lot... sheep. He went up ... the man and asked him who the sheep
belonged .... The man said, “They belong ... the Red Ettin. He is a terrible, cruel
giant and magician ... three heads. He stole King Malcolm’s daughter, and he beats
her every day. If you want to go farther, be careful. You may meet ... some
strange-looking beasts. You have never seen beasts ... them. I know very well that
they are very dangerous.”
So the young man went ... ,and soon he saw a lot... very dreadful beasts, ...
two heads, and ... each head there were four homs. He was so frightened that he
ran away ... them as fast as he could. He was glad when he came ... a castle. It
stood ... a hill, and its door was wide open. So the young man went ... the castle to
hide ... those dreadful beasts, and there he saw an old woman. She was sitting ...
the kitchen fire. “May I stay here ... the night?” he asked her.. “I am very tired ... a
long journey.”

33
 And the woman said, “Yes, you may, but this is not a good place to be ... ,it
belongs ... the Red Ettin, and he kills everyone he finds.”
Practice 4. Insert the required prepositions where necessary. Choose from at,
by, for, in, of, on, past, till, until, to, with, etc.
l.He asked ... his father ...money. 2. They paid ... me ... the books. 3.1 thought he
would offer ... Ann the job, but he offered it... me. 4.Keep ... me a place, and keep
a place ... Ann, too. 5.They showed ... us photographs ... their baby. 6.Buying
presents ... children is sometimes very difficult. ... the end I bought a kite ... Tom
and a torch ... Ann. 7.When you have lunch ... a restaurant, who pays ... the bill? -
Oh, each ... us pays ... what he has had. 8.Paul’s a pianist. He sometimes plays ...
us ... the evening. Last night he played some Chopin. 9.He promised ... us a share
... the profits. 10.Sitting ... the floor isn’t exactly comfortable. Throw ... me a
cushion, please, Ann. 11 .If you are going ... the Post Office, could you buy ...me a
book ... stamps? 12.If you write ... me a song I’ll sing it... the school concert. I’ll
get Paul to accompany ... me ... the guitar. 13.Could you lend ... us your
lawnmover, please? - I’m afraid you’ll have to ask ... someone else to lend ...you
one. We’ve lent ours ... Mr. Jones and he always keeps it... ages. 14.She told ... us
that she’d been attacked ... the street. We asked ... her to describe her attacker and
she said he was a tall man ... a limp. 15.He told ... them to wait ... him ... the
bridge. 16.1 cannot repeat ... you what she said ... me ... confidence. 17.The
headmaster warned ... me to work harder. What did he say ... you, Jack? 18.This
film reminds ... me ... my childhood. 19.We must try to get... home ... time ... tea.
20.If we say “The manager showed ...us to our room,” we mean that he led ... us ...
the door. If we say, “He showed ... the room,” we mean that he entered ... the room
... us. 21.1 read ... him the report. He listened ... me ... amazement. 22.He ordered ...
to give ... him all the maps ... our possession. 23.He suggested ... me that we should
offer to pay ... her ... dollars.

34
Practice 5. Fill in the blanks with one of the following verbs + from.
abstain deviate emerge recede separate
desist differ escape recoil shrink
detach dissent flee retire withdraw
1. According to Hinduism, there are four stages of life. The fist stage is that of
student. A student’s chief obligation is to learn, and as an apprentice, the
student is under the guidance of a teacher whom he must not (a)------ .The
second stage, the physical prime of life, is that of the householder with its
obligations to family and community. The third stage occurs when the
person (b)------------------- the busy world of work. Anytime after the arrival
of the first grandchild, the individual may (c)-------------------- the social
obligations he has assumed to devote himself to philosophical inquiry and
self-understanding. The final stage is that of the “sannyasin”, the wise man
who has come to a clear understanding to life and who is completely (d)-----
-------------- the strivings of the world. The sannyasin has no fixed residence,
no belongings, no goal, no pride, and no expectations. Finally, he is free.
2. Heinrich Harrer. was a German mountaineer who was captured by the British
while on a climbing expedition to India at the beginning of the Second
World War. His first two attempts to (a)-------------- the prison camp were
failures. But on the third attempt, he succeeded, (b)-----------------------his
British and Indian pursuers, and then later from bandits, he made his way
through Tibet to the capital, Lhasa, where he eventually became a tutor of
the current Dalai Lama.
3. The southern states (a)------------------ the policies declared by Abraham
Lincoln. As a result, they decided to (b)---------------------- the Union.
4. My cousin Ralph always felt he was a square peg in a round hole. With his
strange hairstyles,weird clothing, and outrageous opinions, he clearly (a)-
----------- the norm. Though he (b)------------------ violence, he could never say
no to the promises of pleasure, which were typically in the forms of alcohol
and other drugs. He became addict and total dropout, and many of his

35
 former friends wound up (c)----------------------- him. Fortunately, he found his
way to a treatment center and began putting his life in order. When I saw
him at a dinner last week, he told me he had (d)------- ---------- alcohol and
other drugs for two years now. I was impressed by how healthy and cheerful
he looked, and I wished him continued luck.
Practice 6. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate verb + for.
ask hope pray wish
crave long thrist yearn
Example:
Anyone who has lived under a repressive political system knows what it’s like
to long for freedom.
1. My mother is a very religious person, and every day she-------------------------
her family and world peace. 2. “I’m sorry, but this isn’t what I ordered. I---------
------------ apple pie, not chocolate cake”. 3. There is a school of thought in
contemporary psychology that maintains that an addict, on a very basic level,—
--------------- wholeness. 4. My sister Joan, who is a runner presently recovering
from an injury,---------------- the day when she’ll be able to run freely again.
5. It’s interesting that when you are on a special diet, you--------------------------
things you shouldn’t have, even if you didn’t often eat them before. 6. When I
travel by airplane, I usually--------------------------- a window seat so I can see the
view. Usually, sometimes in February, people begin---------------- spring. 7. In
the US, it’s customary for people to------------------------ something before
blowing out the candles on a birthday cake.
Practice 7. Fill in the blanks with the following expressions.
at odds with in the course of on account of
by means of in the name of on the strength of
in return for in the process of with the exception of
1.-------------------- continuous influx to America, the American people have been
a perpetually changing mixture of diverse cultures. 2.--------------------- history, the
character of the American people has been renewed in each generation. It has

36
never really existed in a definitive form. 3.----------- r------- kidnapped Africans, the
history of American settlement from the beginning was the record of people in
search of promises or, as some have said, of castles in the air. 4.--------------------
the tales, both true and midleading, that they had heard of extraordinary New
World gifts for the taking, early settlers came to this country, their promised land.
5. Every group that has come has found the country occupied by people who
arrived earlier. Each great wave of immigrants met resistance and found
themselves in some way------------------------------ the ruling establishment. 6.Early
trades exchanged iron tools and pots, blankets, firearms, and whisky with the
Indians------------------ furs, but tragically,-------- ----------- this exchange, the
Indians’ independence and self-sufficiency eventually gave way. 7.------------------
----- its language, the British left a lasting stamp on America. 8. The early Pilgrims
in the Massachusets Bat Colony began all legal contracts with the phrase,”----------
------------ God, Amen”.
Practice 8. Complete the sentences by introducing a topic or identifying a
source. Add a noun phrase where necessary. Use each of the following clusters
at least once.
according to pertaining to speaking of
based on (upon) relating to with respect to
Example:
Speaking offood, let’s go and get some lunch.
1.----------------- ,a large number of automobile accidents occur just after sunset.
2.----------------- ,it certainly makes revising papers easier. 3.---------------------------- ,
consumers are gaining confidence in the economy once again. 4.----------------- ,the
defendant was clearly on the premises on the night of the crime. 5.------------------- ,
there has been a curious disappearance of frogs around the world. 6.----------------- ,
they accomplished some incredible things. 7.----------------- ,the best diet is the one
but gives you the most energy. 8.---------------- ,who do you think will win the NBA
championship? 9.----------------- ,a major outbreak of flu is expected this winter.

37
Practice 9. Fill in the blanks with one of the following verbs + from.
abstain, desist, detach, deviate, differ, dissent, emerge, escape, flee, recede,
recoil, retire, separate, shrink, withdraw
1. Certain groups follow restrictive dietary laws. For example, Orthodox Jews
(a)----------------- pork and shellfish. Sometimes these and other groups
who (b)------------------- the status quo or (c)------------ the norm are
considered strange by outsiders but extremely religious by those from within
the same community.
2. Refugees come to a foreign country to live for many different reasons. They
want to (a)------------- persecution, war, disaster, or epidemics. Certain
Southeast Asians have (b)---------------------tragic conditions in their native
lands but have become succesful in their new homes around the world.
3. Some newcomers to a country go through culture shock. This phenomenon
makes some people (a)------------------social relationships. Because of
depression, they also sometimes (b)---------------------responsibilities. They
may even (c)------------------ psychological help because they are not used to
dealing with doctors for psychological problems.
4. Mr. Johnson is getting older. His hair (a)--------------------- his forehead. Next
year he plans to (b)-------------- his job.
Practice 10. Insert the required prepositions where necessary.
1. The wind grew wilder and whipped the sharp snow ... our faces, we stumbled
and slipped ... the icy slopes, and the sledge was heavy to drag and the rope cut...
our shoulders. 2. We were sitting ... the stove, smoking and talking. 3. The mast of
a radio aerial was set up ... an ice floe near Northern Cape ... the Arctic by our
wintering camp. 4. The water is cold because I put ice ... the pitcher. 5. The boy
was taller than his father ... five inches. 6. We stopped running ... sheer exhaustion.
7. We missed our path ... the heavy mist that night. 8. Please knock ... my sister’s
door and ask her ... a warmer wrap. 9. The early rays of sun slanted ... the room.
10. Every word was copied out exactly ... the letter. 11. My house stands far ... the
river. 12. She is cleverer than her friend ... a great deal. 13. He used to come here

38
... an evening. 14. After working ... about ten minutes, she rose.... her feet, starting
out... the garden. 15. It won’t take a minute to make tea ... the gas ring. 16. He will
see you ... the train and then come back ... a taxi. 17.... the very day of my arrival I
met my friend ... the street. 18. I waited ... Henry ... home, he came back ... two
hours. 19. ... his appearence the crowd cheered. 20. Are you going there ... the
motor-cycle? 21. We returned wet ... the skin. 22. A trip ... these islands ... a
motor-boat is particularly interesting. 23. She poured water ... my jug.
24. Lightining flashed ... the sky. 25. The wind whistled ... the key-holes.
Practice 11. Insert the required prepositions.
One evening, just as the sun was setting, a flock ... large beautiful birds rose
....... the brushwood. The duckling had never seen anything so beautiful before.
Their feathers were ... dazzling white, and they had long, slender necks. They
were swans. They uttered a strange cry, spread out their long, splendid wings,
and flew away ... these cold regions ... warmer countries, ... the open sea. They
flew so high, so very high! The little ugly duckling’s feelings were so strange.
He turned ... and....... the water ... a mill wheel, strained his neck to look after
them, and sent forth such a strange cry that it almost frightened himself. Ah! He
could not forget them, those noble birds! Those happy birds.
Practice 12. Insert the required prepositions.
Once upon a time two poor wood-cutters were making their way home ... a
great pine-forest. It was winter, and a night... bitter cold. The snow lay thick ...
the ground and ... the branches ... the trees; the frost kept snapping the little
twings ... either side ... them, as they passed. Terrible cold it certainly was. The
little squirrels, who lived ... the tall fir-tree, kept rubbing each other’s noses to
keep themselves warm, and the rabbits curled themselves up ... their holes, and
did not venture even to look ... doors. The only people who seemed to enjoy it
were the great homed owls. Their feathers were quite stiff... rime, but they did
not mind, and they rolled their large yellow eyes and called out... each other ...
the forest, “Fu-whit! Tu- whoo! Fu- whit! Tu-whoo! What delightful weather
we are having!”

39
Practice 13. Insert the required prepositions.
1.... the shade of a tree, ...the end of one of the twings, hangs a tiny little nest. It
swings ... the air, and is as light as a feather; for it is made chiefly ... moss and
down. It is very snug; and ... it lie two tiny eggs, the size of pears. 2. The field was
bouded ... a low fence, and the yellow heads of the rye-stalks leaned out ... the
fence, all round ... a thick mass, jostling and crushing one another as the morning
breeze swept ... them ... a swishing sound. 3. It was five ... a gloomy February
afternoon and it was rapidly getting dark. 4. She stopped ... a long low house half
hidden ... the green of its front garden. 5. Haven’t you any money ... you? 6. The
birds were hopping and twittering ... the bushes, and the squirrels were very busy
... the branches of the trees. 7. Let me do it ... myself. 7. My brother, who is an
engineer, is employed ... the railway. 8. The room was ... the north side of the inn.
9. Line . .. twos! Forward march! 10. He tried twice to reach you ... the phone, but
the line was busy. 11. The leather bag swug from his shoulder ... a leather strap.
12. The train arrived ... its destination late ... the afternoon. 13. His house was ...
the head of the village. 14. It is not wise to bathe ... the see ... this time of the year,
it is too cold. 15. Those eggs are sold ... the dozen. 16. He took up his work ...
enthusiasm.
Practice 14. Insert the required prepositons.
It was a dark September morning. There was a storm ... the sea. A ship had
been driven ... a low rock off the shores ... Fame Islands. It had been broken ... two
... the waves, and half... it had been washed away. The other half lay yet ... the
rock, and those ... the crew who were still alive were clinging ... it. But the waves
were dashing ... it, and ... a little while it too would be carried ... the bottom.
Could anyone save the poor half-drowned men who were there? ... one of the
islands was a lighthouse; and there, all ... that stormy night, Grace Darling had
listened... the storm.
Grace was the daughter ... the lighthouse keeper, and she had lived ... the sea as
long as she could remember.

40
 ... the darkness ... the night, above the noise ... the winds and waves, she
heard screams and wild cries. When daylight came, she could see the wreck, a
mile away, ... the angry water all ... it. She could see the men clinging ... the
masts.
“We must try to save them!” she cried. “Let us go out... the boat... once!”
“It is ... no use, Grace,’’said the father. “We cannot reach them.” He was an
old man, and he knew the force ... the mighty waves.
“We cannot stay here and see them die,” said Grace. “We must... least try to
save them.”
Her father could not say “No.”
... a few minutes they were ready. They set off... the heavy lighthouse boat.
Grace pulled one oar, and her father the other, and they made sraight ... the
wreck. But it was hard rowing ... such a sea, until it seemed as though they
would never reach the place.
Practice 15. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate adjective+preposition
cluster.
afraid of homesick for safe from
eager for ignorant of sorry for
enthusiastic about proficient in unhappy about
Example:
A good student is a person who is eager for an education.
1. A xenophobic person is one who is.................... foreigners. 2. A secure person is
one who feels................... harm. 3. A repentant person is one who feels............. what
he or she has done. 4. A naive person is someone who is................... the ways of the
world. 5. A depressed person is one who is deeply.............. the way things actually
are. 6. Nostalgic persons are those who are................. the former homes or the past.
7. A polyglot is one who is................... several languages. 8. A fan is someone who
is very................a team, a player, or some activity.

41
Practice 16. Complete the sentences with in, at or on.
1. It can be dangerous when children play.................. the street. 2. If you walk
to the end of the street, you’ll see a small shop .............. the comer. 3. Is Tom
....................... this photograph? I can’t find him. 4. My office is............................ the
first floor. It’s........................ the left as you come out of the lift. 5. We normally
use the front entrance but there is another entrance.................. the back. 6. I have
to look up at the stars................. the sky at night. 7. When I’m a passenger in a car,
I prefer to sit......................... the front. 8. It’s a very small village. You probably
won’t find it ......................... your map. 9. Paris is ............................ the river
Seine.
Practice 17. Complete the sentences with in, at or on.
1. I didn’t see you ................... the party on Saturday. Where were you? 2. It
was a very slow train. It stopped ...................... every station. 3. I don’t know
where my umbrella is. Perhaps I left it.......................... the bus. 4. Shall we travel
..................... your car or mine? 5. The exhibition ................. the Museum of
Modem Art finished on Saturday. 6. We stayed .................... a very nice hotel
when we were .................... Amsterdam. 7. There were fifty rooms ................... the
hotel. 8. Tom is ill. He wasn’t ....... work today. He was ..... home
.................... bed. 9. I wasn’t in when you phoned. I was ................. my sister’s
house. 10. It’s always too hot................ my sister’s house. The heating is always
on too high. 11. I haven’t seen Kate for some time. I last saw her............. Dave’s
wedding. 12. Paul lives ................. London. He’s a student .................... London
University.
Practice 18. Make up sentences using get into, out of, on, off.
1. You were walking home. A friend passed you in her car. She saw you,
stopped and offered you a lift. She opened the door. What did you do? I got into
the car.
2. You were waiting for the bus. At last your bus came. The doors opened.
What did you do then? I..................................................................................................

42
 3. You drove home in your car. You arrived at your house and parked the car.
What did you do then?...........................................................................................
4. You were travelling by train in Manchester. When the train got to
Manchester, what did you do?......................................................................................
5. You needed a taxi. After a few minutes a taxi stopped for you. You opened
the door. What did you do then?.......................................................................
6. You were travelling by air. At the end of your flight the plane landed at the
airport and stopped. The doors were opened, you took your bag and stood up. What
did you do then?...........................................................................................
Practice 19. Put in to, at, into where necessary.
1. Three people were taken ........... hospital after the accident. 2. I met
Caroline on my way.................. home. 3. We left our luggage..........the station and
went to find something to eat. 4. Shall we take a taxi .................... the station or
shall we walk? 5.1 must go .................. the bank today to change some money.
6. I’m tired. As soon as I get................home, I’m going........... bed. 7. Marcel is
French. He has just returned ................. France after two years ...... .....Brazil.
8. Are you going .................. Linda’s party next week? 9. Have you ever been
.............China? 10. I had lost my key but I managed to climb............... the house
through a window. 11. We had lunch................. the airport while we were waiting
for our plane. 12. Welcome......... the hotel. We hope you enjoy your stay here.
Practice 20. Put in the required preposition by, in, on or with.
1. Who is that man standing......................... the window? 2. I managed to put
the fire out.....................a fire extinguisher. 3. The plane was badly damaged........
lightening. 4. These photographs were taken ........... a friend of mine. 5. I don’t
mind going..................... car but I don’t want to go.......... your car. 6. Shall we get
a taxi or shall we go............................ foot? 7. There was a small table........ the bed
....... a lamp and a clock.................... it. 8. Our team lost the game only because of a
mistake.................. one of our players.

43
Practice 21. Complete the sentences with the required prepositions.
1. There are some differences .................. British and American English.
2. Everything can be explained. There’s a reason.............everything. 3. If I give
you a camera, can you take a photograph.........me? 4. Money isn’t the solution
........ every problem. 5. There has been an increase................ the amount of traffic
using this road.. 6. When I opened the envelope, I was delighted to find a cheque
.............500 manats. 7. The advantage.............. having a car is that you don’t have
to rely on public transport. 8. There are many advantages ............. being able to
speak a foreign language. 9. When Paul left the home, his attitude........ his parents
seemed to change. 10. Bill and I used to be good friends but I don’t have much
contact..... him now. 11. There has been a sharp rise......... the cost of living in the
past few years. 12. I’m sorry I haven’t written to you for so long. The reason
.............this is that I’ve been ill. 13. What was Emma’s reaction............ the news?
14. Ken showed me a photograph......the house where he lived as a child. 15" The
company has rejected the workers’ demands.............a rise....... pay. 16. What was
the answer..............question 3 in the test? 17. The fact that Jane was offered a job
has no connection.................... the fact that her cousin is the managing director.
Practice 22. Complete the sentences with one of the following adjectives + the
appropriate preposition.
afraid different interested proud responsible similar sure
1. I think she’s arriving this evening but I’m not........ that. 2. Your camera is
................mine, but it isn’t exactly the same. 3. Don’t worry. I’ll look after you.
There’s nothing to be...................... 4. “Do you want to watch the news on
television?” - “No, I’m not ......................... the news.” 5. The editor is the person
who is ................what appears in a newspaper. 6. Mrs. Davis is a very keen
gardener. She’s very.....................her garden and loves showing it to visitors. 7. I
was surprised when I met her for the first time. She was .................... what I
expected.

44
Practice 23. Insert the required prepositions.
1. The letter I wrote was full .................... mistakes. 2. My home town is not
especially interesting. It’s not famous ........... anything. 3. Kate is very fond
............... her younger brother. 4. I don’t like going up ladders. I’m afraid
............. heights. 5. You look bored. You don’t seem interested .........what I’m
saying. 6. Did you know that Liz is engaged........ . '...... a friend of mine? 7. I’m
not ashamed........... what I did. In fact I’m quite proud it. 8. I suggested we
should all go out for a meal but nobody else was keen the idea. 9. These days
everybody is aware .......... the dangers of smoking. 10. The station platform was
crowded....... people waiting for the train. 11. She’s much more successful than I
am. Sometimes I feel a bit jealous ........ her. 12. I’m tired.................... doing the
same thing every day. I need a change. 13. Do you know anyone who might be
interested ....... buying an old car? 14. We’ve got plenty to eat. The fridge is full
............. food. 15. She is a very honest person. I don’t think she is capable
......... telling a lie. 16. I’m not surprised she changed her mind at the last moment.
That’s typical........... her. 17. Our house is similar.......... yours. Perhaps yours is a
bit larger. 18. John has no money of his own. He’s totally dependent ....... his
parents.
Practice 24. Complete the sentences using think about or think of.
1. You look serious. What are you....... 2. I like to have time to make decisions. I
like to ......... things carefully. 3. He’s a very selfish person. He only..... himself.
4. I don’t know what to get Ann for her birthday. Can you....... anything?
5. We’re..... going out for a meal this evening. Would you like to come? 6.1 don’t
really want to go out with Ian tonight. I’ll have to ........... an excuse. 7. Carol is
rather homesick. She’s always........ her family back home. 8. When I was offered
the job, I didn’t accept immediately. I went away and........ it for a while. In the
end I decided to take the job. 9.1 don’t........ much........this coffee. It’s like water.
Practice 25. Insert the required prepositions where necessary.
1. Three students were suspected ......... cheating in the examination. 2. Sally is
often not well. She suffers ........ very bad headaches. 3. You know that you can

45
rely........ me if you ever need any help. 4. It is terrible that some people are dying
........ hunger while others eat too much. 5. Are you going to apologize..........what
you did? 6. The accident was my fault, so I had to pay ........... the damage. 7. I
didn’t have enough money to pay ........ the bill. I complemented her ............. her
English. She spoke fluently and made very few mistakes. 8. She hasn’t got a job.
She depends ........ her parents for money. 9. I don’t know whether I’ll go out
tonight. It depends ........... how I feel. 10. They wore warm clothes to protect
themselves ............. the cold. 11. The apartment consists ............three rooms, a
kitchen and a bathroom.
Practice 26. Insert the required prepositions.
1. The school provides all its students ......... books. 2. A strange thing happened
............ me a few days ago. 3. Mark decided to give up sport so that he could
concentrate............... his studies. 4. I don’t believe .......... working very hard. It’s
not worth it. 5. My present job isn’t wonderful. But I prefer it............. what I did
before. 6. I hope you succeed.............getting what you want. 7. As I was coming
out of the room, I collided............. somebody who was coming in. 8.There was an
awful noise as the car crashed ............... a tree. 9. Do you spend much money
........... clothes? 10. The country is divided......... six regions. 11. I prefer travelling
by train....... driving. It’s much more pleasant. 12. Somebody broke............. my car
and stole the radio. 13. Some words are difficult to translate.............. one language
......... another. 14. What happened......... the money I lent you? What did you spend
it......... ? 15. The teacher decided to split the class........four groups. 16.1 filled the
tank but unfortunately I filled it......... the wrong kind of petrol.
Practice 27. Complete the sentences using one of the following verbs + the
appropriate preposition.
believe concentrate divide drive fill happen insist succeed
1. I wanted to go alone but Sue......... coming with me. 2. I haven’t seen Harry for
ages. I wonder what has........... him. 3.1 was driving along when the car in front of
me stopped suddenly. Unfortunately, I couldn’t stop in time and.............the back
of it. 4. It’s a very large house. It’s........... four flats. 5. I don’t......... ghosts. I think

46
people only imagine that they see them. 6. Steve gave me an empty bucket and told
me to ............ it ..........water. 7. Don’t try and do two things together............ one
thing at a time. 8. It wasn’t easy but in the end we........ finding a solution to the
problem.
Practice 28. Underline the appropriate preposition.
1. For a couple of days I’ve had a pain between/ among my shoulder blades. 2. He
couldn’t find a microphone between/ among all the recording equipment he had
with him. 3 . It would be easier to read if you put a line space between/ among the
paragraphs. 4. In the photograph Vai is standing between/ among her parents.
5. The lost manuscript was discovered between/ among the thousands of books in
the cellar. 6. The buffet is towards the middle of the train between/ among first and
second class seating. 7. She carried trays of drinks and food between/ among the
crowd of guests in the room. 8. I couldn’t see Robbie between/ among the
audience, although he said he would be there. 9. Rebecca commutes between/
among her flat in London and her sister’s home in Hallifax.
Practice 29. Rewrite the sentences so that they are more appropriate for
formal written English. Use preposition + which or preposition + whose, as
appropriate.
Example:
1. Fleming’s discovery of penicillin, which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for,
had a major influence on the lives of people in the 20th century.

Fleming’s discovery ofpenicillin, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize, had
a major influence on the lives ofpeople, in the 20th century.
2. He was the uncle of Ann, whose execution in 1542 he lost power after. 3. It is
her unmarried name which she is better known by. 4. Mr. Marks, whose farm the
stream flows across, is unhappy about the plans for the new dam. 5. The election
result, which there can be no doubt about, is a great disappointment. 6. The
building which Mr. Macras emerged from was little more than a ruin. 7. It is a
medieval palace, whose tower the king hid in during the civil war. 8.1 am grateful

47
to Alan Mackie, whose book on the history of the bicycle this information comes
from.
Practice 30. Find out all the prepositions and define their meaning.
Then, where the sun struck the uneven floorboards, he saw his own footprints
in the dust and he walked slowly back down the passage, looking into each room
again, and in the biggest bedroom, the one that lay at the head of the fine staircase
and had a wide stone fireplace carved with an escutcheon showing six martlets, he
saw more scuff marks in the dust. Someone had been in the room recently and their
footprints led to the stone hearth, then to the window nearest the fireplace, but did
not return to the door and the room was empty and the two windows were shut.
Sandman frowned at the marks, wondering if he was seeing nothing more than the
errant effects of light and shadows, but he could have sworn they really were
footprints that ended at the window, yet when he went over he could not open it
because the iron frame had rusted itself shut. So Meg had not escaped through the
window, even though her footsteps, now obliterated by Sandman’s own, ended
there. Damn it, he thought, but she was here! He lifted the dust sheet from the bed
and opened a cupboard but no one was hiding in the room.
Practice 31. Insert the appropriate prepositions. Then retell the passage.
(You know that dogs are man’s friends. They are also man’s oldestfriends.)
More than ten thousand years ago dogs didn’t live with people. They lived 1
the forest and were wild. Now dogs live 2 men and do many things 3
them. Dogs can help blind people. There are many stories 4 dogs and their
help to men. There was a dog, Bruno by name, who saved forty people 5 the
mountains. Dogs help geologists 6 their work.
If you have a dog, you know how clever dogs are. You can teach your dog to
carry newspapers or books, or to carry7 your bag when you go 7 the shop, or to
help you 8 your bag when you come home.
Dogs usually like to swim, but some are afraid of water. If your dog is afraid of
water and you want him to swim, make him swim, but do not throw him into the
water, let him first walk 9 the water.

48
 Where do you leave your dog when you go away? Leave him 10 good
hands — with a relative or a family friend. Take your dog to these people two or
three times. Sit down and talk with them. Show your dog that they are your friends.
Tell him to wait for you there. He may understand.
Take care of your dog, never let him run wild 11 the street.
Practice 32. Insert the appropriate prepositions. Then retell the passage.
We know that the lion, traditional symbol 1 kings, is a hunter. In contrast, 2
many people the hyena is an animal that eats only the dead and the leavings of
other animals’ food.
But this information is incorrect. Let’s take the lion. A scientist who spent 2900
hours during three years studying the life of wild lions in Africa found 3___ that
lions more often steal food 4 other animals than hunt it.
In some parts of Africa they get more than half 5 all their food stealing food
killed 6 other animals or eat animals that have died. And, if there is little food,
adult lions eat all of it and their cubs die. About one third 7 all cubs die this
way. Many more are killed by adult lions.
Perhaps, you will be surprised to learn that when the lion hunts, it isn’t he who
usually kills animals. Most 8 the killing is done by the lioness.
Lions are lazy and sleep or rest about 20 hours a day. If they can’t steal food 9
___ smaller animals or find it dead, they spend an hour or two a day hunting. And
sometimes they kill other adult lions.
Hyenas, as many people think, live 10 food left 11 lions, and sometimes
when they are hungry, they attack helpless animals. Scientists who spent several
years in Africa found that hyenas’ food is more often big wild animals such as
zebras than small and helpless animals.
Practice 33. Insert the appropriate prepositions. Then retell the passage.
The soldiers had just moved 1 the desert, and as they had never been in such
a place before, they had a lot lo learn.
As there were no trees or buildings 2 the desert, it was, of course, very hard
to hide their trucks 3 enemy planes. The soldiers were therefore given training

49
in camouflage, which means ways of covering something so that the enemy cannot
see where it is. They were shown how to paint their trucks in irregular patterns 4
pale green, yellow, and brown paints, and then to cover them with nets to
which they had tied small pieces 5 cloth.
The driver who had the biggest truck went to a lot of trouble to camouflage it.
He spent several hours painting it, preparing a net and searching 6 some heavy
rocks with which to hold the net down. When he finished it all 7, he looked
proudly at his work and then went off to have his lunch.
But when he came back to the truck after he had had his meal, he was surprised
and worried to see that his camouflage work was completely spoilt by the truck’s
shadow, which had grown pretty long 8 the afternoon. He stood looking at it,
not knowing what to do about it.
Soon an officer arrived, and he too saw the shadow, of course.
‘Well’, he shouted to the poor driver, ‘what are you going to do 9 it? If an
enemy plane comes 10, the pilot will at once know that there is a truck there’.
‘I know, sir’, answered the soldier.
‘Well, don’t just stand there doing nothing!’ said the officer.
‘What shall I do, sir?’ asked the poor driver.
‘Get your spade and throw some sand 11 the shadow, of course!’ answered
the officer.
Practice 34. Insert the appropriate prepositions. Then retell the passage.
The manager of a small building company was very surprised to get a bill 1___
two white mice which one of his workmen had bought. He sent for the workman
and asked him why he had had the bill sent 2 the company.
‘Well’, the workman answered, ‘you remember the house which was 3
repair in Newbridge, don’t you?
One of the things we had to do there was to put 4 some new electric wiring.
Well, in one place we had to pass some wires 5 a pipe thirty feet long and
about an inch across, which was built into solid stone and had four big bends in it.
None of us could think how to do this 6___ breaking the wall, until I had a good

50
idea. I went to a shop and bought two white mice, one of them male and the other
female. Then I tied a thread to the body of the male mouse and put him 7 the
pipe at one end, while Bill held the female mouse 8 the other end and pressed
her gently to make her squeak. When the male mouse heard the female mouse’s
squeaks, he rushed along the pipe to help her. I suppose he was a gentleman even
though he was only a mouse. Anyway, as he ran 9 the pipe, he pulled the
thread behind him.
It was then quite easy for us to tie one end of the thread to the electric wires and
pull them 10 the pipe, which we did 11 seconds’.
The manager paid the bill for the white mice.
Practice 35. Insert the appropriate prepositions. Then retell the passage.
{Pygmalion was a king of Cyprus and a famous sculptor.)
Pygmalion had no respect 1 women. He saw that the only thing the women
were interested in was pleasure. He traveled much 2 all countries and never
met a woman he could like. He believed that though their face and figure were
beautiful, women were bad 3 heart. So he decided never to marry.
One day he took a piece of marble and began to make a statue of a young
woman. 4 finishing the statue, it was more beautiful than any woman in the
world. The marble girl seemed to be almost alive. Pygmalion looked 5 his
beautiful statue day after day, and soon he fell in love 6 it. He brought flowers
to the statue and often kissed it. Sometimes it seemed to him that the statue moved
and became warm. But he understood that it was only a marble statue.
At that time of the year people usually came to Aphrodite, goddess 7 love,
to pray. People loved Aphrodite because they thought that this goddess best
understood the hearts of men and women.
Pygmalion prayed to the goddess. ‘Aphrodite, goddess of love,’ he cried, ‘listen
to my prayer. I love my marble girl very much. Give me for wife one who is as
perfect and as beautiful as she is’. 8 that Pygmalion returned home. When he
looked 9 his marble statue, she seemed to be a real sleeping girl. He went up to
her and kissed her. She was warm! Her hands were warm! Pygmalion stood near

51
her half afraid. Then the girl opened her eyes and smiled 10 him. Now he
knew that she was alive. Pygmalion thanked Aphrodite 11 the answer to his
prayer.
Practice 36. Insert the appropriate prepositions. Then retell the passage.
Dick was a clever boy, but his parents were poor, so he had to work 1
spare time and during his holidays to pay for his education. In spite of this, he
managed to get to the university, but it was so expensive to study there that 2
the holidays he found it necessary to get two jobs at the same time so as to earn
enough money to pay 3 his studies.
One summer he managed to get a job in a butcher’s shop during the daytime,
and another in a hospital at night. In the shop, he learnt to cut meat 4 quite
nicely, so the butcher often left him to do all the serving while he went into a room
behind the shop to do the accounts. 5 the hospital, on the other hand, he was,
of course, allowed to do only the simplest jobs, like helping to lift people and to
carry them from one part of the hospital 6 another. Both 7 the butcher’s
shop and at the hospital, Dick had to wear white clothes.
One evening at the hospital, Dick had to help to carry a woman 8 her bed to
the place where she was to have an operation. The woman was already feeling
frightened 9 the thought 10 the operation before he came to get her, but
when she saw Dick, that finished her.
‘No! No!’ she cried. ‘Not my butcher! I won’t be operated 11 ___ by my
butcher!’ and fainted away.

52
 THE INTERJECTION
ACCORDING TO THE ORIGIN

Oh, how wonderful it is! Here, where are you going?

Hush, you’ll wake him. My God, look at it!

Oh, how horrible! Come, come, Miss Jones, be carefull.

Dear me! Well, all right!

PRACTICE ON THE INTERJECTIONS

Practice 1. Identify the interjections. Define whether they are emotional or
imperative. Give their Azerbaijani equivalents.
1. “Oh, my goodness!” cried Mrs. Jones, the head librarian. “We’ve got mites in
the atlas again!” 2. “No kidding!” chuckled Len, her assistant. “Tell them to enjoy
their trip.” 3. Sonia rounded the corner at the bottom of the hill. “Up-oh!” she
gasped. “I forgot to have the brakes fixed on this bike!” 4. “Hee, hee!” chortled the
villainous banker. “I finally own the mortgage on the widow’s little cabin!” 5.
“Ha!” laughed the widow. “Keep it. I own the mortgage on your penthouse!” 6.
“Say, George,” called the teacher. “I noticed that you didn’t hand in your
homework this morning.” 7. “Well, Mr. Anderson,” George answered, “I was
going to tell you that our canary ate it, but we only have a dog.” 8. Six-year-old
John woke up late with a start. “Oh, rats! He grumbled. “If today’s not Saturday,
I’m going to be tardy!” 9. Sonia looked down into the cereal bowl and gagged.
“Eeew, what is that stuff? It looks just awful!” 10. “Yuck!” exclaimed Cindy.
“You’re right, but I don’t know what it is. That’s your bowl!” 11. “My goodness,
don’t you know there isn’t anything in the world I wouldn’t do for you?” 12.
“Here, darling, I have been talking to Micheal . I am going to put up the money to
start you in management.” 13. “Fiddlesticks”, “I never heard such nonsense,” he
cried. “What a filthy mind you have got, Julia!” 14. “Atishoo,” the man sneezed
and got up. 15. He tasted the cake, then smacked his lips and said, “blah, blah,
blah.”
♦ Make up a story using any of the interjections.
Practice 2. Match the interjections on the left-hand box with their literal
meanings on the right-hand box. Give their Azerbaijani equivalents. Then
check your answers (see: Glossary of Grammatical Terms and Notions p.206).
1. Used to express the fact that you are a. Why
surprised, sorry, etc.
2. Used for showing that you are b. Well
surprised in a happy way, or that you
recognize sb/sth
3. Used when sb has almost had an c. Pooh
accident, broken sth, etc.
4. Used to express disgust at a bad d. There
smell; used to say that you think sb’s
idea, suggestion, etc.is not very good or
that you don’t believe what sb has said
-------------------------------------------------- I
54
5. Used to express satisfaction that you c. Ouch
were right about sth or to show that sth
annoy you
6. Used to express surprise, anger or f. Fiddlesticks
relief
7. Used to express surprise, lack of g. Oho
patience
8. Used to express sudden pain h. Goody
9. Used to say that you disagree with sb i. Och
10. A word children use when they are g. Oops
excited or pleased about sth

♦ Now use any of the interjections in a sentence ofyour own.

Practice 3. Read the sentences. Find the interjections and put them into the
proper box.
Emotional Imperative

1. Ah, that may not be true. 2. For many people, alas, hunger is part of everyday
life. 3. I’ll be back next week, God willing. 4. God, what a stupid thing to do!
5. Goodness, it is raining cats and dogs. 6. There! That didn’t hurt too much, did it?
7. Ouch! I hurt you! 8. Oops! I shouldn’t have said that. 9. Well, I would have
never guessed. 10. Why, Jane, it was brilliant.

55
 MODAL WORDS

CERTAINTY PROBABILITY DESIRABILITY OR

certainly, surely, perhaps, possibly, UNDESIRABILITY
really, of course, etc. maybe, probably, happily,
apparently, etc. unhappily,
luckily, etc.

Certainly, he will do whatever you ask him.

Perhaps, he is wrong, but I’d prefer to believe in him.
Happily, all went well.

PRACTICE ON THE MODAL WORDS

Practice 1. Read the sentences. Find the modal words and put them into the
proper box.
words denoting certainty words denoting words denoting
probability desirability or
undesirability

1. Certainly, the early years are crucial to a child’s development. 2. Definitely, it

wasn’t what we expected. 3. No doubt, she will call us when she gets there.
4. Perhaps, it would be better if you came back next day. 5. Probably, he is wrong.
6. Apparently, they arc getting divorced soon. 7. Happily, the damage was only
slight. 8. I was late, but fortunately the game hadn't begun yet. 9. Maybe, we can
get on well together. 10. Indeed, I would be delighted to help. 11. Naturally, I get
upset when things 20 wrong. 12. Possibly, they will try to do everything

56
13. Obviously, we don’t want to spend too much money. 14. Unhappily, such good
luck is rare. 15. Unfortunately, I won’t be able to attend the meeting.
Practice 2. Point out all the modal words and define their meanings. Give
their Azerbaijani equivalents.
1. Surely, he had a number of blue woolen caps with him which he wanted to sell.
2. Maybe, on his way to the town at some distance from the coast, he had to pass
through a forest, in which there were a great number of monkeys. 3. He could
barely get a word out of him, he ate nothing, but he certainly took his liquor and
his face kept getting whiter. 4. The sailor, probably, decided to have a rest as it was
very hot. 5. Tom was, actually, too tired to dance. 6. “No doubt, he has been
terribly busy the last few days, he said.” 7. Unfortunately, he doesn’t love me; he
doesn’t care a damn about me. 8. You will, probably, share your knowledge before
you leave this room. 9. Luckily, you seem to be very interested in your
movements. 10. Of course, nobody could have known. We only decided after I met
him. 11. Unluckily, they hadn’t met then. And this story ended like that. 12. This
time, apparently, I promised myself, I would tell them. 13. Maybe so, but Fil tell
you this, Lissa. 14. Indeed there is such a close connection that one is actually
taken out of the other. 15. “Ah, absolutely, you may imagine that your own special
trade or your own industry would be encouraged by taxes on foreign goods.
♦ Now use any of the modal words in a sentence ofyour own.
♦ Make up a story using modal yvords.

57
 THE PARTICLE

She decided to agree with him just for to make him happy.

You simply must read it.

Just listen to what he is saying
He has said exactly what he meant.

58
 She will become a doctor too.
Tom comes in. He also takes off his hat and overcoat.
I don’t prefer it either.
Please take this one as well.

I never knew what had happened.

He was not present there himself.
They went no further than the office.

ADDITIVE PARTICLE

else

Note: It combines only with indefinite, interrogative and negative pronouns and
interrogative adverbs.
What else do you offer to show?
Where else could he be?

PRACTICE ON THE PARTICLES

Practice 1. Point out the particle and define the group it belongs to. Give their
Azerbaijani CQiiiValCiitS.

1. I just could have forgiven it if he’d fallen desperately in love with someone and
gone off with her. 2. I have been comforting him too. 3. ‘'Do you also mean that
you could have forgiven him if he had left you?” 4. He gave me a look in which I
read no great friendliness, but did not answer. 5. I don’t think I was a little
disappointed in her, either. 6. I’m barely sure that your brother is quite responsible
for his actions. 7. You see, I only asked him to come here one day and look at my
pictures. 8. He was but doing the same things as they did once. 9. He put the
money in his pocket, just nodded, said, “Thanks”, and walked out.” 10. “I simply

59
shouldn’t have mended if he’d said my pictures were bad, but he said nothing­
nothing.” 11. I am sure she has always been a simply perfect mother, so long as I
can remember. 12. Not a chance for a woman of her ability. 13.1 do not know what
put it exactly into my head. 14. “Have you by any chance just run across a painter
called Thomas?” 15. I didn’t suppose that she was only clever or solely could be
amusing, but there was something in her grave intentness which excited my
interest. 16. You will manage it and if you do I’ll give you something ever so nice.
17. I was even taken aback. I didn’t like to refuse, either. 18. “I just don’t know
why he had begun the story against himself yet.” 19. “I only came to ask you to
lend me twenty francs.” 20. Where else would they like to go? Or What else would
they plan to do?
♦ Now use any of the particles in a sentence ofyour own.
♦ Make up a story using particles.
Practice 2. Find the particles and put them into the proper box.
Limiting Intensifying Connecting Negative Additive

1. They agreed to go merely because they were getting paid for it. 2. It was not a
big problem, merely an inconvenience. 3. He became solely responsible for the
community. 4. They had barely enough money to live on. 5. He’d barely sat down
when the phone rang. 6. They are wearing exactly the same hat. 7. I know exactly
how he felt. 8. It happened almost exactly a year ago. 9. Fame is often simply a
matter of being in the right place at the right time. 10. You simply must have seen
it yourself! 11. It was cold there even in summer. 12. Even a child can understand

60
it. 13. It was just an ordinary day. 14. I can’t just drop all my commitments.
15. There is plenty of time yet to enter the competition. 16. We specialize in shoes,
but we also sell handbags. 17. I still haven’t finished my homework. 18. He never
returned to his native country. 19. Can I get you anything else? 20. I left my phone
right here.
♦
Practice 3. Define the place where you can insert proper particles.
■ Lynn was five years old. She had a lot of friends. They were older, and they
were at school. These children told Lynn nice stories about school, so Lynn wanted
to go there. '
Then one day her mother said, “You can go to school now, Lynn,” and Lynn
was very happy.
She was the youngest child in the school, and on the first day, her mother stayed at
school with her. But on the second day, Lynn said to her, “You can go home,
Mummy.”
Lynn’s mother was happy, but she was sad, because Lynn did not need her
all the time now.
Lynn was even happy at school, and she learnt a lot of things there. Her
mother always said, “What have you learnt today, Lynn?” and Lynn told her.
One day Lynn came back from school and said to her mother, “Miss
Richards (she was Lynn’s teacher) told us some nice stories today, Mummy. The
best was about Ulysses. He fought against the ... the ... er ...”
“The Trojans,” her mother said.
“Oh, yes, that’s right,” Lynn answered. “The Trojans. And then Ulysses
went back in his ship with some other men. He went to see his wife ... er ...”
“Penelope,” Lynn’s mother said.
Lynn stopped and looked at her mother. “Mummy,” she said, “has anyone
told you this story already?”
 HOMONYMOUS PARTS
OF SPEECH
HOMONYMY OF PREPOSITIONS

Preposition Adverb Conjunction Participle

down, before, since, after, near, till, regarding, concerning, following, including
before Leave your keys at reception before I think we have met before,
departure, (preposition) (adverb)
down The stone rolled down the hill He looked down at her.
(preposition). (adverb).
since She has been off work since Tuesday, He left home two weeks ago
(preposition) and we haven’t heard from
him since, (adverb)
after We shall leave after lunch, And they all lived happily
(preposition) ever after, (adverb)
near The house is near the river, The exams are drawing near,
(preposition) (adverb)
since We have lived here since 1994. How long is it since we last
(preposition) went to the theatre?
(conjuncttion)
before My friends arrived before me. Did she leave a message
(preposition) before she left?
(conjunction)
after After an hour I went home, I shall call you after I have
(preposition) spoken to them,
(conjunction)
Afll
Lill She worked til! eight, (preposition) She waited till I came,
(conjunction)
regarding Regarding these things I have He was regarding the
nothing to say. (preposition) landscape, (participle)
concerning All details concerning money would Is it concerning you so
be appreciated, (preposition) deeply? (participle)
including The news delighted everyone We are including your name
including me. (preposition) in the list, (participle)

62
 HOMONYMY OF CONJUNCTIONS

before since that but

after We shall go home after the sun sets, Let’s discuss the matter after,
(conjunction) (adverb)
Run after him and catch him
(preposition)
before He was strolling about the beach before I had often heard the song before,
I was up. (conjunction) (adverb)
We sat before a little tree,
(preposition)
since She has held two jobs since she He has since become rich, (adverb)
graduated, (conjunction) They seem to have changed since
then, (preposition)
that He said that he was ill. (conjunction) That book is mine, (demonstrative
pronoun)
The photo that is on the table is my
father’s, (relative pronoun)
but Rain had been falling, but now it had He works every day but
stopped, (conjunction) Sunday.(preposition)
I know but little of him.
(particle)

63
 HOMONYMY OF PARTICLES

Simply I simply do" not understand He said it quite simply,

you. (particle) (adverb)

Exactly He knew exactly what she He always said exactly what

thought about the others in the he thought, (particle)
office, (adverb)
Too She is too lazy, (adverb) She is lazy, too. (particle)
Just You are just the person I He has just left the room,
need, (particle) (adverb)
Just They are just about to leave, He is a just man. (adjective)
(particle)
Only I have only two letters to send, She is the only child in the
(particle) family, (adjective)
Even I can’t even boil an egg. I couldn’t remember those
(particle) even numbers on the wall,
(adjective)
Right You are coming right out into He is right, (adjective)
life, facing it all. (particle)
Either I don’t advise you to go close Give me a pen or a pencil.
to this cage, either, (particle) Either will do. (pronoun)
Still These days we’ve been She couldn’t still the baby,
working with still greater (verb)
efficiency, (particle)
Never He answered never a word, He ate the whole lamb. -
(particle) Never! (interjection)
But She is but a child, (particle) Your buts make me tired,
(noun)
But I saw her but a moment, I looked at her, but she paid
(particle) no attention to me.
(conjunction)
But He told me but one letter of The library is open every day
the word, (particle) but Monday, (preposition)

64
 HOMONYMY OF MODAL WORDS

Modal Words: certainly,surely, Adverbs: certainly,surely,

fortunately, unfortunately, happily, fortunately, unfortunately, happily,
luckly,etc. luckly.etc.
Unfortunately, he died. He died unfortunately.

HOMONYMY OF INTERJECTIONS (SECONDARY)

well The conference was very well Well, everything is

organized, (adverb) clear, (interjection)
look He is looking at us. (verb) Look, I’d like to
inform you.
(interjection)

PRACTICE ON THE HOMONYMOUS PARTS OF SPEECH

Practice 1. For each italicized word in the passages, write one of these words
to identify its parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, interjection. Give their Azerbaijani equivalents.
What caused such a great empire as Rome to fall? It wasn’t just the fierce
northern and eastern tribes. Instead, it was the Roman Empire’s tremendous
wealth, power, pride, and position. Once, early in its history, Rome had been justly
proud of its virtues, its heroes, and its civilized way of life. While the empire grew,
however, Romans began to value honor less and wealth and power more. When
personal pride, courage, and honesty died, Rome began to fall. By the early fourth
century' after Christ, nothing could keep the barbarians from pouring in. Rome had
crumbled from the inside.

65
 * * * * * * * *

A sentimental lady on an excursion in a forest stopped before a big tree. “

Oh, my God, what a wonderful elm,” she said, “if you could only speak, what
would you say to me?”
The man accompanying her said, “It would probably say, “Excuse me, but,
alas, I’m an oak tree.”
* *******

In a men’s clothing store a young corporal, assisted by a pretty girl, selected a

civilian suit. The girl looked him over critically, and then said, “Look, you are
elegant enough.”
The salesman thinking he was about to sell a complete wardrobe, said, “I
suppose you have your discharge and are buying civilian clothes. I recommend you
should buy everything in my shop.”
“Oh, no, ” returned the corporal, “My girl just wanted to see what I should
look like if I were a civilian now. If I did not look elegant enough in a civilian suit
she would never marry me.”
* *******

An American lady, traveling in England some years ago, got into a

compartment of a smoking carriage where an Englishman was smoking a pipe.
For a while she sat quietly, expecting that the Englishman would stop smoking. But
then she began to cough and sneeze, trying to show him that she objected to the
smoke. At last, seeing that the man took no notice o/her and did not put out his
pipe, she said:
“Pooh, if you were a gentleman, you would probably stop smoking when a
lady got into the carriage.”
“Here! If you were a lady”, replied the Englishman, “you would hardly get
into a smoking carriage.”
“Look, if you were my husband,” said the American lady angrily, “I would merely
give you poison.”
The Englishman just looked at her for a moment or two.

66
 “Well,” he said at last, “if I were your husband, I simply would take it.”
* *******

“Well, what makes the new baby at your house cry so much, Tommy?” asked
a next-door neighbor.
“Now, it doesn’t cry so much,” answered Tommy, “and anyway, if your teeth
were all out, your hair off and your feet so weak that you couldn’t stand on them, I
think you surely would feel like crying.”
“Oh, bother, you are absolutely right,” the man murmured.
it * * * it * it *

Ann: Oh, my Lord, I have an awful toothache. I am just dying from this
goddamn pain.
Kate: Here, I would certainly take the tooth out if it were mine.
Ann: And, no doubt, so would I if it were yours.
* *******

“They are wonderful, those nuns. They make me feel utterly worthless. They
give up everything, their home, their country, love, children, freedom; and all the
little things which I sometimes think must be harder still to give up, flowers, and
green fields, going for a walk on an autumn day, books and music, comfort,
everything they give up, everything. And they do it so that they may devote
themselves to a life of sacrifice and poverty, obedience, and prayer. To all of them
this world is really and truly a place of exile. Life is a cross which they willingly
bear, but in their hearts all the time is the desire - oh, its so much stronger than
desire, it’s a longing, an eager, passionate longing for the death which shall lead
them to life everlasting . . . Supposing there is no life everlasting? Think what it
means if death is really the end of all things. They’ve given up all for nothing.
They’ve been cheated. They’re dupes.”
“I wonder if it matters that what they have aimed at is illusion. Their lives
arc in themselves beautiful. I have an idea that the only thing which makes it
possible to regard this world we live in without disgust is the beauty which now
and then men create out of the chaos. The pictures they paint, the music they

67
J
compose, the books they write, and the lives they lead, of all these the richest in
beauty is the beautiful life. That is the perfect work of art.
* *******

Mr. Gray travelled a lot on business. He sold machines of various kinds to

farmers. It was not really a very exciting job, but Mr.Gray had always been
interested in farming, and he was quite satisfied with his life.
He had a big car, and usually enjoyed driving it long distances, but he was
a
quite satisfied to go by train sometimes too, especially when the weather was bad.
He was a little frightened of driving in rain or snow, and it was less tiring to sit
comfortably in a train and look out of the window without being worried about how
one was going to get to the next place.
One of Mr. Gray’s problems was often where to stay when he reached a
small place in the country. He did not expect great comfort and wonderful food,
but he found it annoying when he was given a cold room, and there was no hot
water or good food after a long and tiring day.
Late one winter evening, Mr.Gray arrived at a small railway station. The
journey by train that day had not been at all interesting, and Mr.Gray was cold and
tired and hungry. He was looking forward to a simple but satisfying meal by a
brightly burning fire, and then a hot bath and comfortable bed.
While he was walking to the taxi rank, he said to a local man who was also
walking there, “Look, as this is my first visit to this part of the country and I was
too much of a hurry to find out about hotels before I left home, I would very much
like to know how many you have here.”
The local man answered, “We have two.”
“And which of the two would you advise me to go to?” Mr.Gray asked then.
The local man scratched his head for a few moments and then answered,
“Well, it’s like this', whichever one you go to, you’ll sorry you didn’t go to the
other.”

68
 * * * * * * -k *

Tom: “What is the matter, darling?"

Ann: “Don’t talk to me. You’ve made me feel angry"
Tom: “Ah, my goodness, angel\"
The tears came to her own eyes and streamed down her face. She was so
pleased, so flattered.
Tom: “Oh, damn it," he sobbed. “I can’t help it.”
He took a handkerchief out of his pocket and dried eyes.
Tom: “I’m beginning to feel better now. But, my God, you shattered me.”
Ann: “To tell the truth, it is not a bad scene, is it?”
Tom: “Oh, Good Heavens, the scene be damned, it was you. You just
wrung my heart. The critics are right, my God, you’re an actress and no mistake.
Simply, you are absolutely perfect.”
Ann: “Have you only just discovered it?”
Tom: “I knew you were pretty good, but I never knew you were as good as
all that. You are going to be a star. Nothing can stop you.”
* *******

Mr. Jones’s shop sold only food. Mr. Jones and a young man worked there
together. The young man’s name was George.
A man came into the shop on Monday. He was a funny man. Mr. Jones was
in the office. It was behind the shop. The funny man looked at George and said, “I
merely want a small table, please.”
George said, “Oh, sorry, we don’t sell tables in this shop. We simply sell
food.”
The man smiled and answered, “A small, brown table.” He took a picture out
of his bag and showed it to George. It was a picture of a small, brown table.
George put his mouth near the man’s ear and said angrily, “We do not have
tables in this sliop! Just food! Not tables!”
The man smiled and answered quietly, “That’s even good. Thank you.” Then
he sat down on a chair and waited.

69
r
 George was not happy and got angry. He went into the office and spoke to
Mr. Jones. Then he and Mr. Jones came out again.
Mr.Jones was angry too. He looked at the man and said, “What do you
want?”
The man smiled and answered, “I want a loaf of brown bread, please.
Haven’t you got any brown bread in this shop?
Mr. Jones said, “Yes, we certainly have.” He looked at George, and then he
went and got a loaf o/brown bread from a big box and gave it to the man.
* *******

Miss Miller lived beside a church in a small street in a town. She never did
have a car. On Friday she always walked to the bus stop, and then she went to the
market and bought food for the next week. There were usually a lot of people in
the bus, but Miss Miller always found a seat.
One of the houses at the corner of Miss Miller’s street was empty for a long
time, but then a family came and lived in it. There was a man and his wife and two
children. The children went to school in the bus in the morning.
On Friday Miss Miller went to the house and visited the children’s mother.
She said to her, “Good morning. My name’s Jane Miller, and I live beside the
church in this street. I’m going to the market now. Do you need any food?”
“Good morning,” the woman said to her visitor, “you’re very kind. My
name’s Mary Adams. Yes, I need food for my lunch today and for our supper
tonight. And I need some fish. I don’t know the way to the market yet. Can I come
with you?”
“Please, do,” Jane answered. Mary put her coat on, and the two women went
out and walked along to the bus stop. They waited there, and Jane said to her new
friend, “There’s a bus at five minutes to ten. It’s always full, but I get a seat.”
“Oh? Is that easy? Mary asked.
Jane smiled and answered, “Wait and you’ll sec.”
The bus came, and the two women got in. It was full, but Jane said,
“Perhaps, those two handsome men will give us their seats.”

70
 Six men stood up quickly, and both the women went and sat down in the
nearest seats.
* * * * * * * *

“It is yet cold in this stadium,” said the girl behind me.
She simply had just arrived at her seat, escorted by a long-legged undergraduate.
They were late. The game had begun some moments before.
“Too cold?” he repeated in instantaneous alarm.
“Wait!” he said. “Will I get this old robe unfolded? You barely will be cold
with this robe around you.”
“My face still will be,” she said.
On the field a halfback made a gain of thirteen yards.
“Lift your feet a minute,” said the boy, “while I tuck it under. There! How's
that? Okay?"
“I guess so. What’s the score?”
“Nothing to nothing.”
“Oh," said the girl, “then we’re not really late. You kept saying we were
going to be late.”
“Well, we were, a little."
“I am never late,” the girl said dreamily.
The boy did not answer. “Watch that pass!" he shouted hoarsely instead.
“Only watch it!”
Practice 2. Define the part of speech the italicized words belong to.
This is the feast celebrated at the end of the month of fasting, Ramadan. The
number of Azerbaijanis who fast during Ramadan grows with every year, and
survey data suggest that almost 50 percent of respondents fast at least for some
time. The faithful demonstrate self-restraint and patience from dawn to sunset by
abstaining from food, drink, and cigarettes. The daily fast ends with a prayer
followed by a joyful meal called iftar.

71
 The month of Ramadan is also a time of quiet self-reflection, during which
people pray, try to avoid arguing or thinking troublesome thoughts and other
things.
* *******

Charlie Yates was seventeen years old, and although he had left school, he
preferred living in the comfort and convenience of his parents’ home to living
alone. He said that he was trying to find a job, but there never seemed to be one
that he thought good for him. His father wanted him to leave home and earn some
money, but his mother loved Charlie very much and wanted him to stay, so she
never interfered with what he might want to do.
Charlie did not wash his hair very often, he shaved once a week, and he
could not bear wearing shoes, so his feet were nearly always dirty.
His father did not see him very frequently, because he worked quite a
distance from home and was in the habit of leaving the house early, before Charlie
got up', and when he got home in the evenings, Charlie was usually somewhere
else, amusing himself with a few of his friends, or playing the drums in a band.
Also, Charlie’s father often had to go abroad on business.
But Mr.Yates sometimes saw his son at weekends, and then he was always
angry with him. He used to say to him: “Why ever don’t you shave every day? Who
ever would give you a job with your dirty hair? Where ever are your shoes” and so on.
“But, father,” Charlie always said, “I don’t care about those things. All my
friends are like me nowadays, and if I changed, I wouldn’t be popular with them
any more.”
One Saturday morning, while Charlie and his father were having their usual
argument, his father said to him, “You should be ashamed to live like that. I was
brought up quite differently. When I was seventeen, my father never allowed me to
do any of the things that you do all the time. I was forbidden to stay out till three
o’clock in the morning, and come down to breakfast at ten, and walk about the
house with dirty feet, and grow a beard, and wear gold chains, and behave like a ...”

72
 He went on and on until Charlie said kindly, “Poor Father. My grandfather
died before I was born, so I never met him, but he must have been a terrible old
gentleman.”
“Not at alb” Mr.Yates objected angrily. “For your information, I had a much
nicer father than you’ll ever have!”
* *******

1. Jessica jumped up and ran from the table. 2. The diamonds in the vault are
priceless. 3. I have never seen a more glorious sunset! 4. The telephone rang four
times during dinner. 5. The boys ran down the hill too fast. One of them fell and
hurt his ankle badly. 6. The speech was over my head. 7. Soon afterwards, Marcus
lay the book on the table again. 8. From the porch I could see all the way to the
river. 9. We stayed up until midnight. The UFO never reappeared. 10. Although it
was cold that morning, Knut wore only a light jacket over his school clothes.
11. Please come to visit us if you’re ever in Topeka. 12. It’s my turn to fix dinner;
therefore, I can’t go to the mall with you after school. 13. Of course, you may
come along on our trip to the park; indeed, I’ll be glad of your help with the dogs.
14. Liss has become better organized lately, consequently, she found her summer­
school application form after only a short search. 15. The vandals were evidently
wearing gloves; we did find one long blond hair stuck to a graffito, however. 16.
I’ll go with you wherever you go. 17. Just as the days grow longer in springtime,
so the nights grow longer in fall. 18. Emma was rich but not happy. 19. Not only
has the Antietam battlefield been restored, but parts of Fort Sumter have also been
completely rebuilt. 20. His sculpture is particularly smooth. 21. He grasped the
monster’s arm, wrenched it mightily, and pulled it out of its socket. 22. He is
suspiciously sick before a math test. 23. The rabbit squeezed under the fence,
hopped out of the yard, and stopped for a moment by the brook. 24. Alicia stood
before the huge audience and gave her speech with confidence. 25. Everyone at the
twins’ party received a prize except Anjelica.

73
Practice 3. State whether the italicized word is an adverb, a conjunction, a
preposition, or a postposition.
1. There was a little hill and a pear field beyond a stone wall. 2. He stood at
the open window, looking across at the broad field and the river bank beyond.
3. After dinner she took her baby up the hill. 4. He picked up the candle, lit it and
continued reading. 5. He glanced up reproachfully, caught the comic lift of her
eyebrow just like their father’s laughed and felt better. 6. She came back with a
bag, and then got in and we drove on. 7. We are just on our way home, surely. 8. A
cool December air came in through the window. 9. After tea they sat about and
talked about. 10. After he had left me I returned to my thoughts again. 11. A little
before midnight the thick fog that had been falling over the city became rain. 12.
He thought a little before he answered. 13. He has never worked at anything like
this before, has he? 14. I was bom here, but have never been here since I was a
baby. 15. We knew him well, but it was some years since, and I valued him as a
man. 16. On one point they were in agreement - George had degenerated terribly
since joining the army. 17. At other times he was working in his vineyard from
dawn till the heat drove him to rest. 18. We stayed there till dusk. 19. We missed
him who came down last. 20. The sun was going down and the day was cooling
off.
Practice 4. Point out all the independent elements and define the part of
speech they are expressed by.
1. Maybe, after all, there was something in that wild idea of Albertine’s. 2. They
gave him, in fact, a pleasant feeling of vicarious fatherhood. 3. Nick, unfortunately,
had passed an unquiet night. 4. Nevertheless, despite this reasoning there remained
in the Consul’s breast that strange sense of jealousy. 5. How fortunate to have such
a reliable couple in the house. Naturally, he counted on the Burtons as an official
standby. 6. 1 am a human being, and I must take advantage of my opportunities.
Frankly, I am accustomed to good wine. 7. He was surprised, evidently, to find
Sally so much at home and bustling about like that. 8. She was quite unconcerned,
as a matter of fact, about being left alone in the camp. 9. Perhaps her colonial

74
upbringing had something to do with it. 10. ft was still too early for his ride, but he
didn’t go back to bed, he wasn’t deeply worried, to be sure, but he knew that he
wouldn’t be able to sleep.
Practice 5. Point out the notional, structural and independent elements.
Mr. and Mrs. Brown had two daughters and two sons. Both daughters and
sons married. Soon Mr. and Mrs. Brown had a granddaughter, and then they had
two grandsons. They were very happy.
Then one of their daughters had another baby, and she telephoned her
mother, “Please come and help with your new granddaughter.” Mrs. Brown went
quickly, but Mr. Brown stayed at home. He said, “I’ll come on Friday evening, and
I’ll stay till Monday morning.”
On Friday evening, after work, Mr. Brown got into a train. He was very
happy. “Oh, I’m going to see my new granddaughter now,” he said.
There were three empty places in the train. There was an old man beside one
empty place, and Mr. Brown went to him and said nicely, “Are you a grandfather?”
“Yes, of course,” the man answered, “Luckily, I have three granddaughters.”
Mr. Brown went to the second empty place. There was a nice woman beside
that. Mr. Brown said to her, “Are you a grandmother?”
The woman answered, “Yes, I have two granddaughters and two grandsons.”
Mr. Brown went to the third empty place. There was a man beside that, and
Mr. Brown said to him, “And are you a grandfather?”
“Unfortunately, I am not,” the man answered.
Mr. Brown smiled happily and said, “Oh, that is good.” He sat down in the
empty place and said to the man kindly, “Well, now I’ll tell you about my
granddaughters and grandsons.”
Practice 6. State whether the italicized word is an adverb, a modal word, or a
particle.
The famous director of big and expensive film truly planned to film a
beautiful sunset over the ocean, so exactly that the audiences could see his hero and

75
heroine in front of it at the end of the film as they said goodbye to each other for
ever.
The next morning he said to the men, “Have you proved me with the sunset
exactly^
“No, sir,” the men answered.
The director got truly angry. “Why not?” he asked.
“Well, sir,” one of the men answered, “we’re right on the east coast here and
the sun sets in the west right. Certainly we can get you a sunrise over the sea, if
necessary, but not the sunset. Yet not quite certainly."
“Oh, certainly, but I want a sunset!” the director shouted. “Go to the airport,
take the next flight to the west coast, and get one.”
But then a young secretary had an idea. “Why don’t you ever photograph a
sunrise,” she suggested, “and then put it through the projector backwards? Then
it’ll look like sunset. And it will give you something ever so nice.”
“That is simply a good idea!” the director said. Then he turned to the camera
crew and said, “Tomorrow morning I want you to get me a beautiful sunrise simply
over the sea.” The camera crew went out early the next morning and filmed simply
a bright sunrise over the beach in the middle of a beautiful bay. Then just at nine
o’clock they took it to the director. “Here it is, sir,” they said, and showed it to
him. He just liked it very much.
Theyjkk all went into the studio. “All right,” the director explained, “now
our hero and heroine are still going to say goodbye. Still run the film backward
through the projector so that we can see the ‘sunset’ behind them.”
The still ‘sunset’ began, but after a quarter of a minute, the director suddenly
put his face in his hands and shouted to the camera crew to stop. His sudden shout
made the crew stop.
The birds in the film were flying backwards, and the waves on the sea were
going away from the beach.

76
Practice 7. State whether the italicized word is an adverb or a preposition.
Three young men were playing outside with a gun in a street. Outside it was
getting dark when one of them fired it by mistake without aiming at anything. The
bullet broke a window in an old lady’s house beyond. Outside and beyond the
street stretched the houses.
The young men made off at once when they saw the damage they had done,
but the old lady looked out of the window when she heard the explosion, and she
recognized one of them as the son of a man and woman who lived not far from her
place.
The old lady complained to the police, and a detective came down to her
house. The old lady gave him a detailed account of everything that had happened,
and then the detective asked her if she knew where the young man lived. The old
lady told him that too, so the detective went to the young man’s house down the
street. He and his companions tried to hide inside, but the detective found them
inside the house and took them to the police station.
There his chief officer questioned the young men to find out which of them
owned the gun, but none of them was willing to say.
The young man who owned the gun did not dare to admit that he did,
because he did not have a license for it.
At last the chief officer decided to put an end to the conversation, so he
turned to the detective and demanded to know whether he had got an officer’s
permission to take the gun away from the young man who owned it.
After the detective heard the question, he felt anxious. “No, sir,” he answered
nervously, “I didn’t get it.”
After the interrogation, the officer declared angrily: “In that case, you were
quite wrong to take it away from him. You’d better return it immediately or there’ll
be in trouble!”
This made the young men smile happily at each other, and as soon as the
detective held the gun out and said, “Here you are,” one of them put his hand out in
order to get it back.

77
 That is how the officer finally discovered who the gun belonged to.
Practice 8. Define the part of speech the italicized words belong to.
Mr.Botibol pushed his way through the revolving doors and emerged into
the large foyer of the hotel. He took off his hat and holding it in front o/him with
both hands, he advanced nervously a few paces, paused and stood looking around
him, searching the faces of the lunchtime crowd. Several people turned around and
stared at him in mild astonishment, and he heard - or he thought he heard - at least
one woman’s voice saying, “My dear, did you see what’s just come zn!”
At last he spotted Mr. Clements sitting at a small table in the far comer, and
he hurried over to him. Clements had seen him coming up, and now, as he watched
Mr. Botibol threading his way cautiously between the tables and the people,
walking on his toes in such a meek and self-effacing manner and clutching his hat
before him with both hands, he thought how wretched it must be for any man to
look as conspicuous and as odd as this Botibol. He resembled, to an extraordinary
degree, an asparagus. His long narrow stalk did not appear to have any shoulders
at all; it merely tapered upwards, growing gradually narrower and narrower until it
came to a kind of point at the top of the small bald head. He was tightly encased in
a shiny blue double-breasted suit, and this, for some curious reason, accentuated
the illusion of a vegetable to a preposterous degree.
Clements stood up, they shook hands, and then at once, even before they had
sat down again, Mr. Botibol said, “I have decided, yes I have decided to accept the
offer which you made to me before you left my office last night.”
For some days Clements had been negotiating, on behalf of clients, for the
purchase of the firm known as Botibol and Co., of which Mr.Botibol was sole
owner, and the night before, Clements had made his first offer. This was merely an
exploratory, much-too-low bid, a kind of signal to the seller that the buyers were
seriously interested. And by God thought Clements, the poor fool has gone and
accepted it. He nodded gravely many times in an effort to hide his astonishment
and he said, “Oh, good, good. I’m so glad to hear that, Mr.Botibol.” Then he
signaled a waiter and said, “Two large martinis.”

78
Practice 9. Insert the proper part of speech according to the context. Choose
the appropriate parts of speech from the box.

such many in and

under by on by
to early twelve who

of whose also in
the another although with
their some on several
against vast before sixteenth

In the------ 1500s, the Shirvanshah state was forced to capitulate to the army
of the Persian Savafid dynasty, which consolidated power over a — territory —
Asia, — a capital in Tabriz. — original Safavid dynasty were the Gizilbash, an
ethnic Turkic (Azeri) tribe ---- members demonstrated their devotion to Shi’a
belief — wearing twelve red stripes -............. — turbans----- commemorate the
------ imams revered in the Shi’a tradition.
Shah Ismail I,----- ruled the Safavid state from 1501, unified the entire
territory -----present-day Iran. His reign was marked — the elevation of the
status of Azeri to the official language of the royal court. Shah Ismail -— wrote
poetry----- Azeri----- the pen-name of Khatai.
------ prominent writer who promoted the Azerbaijani literary tradition was
Muhammad Bin Suleyman, known by the pen-name Fuzuli. Science and the arts
also thrived throughout the following century, producing-----treasures as one of
the largest libraries in the region in Tabriz, exquisite miniature paintings, -----
beautiful carpets.
The Safavid dynasty made Shi’a Islam the official religion of the state, —
-----Azeris remained Sunni.
At the end of the----- century, Ottoman Turkey’s attacks — the Safavid
territories became more frequent and they conquered — provinces. The Iranian
Shah Abbas I, who ruled the Safavid territory at the time, started drastic army

79
reforms and eliminated----- of the Turkic Gizilbash emirs----- waging a war-----
the Ottomans and recapturing the provinces.
Practice 10. Define the part of speech the italicized words belong to.
l.She had made one of her greatest decisions. 2. One must fight for his/her country
and be ready to die for it. 3. There is only room for one man. 4. Our computer is
always breaking down. We are going to buy a new one soon. 5. They forced him to
leave the country, but it was just a temporary one. 6. That is their house over there,
isn’t it? 7. Where is the telegram that came yesterday? 8. That is exactly what I
want to say. 9. The fact that she is younger than me is not relevant. 10. We can not
walk that far. 11. There are not that many people here. 12. lam that frightened I
don’t know how to act. 13. The fruit are small and round. 14. Everybody joins
hands and dances round. 15. We turned the car round and drove back again. 16.
The family were sitting round the table. 17. The final round of voting in the
election ended at midnight. 18. Who is for another round of bread? 19. They
ordered two rounds of beef sandwiches. 20. We rounded the bend at high speed.
21.1 only see my friends once every six week. 22. I once met your girl friend. 23.
Life is something that you can lead but once. 24. We don’t know how we would
cope once the money had gone. 25. Don’t all speak at once\ 26. She was sitting all
alone in the room. 27. Leave my things alone\ 28. You can not blame anyone else;
you alone made the decision. 29. For your decision alone I could have left you. 30.
His mother won’t be there, but his father might. 31.1 had no choice but to answer.
32. Nothing, but nothing would make him change his mind. 33. We have nothing
but trouble with our cat. 34. They don’t think I’ll do it. I can but try. 35. With so
many ifs and buts, it is easier to wait and see. 36. I would help you, only I’m too
busy. 37. It took only a few minutes. 38. The weather was cold and wet. Still, we
had a great time. 39. Keep still while I brush your hair. 40. The storm stilled.

80
 REVISION TESTS
REVISION TEST I

1. Use the correct tense and voice.

When I (to go)..... to bed last night I (to fall) .... asleep at once. I (to be) ........
very tired because I (to work)........ hard for several hours. So I (to forget) to
close the windows before I (to go) to bed. It gave a good chance for the thief to
enter the house. The next day a policeman came to ask me some questions about
the thief. I (to tell)..... him that I (to leave)..... the windows open. The policeman
said: “If people (to look after)....... their houses properly we (not to have)......... so
much trouble.”
2. Find out all types of conjunctions.
Alma let herself into the room feeling light-headed, and trying to decide
what she could do if she were ill - the fear that never leaves the working girl who
has nobody to take care of her. She was living alone just now, in a bed-sitting room
which cost her twelve shillings a week. It was impossible to communicate with her
friends, and the only thing distinct to her mind was that she had to go to the
rehearsal the next day somehow. For one thing she could not afford to pay a fine,
for another, terror. She had five pounds in the Post-Office - that was all. The
pounds between her and the streets! She pulled the pins out of her thick hair,
i _ : ± _ _x»i i a1 _ _ !. : 1. . .. 1 i nri . . _i. _ < _ . i_ _ re i. _ _ i _ xi :xi. x.. _ .__1_ 1:
Hoping to sun me pam in nci ncau. men sue look on nci uiuuics wim ucinuniig

fingers and crept in between the sheets.

That evening the landlady didn’t- expect to find Alma at home because she
knew that the little actress was rehearsing. She almost started back with
astonishment on entering the room to see Alma lying in bed with closed eyes.
Alma was still lying in bed when the woman entered the room as she had
done the night before; but she was talking in her sleep - repeating lines from
operas and plays, and as if the opening of the door caught her attention she half sat
up in bed, fixing her feverish eyes on the woman.

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3. Insert the required prepositions.
Though we live 1 the twenty first century, many people are more interested
2 things that happened 3 the sixteenth century or that will happen 4
the twenty third century. There are many films, books and plays 5 our past,
there are also many science fiction films. One day you can see a film 6 Henry
VIII and the next day you can read a book about men 7 Mars.
Perhaps people are interested 8 other times because they want to forget 9
the present. But we must remember that the present comes 10 the past and
the future will depend 11 what happens now.
4. Define what part of speech the underlined word is.
Five tourists walked slowly across the airfield where a very small aircraft
was waiting for them. The passengers got into the plane and sat down. An old
lady turned to the air hostess: “Please, help me with the belt” she asked. I have
never been on an airplane before and I feel rather nervous. Don’t worry, the air
hostess said kindly.
5. Translate the following passage.
Mr. Boggis was dealing in antique furniture and had his own shop. When
customers came to his shop he showed them round it so that they could see the
whole range of his goods. He bought furniture from people in the country who
didn’t know the real value of antique furniture. One Sunday when Mr. Boggis was
travelling about the countryside near London, he found a commode by a famous
English carpenter. Mr. Boggis didn't want to show the owner that it was of great
value. So he said:
“Well, the commode doesn’t look beautiful. I can’t compare it with the
others that I have. I have just remembered that I wanted to have legs for the coffee
table in my own home.”
“How much could you give for the commode if you are interested in the
legs?” asked Mr. Rummond.
“Shall we say 20 pounds?”

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 Mr. Boggis walked to his car to get it nearer the door. Mr. Rummond’s son
said to him: “Listen to me, father. He told us that he wanted only the legs. So all
we have to do is to cut them off right now before he comes back. He won't have to
cut them off at home himself.”

REVISION TEST II

1. Use the correct tense and voice.

Drought and Famine (to come) to Africa again this year, just as they (to
have) every year for the past fifteen years. In some parts of Africa it (not/to rain)
for three years. There (to be) no crops, and the animals on which many people
depend (to die) long ago. Refugees (to pour) from the countryside into the towns in
their desperate search for food, and it (to estimate) that over a thousand people (to
die) every day.
We (to supply) towns and camps with food and medical supplies, but our
efforts are drops in the ocean. We need a hundred times more food arid medical
supplies, as well as doctors, nurses, blankets, tents, and clothes. Your help (to
need) now before it is too late. Please give all you can. No pound or penny will
ever be better spent or more appreciated.
2. Find out all types of conjunctions.
There were a lot of people at the bus stop. They were waiting for the bus.
When the bus at last pulled up at the stop, to the disappointment of the people
waiting there, there wasn’t room for everybody. So a thin, nervous man, who was
the last to get in, thought he was lucky to get the only vacant room that was left.
But though he was very thin, he felt very uncomfortable. The passenger sitting next
to him was so stout that he nearly pushed the poor little fellow off the seat. In an
angry tone the thin man asked his stout neighbour to move up, but the latter
refused to do so. Then the thin man said: “What I want to know is when you’re
going to get off.” But the stout man didn’t answer.

83
 ‘If I were managing the city transport,” the thin man then said, “I would take fares
according to the passenger’s weight.”
“If that were so, my man,” the stout man immediately replied, “no conductor
would allow you on the bus.”
3. Insert the required prepositions.
1 the old days many girls from poor families in the country worked 2
rich houses. They did all the house work and their working day was usually very
long. They often worked 3 Sundays, too. Once a year, it was usually a Sunday
in March, they could visit their mothers. They went home 4 that day and
brought presents 5 their mothers and for other members 6 their families.
They could stay 7 home only one day and then they went back 8 their
work. People called that day Mothering Day or Mothering Sunday.
Later workers 9 the factories and girls who worked in the houses of rich
families received one free day a week, and Mothering Day became Mother’s Day.
Mother’s Day 10 Britain is the second Sunday in May. In the United States
and Canada Mother’s Day is also the second Sunday in May. They have a very
beautiful stamp 11 Mother’s Day in the United States, which shows the
portrait of the mother of James Whister, one of the greatest American painters.
4. Define what part of speech the underlined word is.
When Wilson went to the airport, his flight was already being called over the
loudspeakers. The day before he had cancelled his ticket for a morning flight and
had booked an afternoon flight instead of it. He apologized fbr being late. The
clerk smiled and began to look through the reservations in front of her.
5. Translate the following passage.
Malcolm Stacey, who is 38 years old, is part- time BBC journalist and
author of two books about money. He earns £50,000 per annual. He lives in New
York with his wife Jo, 32. They have two children.
‘I never buy luxuries and I never buy a found of drinks. When colleagues go
out to the pub, I’ll stay in the office and say I’m expecting a phone call. I’ll never
invite people to dinner, but I never feel guilty about accepting their invitations. I

84
know they invite me to have someone interesting to talk to. The meanest thing I’ve
ever done was to go to a wedding without a present. I just took some wrapping
paper and a tag saying ‘Love from Malcolm’ and put it onto the table with the
other presents. I got a thank-you letter from the bride. She obviously thought she’d
mislaid the present.
People don’t believe I can be so stingy. I’ll organize an office collection for
earthquake victims but I won’t give anything myself. I would never ask passers-by
to throw money in, but I collect it when they do.
I’ve always been mean. When I was a child I would never buy flowers for
Mum, but I’d give her a bouquet from her own garden. My wife gets embarrassed
by my meanness, but we never row about money. People think I’ve got a fortune
stashed away somewhere. I don’t care what they think.

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 THE NON - FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB

The Infinitive The Gerund The Participle

—
Finites Non-Finites

1. Cover all tense forms (in the active and 1. The Infinitive, the Gerund, The Participle
passive voices)
——'
2. Have only verbal properties; used as the 2. Have double nature; never used as the
verbal predicate verbal predicate
Eg: He learns English. He leams to drive a car.
They are flying soon. She is fond of making cakes.
She has made the cake herself.
.——■— Have the distinctions of tense, aspect and
3. Have the categories of: person, number, 3.
tense, voice, aspect and mood voice. (They are not absolute but relative.)

'4. Denote actions in the past, present or 4. Denote simultaneous or prior action with
future: the action of the finite verb.
They solved the problem. We decided to solve the problem
They solve the problem every time. (simultaneous)
They will solve the problem. They happened to have solved the
problem (prior)

5. 5. Can form Predicative Constructions

———
(nominal element + Verbal element)
We expected him to win.
He excused for his disturbing us.

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 THE INFINITIVE
The Infinitive
- is a non-finite form
- is never used as a verbal predicate
- doesn’t agree with subject in person and number
- has verbal and nominal properties
- has relative tense, voice and aspect distinctions
- has four forms
- denotes simultaneous or prior actions

The forms of the Infinitive:

Active Passive
Indefinite Infinitive • to write to be written
Continuous Infinitive to be writing X
Perfect Infinitive to have written to have been written
Perfect Continuous to have been writing X
Infinitive

The functions of the Infinitive:

as a subject: To doubt, under the circumstances, is almost to insult.
It is useless to discuss the question.
as a predicative: My intention is to get into parliament
as a part of a We must not leave him by himself any longer, (a part of a
compound compound verbal modal predicate)
verbal predicate: She continued to observe her. (a part of a compound verbal
aspect predicate)
as an object: She had learned to dance at school.
as a part of a I never saw you act this way.
complex object:
as an attribute: She was not a woman to suffer in silence.
as an adverbial Laws weren ’t made to be broken; laws were made to stay
modifier: within, (adverbial modifier ofpurpose)
His eyes were sharp enough to look after his own interest
(adverbial modifier of result)

87
 She nervously moved her hand towards his lips as if to stop
him. (adverbial modifier of comparison)
as parenthesis: To cut a long story short, I don’t believe him.

PREDICATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE INFINITIVE

The Objective- The Subjective The For-to- Infinitive

with-the- Infinitive Construction
Infinitive Construction
Construction

The Objective-with -the-Infinitive Construction is a I haven’t heard anyone call me.

construction in which the infinitive is in predicate I know you to be the most honest,
relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in spotless creature that ever lived.
the objective case. She declared him to be the most
disobedient child in existence.
I want you to come and dine with
me.
I dislike you to talk like that.
He ordered the boy to be put to
bed.
She caused a telegram to be sent
to him.
I rely on you to come in time.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is a The rider was seen to disappear in
___ 4.__ 4J~_ 4.u~ 4.:— :____ j;_ 4.~
W115L1 UCllUll 111 WHICH Lilt, 1111111111 VC IS ill piCUlUdtC
47- - ___
relation a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the He was thought to be honest and
nominative case. kindly.
He was made to put on his
clothes.
They seemed to have quite
forgotten him already.
The experiment proved to be a
failure.
They all turned out to be good
fighters.
He is sure to marry her.

The For-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in That was for him to find out
which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or For me to ask would be treason,
pronoun preceded by the preposition for. and for me to be told would be
treason.
88
 I waited for her to speak.
The best thing for you to do is to
bide here with your load.
IIe stepped aside for me to pass.
He spoke loud enough for you to
hear.

REFERENCE LIST OF VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

Verbs with a bullet (•) can also be followed by gerunds.

A. VERBS FOLLOWED IMMEDIATELY BY AN INFINITIVE

1. afford I can’t afford to buy it. 25. manage She managed to finish
her work early.

2. agree They agreed to help us. 26. mean I didn’t mean to hurt
your feelings.

3. appear She appears to be tired. 27. need I need to have your

opinion.

4. arrange I’ll arrange to meet you at the 28. offer They offered to help us.
airport.
5. ask He asked to come with us. 29. plan I am planning' to have a
party.
6. can’t I can’t bear to wait in long 30. prefer* Ann prefers to walk to
bear* lines. work.
7. beg He begged to come with us. 31. prepare We prepared to
welcome them.
8. begin* It began to rain. 32. pretend He pretends not to
understand.
9. care I don’t care to see that show. 33. promise I promise not to be late.
10. claim She claims to know a famous 34. refuse I refuse to believe his
•
movie star. story.
11. consent She finally consented to 35. regret* I regret to tell you that
marry him. you failed.
12. continue* He continued to speak. 36. remember* I remembered to lock
the door.
13. decide I have decided to leave on 37. seem That cat seems to be
Monday. friendly.

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 14. demand I demand to know who is 38. can’t I can’t stand to wait in

responsible. stand* long lines.

15. deserve* She deserves to win the prize. 39. start* It started to rain.

16. expect I expect to enter graduate 40. struggle I struggled to stay

school in the fall. awake.

17. fail She failed to return the book 41. swear She swore to tell the
to the library on time. truth.

18. forget* I forgot to mail the letter. 42. threaten She threatened to tell
my parents.

19. hate* I hate to make silly mistakes. 43. try* I’m trying to learn
English.

20. hesitate Don’t hesitate to ask for my 44. volunteer He volunteered to help
help. us.

21. hope Jack hopes to arrive next 45. wait I will wait to hear from
week. you.

22. learn He learned to play the piano. 46. want I want to tell you
something.

23. like* I like to go to the movies. 47. wish She wishes to come
with us.

24. love* I love to go to operas.

B. VERBS FOLLOWED BY A (PRO)NOUN + AN INFINITIVE

48. advise* She advised me to wait until 61. He instructed them to be
instruct
tomorrow. careful.
49. allow She allowed me to use her car. 62. invite Harry invited the
Johnsons to come to his
party.
50. ask I asked John to help us. 63. need We needed Chris to
help us figure out the
solution.
51. beg They begged us to come. 64. order Ilie judge ordered me to
pay a fine.
52. cause Her laziness caused her to fail. 65. permit He permitted the
children to stay up late.
53. challenge She challenged me to race her 66. persuade I persuaded him to
to the comer. come for a visit.
54. convince I couldn’t convince him to 67. remind She reminded me to
accept our help. lock the door.
55. dare He dared me to do better than 68. require Our teacher requires us

90
 he had done. to be on time.
56. encourage He encouraged me to try again. 69. teach My brother taught me to
swim.
57. expect I expect you to be on time. 70. tell The doctor told me to
take these pills.
58. forbid I forbid you to tell him. 71. urge I urged her to apply for
the job.
59. force They forced him to tell the 72. want I want you to be happy.
truth.
60. hire She hired a boy to mow the 73. warn I warned you not to
lawn. drive too fast.

PRACTICE ON THE INFINITIVE

Practice 1. Give all possible forms of the following infinitives.
To listen, to explain, to decorate, to watch, to read, to translate, to examine, to
collect, to dictate, to grow, to send, to show, to publish.
Practice 2. Supply the missing forms of the following infinitives.
To drive, to have done, to be spoken, to be breaking, to have been sleeping,
to be running, to say, to play, to have been read, to have nodded.
Practice 3. Open the brackets using the appropriate form of the infinitive.
State the function of the infinitive.
Once the tomato was believed (to be) a poisonous food in the USA. Most
people seemed (to hear) about it, that's why they were afraid (to try) it. In the
1820s, a farmer realized the value of the tomato and wanted (to make) it popular.
UiliOiluiiaiciy, people were aii'ala (to iiy) ii. nicy wcic convinced uiai n was
poisonous. They thought that if they ate a tomato, they would undoubtedly sick.
They used (to say): “Eat a tomato with wish, and you’d better have a doctor handy.
Eat a tomato with fish and ice cream, forget the doctor. Call an undertaker.”
The farmer decided (to do) something dramatic. On the next market day he
stood on the Court House steps and began (to eat) tomatoes. He let everybody (to
see) it. People came all over (to witness) the event. The people seemed (to see)
something awful. They couldn’t believe their eyes. They expected him (to die)
soon. The farmer waited until a large crowd had gathered. Then he walked quickly

91
to the upper steps of the Court House, lifted a basket of tomatoes for all (to see)
and ate one, another, a third. And he survived!
The tomato is said (to grow) ever since everywhere. Boxes, tons, even
carloads go to market and are sold at once. Poisonous? They're considered (to be)
the best vegetable forever.
Practice 4. Open the brackets using the proper form of the infinitive. State the
function of the infinitive.
Sometimes it wouldn't (to rain) for a long time. Then the rivers had very little
water left. People learned (to save) water for these dry times. New places had (to
build) (to store) water. They called these places reservoirs.
Reservoirs turned out (to use) for many years. They hold water until people in
cities need it. Large pipes are used (to carry) water from reservoirs to the city.
People also can get water from wells.
Years ago, water used (to lift) out of wells in bucket. This was hard work and
took a long time. Now they pump the water up. Technology is certain (to help)
people. Now it is easy for people (to get) water where they want it.
Practice 5. State the functions of the infinitive.
In the winter of 1972, an airplane hit the side of a mountain in Switzerland at
about 2 a.m. in the morning. The people in the nearby town thought somebody
might be still alive because they could see a small fire through their binoculars.
The fire was burning as if to have been made by someone. So when the sun came
up in the morning, the men in the town began to climb up the mountain. To tell the
truth, it was too dangerous to climb the mountain in such snowy weather. Not all
the men. were good climbers. Some had to wear simple boots and couldn't climb
easily on the icy part of the mountain, others didn’t have heavy gloves. From the
town the people could not see the fire anymore because the mountain was now
behind heavy snow clouds. Soon it started to snow heavily in the town and the
woman began to worry about the men on the mountain. To get to the top of the
mountain and find the man there took the men too much time. But there was no
time to be lost. The pilot had to be shown the first aid as he had a broken leg. He
was found sitting beside the fire and waiting for help to come.

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Practice 6. Insert the particle to before the infinitive where required.
1. Fall made him — clench his hands and — tremble and — repeat sentences to
himself. 2. She was really frightened now and even thought she would rather —
be somewhere else. 3. Why not — come down to my place? 4. I wasn’t worrying
about that, I happen --- be going to London. 5. He did not think the cheeses ought -
— to — be kept much longer. 6. I would like — hear you — play that song. 7.
Ever since I came into this silly house I have been made — look like a fool. 8.
Then why not — try — save yourself? 9. You’d better — take me back to
Oxford. 10. She watched Theodora’s hands — move as if they were about —
reach out and — touch something. 11. The car was seen — crawl up the hill and —
- disappear. 12. English woman in our station have duties . . . but we, strangers in
a strong land, have nothing — do but — enjoy ourselves. 13. Before we were
married you promised to let me — go if our marriage was not a success. 14. Try —
- have someone — do it for you. 15. Then nobody need — be disturbed. 16. She
felt that she need not — investigate, and probably would never — hear the reason
for this quarrel. 17. Henet was one of those people whose life is — be devoted to
others and — have no one devoted to them. 18. I wanted — persuade her —
clear things up — I mean to let things — be cleared up by you. 19. I had never
known her — complain so much. 20. He turned out — be a rich man, — have
gained a lot of fortune in Alaska.
Practice 7. State the form and function of the infinitive.
No matter how rich a country is in land and natural resources, it can't develop
without human resources. A nation’s human resources are the educated people who
are able to turn natural resources into things to be useful for man. Scientists,
professionals are believed to be the eyes and brain of a nation. They always help
the nation to overcome its problems, solve them. They want their nation to
flourish. Without the skill of scientists, professionals and workers a country would
not have many of the things it enjoys today. To speak the truth, now we can live
longer because physicians have learned how to fight disease. We live better
because we know how to use the machines in modem factories.
We know education to have been the key to all mysteries for centuries. It is
impossible to live, to get on without a good education. Education is of practical
value to everyone, it is important to earn a living nowadays. A person in almost
any line of work need have a training of modem schools. In addition, all
occupations are changing rapidly.
To be successful, a person must adapt himself and his work to changing
times. A good education can help one do this.
Practice 8. State the forms of the infinitive and explain what kind of action
they denote.
1. Aunt Ann didn’t ask him to explain this strange utterance. 2. I would give a
great deal to know what is behind that affair. 3. Now he discussed what he ought to
have said instead of what he said. 4. There is only one more incident to be related
here, and it happens to have been kept as a secret for many years. 5. But these
people are illogical, they want to be reassured by your telling them what they want
to believe. 6. Now he discussed what he ought to have said instead of what he said.
7. “Damn” said Lord Caterham, springing up from an armchair in which he
appeared to have been taking forty winks. 8. “Dear me,” said Virginia, “she seems
to be frank with you”. 9.1 was not going to have come all this way for nothing. 10.
Though his father is known to be either English or Irish, but he himself is said to
be working in Paris. 11. At that hour people were less likely to be coming in or
going out. 12. It is a very curious thing that Mrs Marple happens to have hit upon
the truth. 13. I wanted no one to take notice of me, so that I could observe these
famous creatures at my case. 14. She asked this as she might have asked such a
question a few years ago. 15. Did he ever ask you to engage or talk about
marrying?
Practice 9. State the functions of the infinitive.
Every morning when you get up you must be grateful that you are alive, you
can do things that must be done. Try to make yourself do them in time. Being
forced to work and forced to do your best, will help you develop self - control,
strength of character, cheerfulness, and content. To put it mildly, you will begin to
understand the sweetness of your life. The idle will never know the hundred virtues
which work and activity can provide.

94
Practice 10. Point out the complex object and the complex subject with the
infinitive.
1. George was sure that fresh air and exercise would make us sleep well. 2. I had
seen my father leave the house that very morning. 3. I’ve never known a chap
spend so much time on radiograms. 4. I thought it to be the signal to start. 5. She
doesn’t seem to want to do anything I suggest. 6. You could hardly have expected
me to go to the garage. 7. On the following afternoon James chanced to be a
witness of some resulting actions. 8. She turned out to have known everything. 9.
He appeared to be fast asleep which made me feel disappointed. 10. He was heard
to say that it would rain and ordered the door to the balcony to be shut. 11. You are
not likely to keep us company, Jim, are you? 12. She felt somebody touch her
gently by the hand. 13. The number to which I had been directed turned out to be a
house standing a little by itself, with its back to the river. 14. I’d like it to be done
as quietly as possible.
Practice 11. Point out the for-to-infinitive construction defining its functions.
1. He sat in the hall near the reception desk and waited for somebody to come. 2.
Well, seventy was the outside limit, it was then time for them to go and leave their
money to their children. 3. I found him pray for the twilight to come. 4. It was
good experience for me to see it to its completed form. 5. The problem is for us to
settle. 6. He explained each detail for them to understand. 7. Now came the
moment for us to join our forces. 8. The news was too unusual for us to believe. 8.
There is no place for me to park my car. 10. She has arranged everything for the
guests to have a fun. 11. But the pain in James’ head asserted itself too cruelly for
him to think of anything else for the moment. 12. He put forward his hand for Erik
to shake. 13. My dear, this isn’t the time for us to quarrel. 14. He was too old for to
overtake so many problems. 15. They thought it was better for me to live in a place
like this.

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Practice 12. Point out the infinitive and constructions with it stating their
names and functions.
The Acme Stamp Company agreed to send Norman some stamps, but when
he got them they appeared to be in a bad condition. Norman decided not to pay
good money for the stamps. He expected the company to be more responsible for
the bad stamp. So he phoned the company and demanded to speak to the manager.
The manager pretended to be concerned, but he turned out not to promise anything
good. The company offered to exchange the stamps, but it seemed useless for
Norman to accept it. All the stamps from that company seemed to be of poor
quality. Norman still hopes to get a refund. He is waiting to see if the company will
give him one before he files a formal complaint with the post office.
Practice 13. Point out the infinitive and predicative constructions with it
stating their types and functions.
Nora: Robert, I’d like you to do something for me.
Robert: (Irritably) Oh, what is it, Mum?
Nora: I want you to make up the stove for my bath.
Robert: But I’m busy, I’m doing my homework.
Nora: Do you think I haven’t got any work to do? Look at all these clothes I’ve
got to iron.
Robert: Yes, but do you expect me to stop in the middle of what I’m writing?
Nora: I can’t make you help me if you don’t want to; but I’ve seldom known you
take so much interest in your homework. I only asked you to help me for a
minute. I don’t like my boys to be disagreeable.
Harry: Robert, do I understand you to say you refuse to help your mother? You
oughtn’t even to wait for her to ask you. I’ve been watching you “do your
work" as you call it. Looking out of the window half the time! Let me tell
you, young man, you need some real work to do. Never mind, Nora, let me
help you.
Nora: Thank you, Harry. I’d just like the stove to be made up for me I have a bath.
I haven’t got used to this kind of stove yet - you understand it better.

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Harry: Oh, yes. I’ll soon get the water to boil. Where’s the coal? (He shovels some
coal into the stove)....... There, my boy, that didn’t take me long to do, did it?
Robert: No, Dad, but I advise you to have another look inside the stove before you
sit down again, I think the fire was out.
Harry: (Opening front of stove) Good Heavens, so it was. Well, you’re jolly well
going to relight it, Robert. I refuse to.
Practice 14. Complete the sentences choosing a suitable infinitive.
to think, to ask, to take care, to have, to see, to be asleep, to cut a long story
short, to he done, to be raining, to keep, to do, to make
1. But I quite see it is one of those things that has got.......... 2. Now we can get our
heads together and....... what is best............ 3. Really it is too dreadful. One feels
one must do something....... oneself cheerful. 4. But nobody could.......it for sure.
5. I am going .... my coffee now and I don’t want ......... anybody. 6. Don’t you
think I’m old enough..... of myself. 7. “Very good of you ......... me.” He shook
hands with them both. 8. “This story made me of him at once, “ said Miss
Marple. 9. You could taste the dirt in the air and it always seemed ....: . 10.
“Whatever happens,” Michael thought, “I’ve got ..... or I shall be dropping a
bride.” 11. Well, ,...,he wrote to me at the beginning of last month and said he was
just off to a new job. 12. The whole town seemed........
Practice 15. Paraphrase the sentences using the for-to-infinitive construction.
Example:
1. She held out the telegram so that I might see it.
She held out the telegram for me to see it.
2. It’s quite natural that you should think so. 3. The first thing he must do is to ring
them up. 4. Let us wait till they settle this matter. 5. This is a problem you should
solve all by yourself. 6. I shall bring you the article that you may read. 7. I gave an
umbrella to the children lest they should ger wet through. 8. I’ve put on weight. I
can’t wear this dress any longer. 9. It is unbelievable that a man should go so far
beyond his limit. 10. He spoke loudly so that everyone might hear him.

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Practice 16. Point out the infinitive and infinitive constructions, state their
types and functions.
To memorize something exactly is always difficult. For me to recite a poem is
very easy, but I forget it very soon. Some people have very good memories and can
easily learn long poems. Some minutes are enough for them to learn poems. But
they often forget them almost as fast as they memorize them. There are other
people who can remember things when they repeat them over and over in order not
to forget. When they know them by heart, they are able to remember them for a
long time.
Many of the great men of the world are said to have had wonderful memories.
To tell the truth, it is also happiness to be bom like that. Charles Dickens, for
instance, was believed to be a man of great memory. He could walk down any long
street in London and tell you the name of each shop he had passed.
Practice 17. Point out the infinitive and infinitive constructions, state their
types and functions.
Dick was my neighbor. To tell frankly, I didn’t like him, but he appeared to
be a good one. He was said to be a clever boy and I found him so. Dick had to
work in his free time and during holidays to pay for his education. However, he
managed to get to the university. As it was very expensive to study there, he found
it necessary to get jobs in order to earn enough money to pay for his studies. He
managed to get a job in a butcher’s shop during the day and another in a hospital at
night. In the butcher’s shop he learnt to cut meat up nicely. In the hospital, on the
other hand, he was allowed to do only the simplest jobs such as carrying sick
people from one part of the hospital to another.
Both in the butcher’s shop and in the hospital, Dick had to wear white clothes.
Practice 18. Point out the infinitive and infinitive constructions, state their
types and functions.
To learn a foreign language and speak it fluently is a hard task to manage.
Most people try to achieve it, but, to tell mildly, it is not a job for anybody to do.

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 Every year many people start to learn a language, but not all of them can
stand for it. Some people try it at home with books and tapes. Some use the radio
or TV programs; thousands go to evening classes. If they use the language 2 or 3
times a week, it will take a long period of time to learn a language. Some people
try to learn a language by studying for 6 hours or more. Some travel to the country
where the language is spoken. Some people have enough money to go abroad,
however some don't. Some people need the language to do their work better. For
example, students, doctors and scientists need to read foreign books and reports.
Others need it for some other purposes.
Whether the language is learned quickly or slowly, it is hard work. Labs and
good books and tapes will help, but nothing can be as effective as a good teacher.
Practice 19. Point out the infinitive and infinitive constructions, state their
types and functions.
Is it possible to imagine our life without electricity? Fancy, you have had no
electricity for a day or two. How dull, boring our life can become! One can hardly
bear it. We immediately do something to put everything in order.
Electricity is becoming such an important part of our everyday life. We must
think twice when we switch on the light or turn on the television. Electricity is
considered to be a valueless phenomenon in our life. We must be thankful to
Thomas Edison for his electric lamp that he gifted to us many years ago.
Electricity is always working for us, driving our fridges, heating our homes,
keeping our rooms cool. To keep food fresh for some days, to read books,
newspapers, to watch TV for hours, to move from one place to another is
impossible without electricity. Electricity helps a government to rule and control
its country.
Some years ago, in a hot summer, something went wrong with the power that
provides New York with electricity. For many hours life seemed to have stopped in
that big city. Trains refused to move and people in them had to sit in the dark,
powerless to do anything. Famous avenues appeared to have lost in darkness. No
one expected such an event to happen.

99
 Similar problems existed in people's apartments. New York can be very hot in
summer and that year was no exception. Cool apartments became hot. Food was
found to have spoilt in fridges.
Then electricity began to go on the city. When the lights came on again hardly
a person in the city could have turned on a switch without thinking how great a
servant he had under his control.
Practice 20. State the form and function of the infinitive and point out the
infinitive constructions.
The paper-making process is too interesting to observe. Paper was said to
have been invented by the Chinese in the first century. But then people wanted it to
be produced in their own country in different parts of the world. The art of paper -
making took seven hundred years to reach the Muslim world and another seven
hundred years to get to Britain (via Spain, Southern France and Germany). There
must be all necessary materials to produce the paper.
Most paper is made from wood. When trees are cut down they are transported
to paper mills. Here they are cut up and the wood is broken up into fibers which
are mixed with water and chemicals. This mixture has to be dried and made into
paper.
To tell exactly, today paper-making is considered to be the major part of
British industry. Paper is exported to Australia, South Africa and many other
countries from Britain. Most of the trees in Britain have to be cut down for paper­
making, but wood is also imported from other countries such as Norway. One tree
is enough to produce four hundred copies of a typical forty - page newspaper. So,
there may be a serious paper shortage in the near future.

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 THE GERUND

The Gerund
- is a non-finite form
- is never used as a verbal predicate
- has nominal and verbal properties
- has relative tense, voice, aspect distinctions
- denotes either simultaneous or prior action with regard to the action of the finite
verb in the sentence
- has two forms

The forms of the Gerund:

Active Passive
Indefinite Gerund writing being written
Perfect Gerund having written having been written

The functions of the Gerund:

as a subject: Talking means no holes.
It’s no use talking like that to me.
as a predicative: The only remedy for such a headache as mine is going to
bed.
as a part of a He couldn't help admiring the man. (a part of a compound
compound verbal verbal modal predicate)
predicate: She began sobbing and weeping, (a part of a compound
verbal aspect predicate)

as an object: I simply love riding.

as a complex Do you mind Richard’s coming in?
object:
as an attribute: There is no chance of their getting married for years.
as an adverbial After leaving her umbrella in the hall, she entered the living

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modifier: room, (adverbial modifiSrpf time)
The day was spent in packing, (adverbial modifier of
manner)
She was not brilliant, not active, but rather peaceful and
statuesque without knowing it (adverbial modifier of
attendant circumstances)
One side of the hall was used for dancing, (adverbial
modifier ofpurpose)
He has no right to come bothering you without being invited,
(adverbial modifier of condition)
In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her.
(adverbial modifier of concession)

THE GERUNDIAL CONSTRUCTION

The Gerundial Construction is a construction in Do you mind my smoking?

which the verbal element expressed by the gerund I hope you will forgive me disturbing you.
is in predicate relation to the nominal element I object to Mary and Jane going out on
expressed by a noun or pronoun. such a windy day.
I said something about my clock being
slow.
I insist on both of them coming in time.

PRACTICE ON THE GERUND

Practice 1. Supply the missing forms of the following gerunds.
Reading, being cleaned, writing, having written, having been seen,
disturbing, being spoken, having been described, painting, having locked.
Practice 2. Use the proper forms of the gerund. Define what action they
denote.
1. Mr. Davidson has a wonderful heart and no one who is in trouble has ever gone
to him without (to comfort). 2. I eat very little myself, but I make a point of (to
have) a proper dinner saved to me every night. 3.1 think he was a little ashamed of

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(to be) so successful. 4. This was an appeal to which Eleanor was incapable of (to
turn) a deaf ear. 5. Never had he felt George’s presence without the sense of (to
laugh at). 6. I remember (to take) to Paris when I was a very small child. 7. She
denied (to see) me at the concert though I’m sure I saw her in the stalls. 8. After (to
shave) more closely than usual and (to brush) his hair, he (Herzog) took the bus
uptown. 9. I had to sound as if I didn’t mind (to insult) as though I had no temper
of my own. 10. The house wanted (to do up). 11.1 know everyone who’s worth (to
know). 12. (to hear) them talk about bathing made me want to bathe too. 13. I
wasn’t keen on (to wash) this kind of dirty linen in public. 14. I know you dislike
(to awake) early, but it is nine o’clock. 15. The cook left, having heard that she
could earn three times her present wages in London without (to oblige) to prepare
more than two dinners in the week. 15. He reproached me for (not to be)
foresighted enough to bring a picnic lunch. 17.1 didn’t at all like the attempt of (to
break) the bad news to him. 18. I can’t explain, but (to do) it just once is enough.
19. He suspected her of (to give) the police information about him while the
workers were on strike. 20. The coat showed evident signs of (to wear) on the
preceding night.
Practice 3. Define the functions of the gerund.
1. Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. 2. In spite of myself I could
not help smiling. 3. In the silence he began humming once again. 4. Old Jolyon
came out of Lord’s cricket ground that same afternoon with the intention of going
home. 5. On hearing the tragic news, she fell at once into an alarming state of
agitation. 6. You do not know how I suffer; all last night I could not sleep for
thinking of your peril. 7. Another election! Could he stand a second time without
-showing his true colors? 8. It’s no use crying over spilt milk. 9. There was a reason
for not doing so; a secret he had shared with no one, not even Natalie, his wife. 10.
Why have you come to me before going to her? 11. The children w'oke soon and
began chattering and playing in the bed. 12. From all I can learn, he has got no
business, no income, and no connection worth speaking. 13. He greeted me noisily,
but I cut him short by giving him the telegram. 14. “She cannot sleep without

103
seeing and speaking to you once more,” I said. “She does not like the thought of
leaving you.” 15. There came the sound of the door closing then being locked.
Practice 4. Define the functions of the gerund and explain what action they
denote.
1. George, on hearing the story, grinned. 2. “My wife, Doctor,” Ben Ezza’s voice
was frightened “She stopped breathing.” 3. I seem honored in having permitted to
draw the attention of all the parties to this. 4. After mourning for her so many years
it is time that you once more enjoyed life. 5. I remember going to the British
Museum one day to read up the treatment for some slight ailment. 6. Peter
Hummel, escort to the lovely Edith, was unaccustomed to being snubbed, having
been snubbed, he was hurt and embarrassed and ashamed of himself. 7. He was in
the habit of doing after dinner in his favourite armchair. 8. You can’t act without
feeling. 9. She began explaining the situation in the North. 10. In spite of having
earned a lot of money, he was so greedy to help others. 11. Upon arriving at the
airport he found Eliza waiting at the exit. 12. She was so delighted for having sent
him a message. 13. Nobody around could help laughing on hearing his jokes. 14. I
forgot reminding him about the photos. 15. He was angry with me for bringing the
bad news.
Practice 5. Point out verbal, nominal and adverbial characteristics of the
gerund.
1. He lifted his head, but still without looking at me, his hands were clenched into
fists. 2.1 wonder at Jolyon’s allowing the engagement. 3. It was ridiculous to think
of going back there. 4. But to my intense surprise, on getting down early, the next
morning and opening the newspaper eagerly, there was not a word about the arrest.
5.1 bent again to smell the bushy spikes, but father stopped me by stooping quickly
and snapping one off to give me. 6. I wondered if I should apologize for never
having called her back. 7.1 don’t remember leaving the club, but I remember being
in a taxi and saying: “Foby, I’ll pay for this,” and him saying: “This is my party
....” 8. Nobody ever thought of making them at home. 9. She was not used to being
kept waiting. 10. She began looking at the names rather hopelessly wondering

104
 whether one of them would recall something. 11. The effort of getting u> the third
and fourth flights, which I tried to manage in one go, muddled me sonehow. 12.
He was tempted by the idea of having a flat of his own, but it was out of the
question.
Practice 6. Complete the sentences using the gerund.
a) as subject or predicative:
1. There’s no use..........................................................................................................
2. It was useless.............................................................................................................
3. Is it worth while........................................................................................... ?

4 is more difficult than swimming.

5. His ambition was.......................................................................................................

6 after supper is useful.

7. Our aim is...................................................................................................................
8. The problem is............................................................................................................
b) as a part of a compound verbal aspect or modal predicate:
1. She kept on..................................................................................................................
2. Doctor Flegg began....................................................................................................
3. Her laughter was so infectious that I could not help..............................................
4. She just continued.......................................................................................................
5. He immediately stopped ...................................................................
6. When I saw her I couldn’t help.................................................................................
7. Now I will go on.........................................................................................................
8. The officer finished....................................................................................................
c) as an object:
1. She knew that he disliked..........................................................................................
2. He had practically given up......................................................................................
3. She would have enjoyed............................................................................................
4. You haven’t thanked me yet for...............................................................................
5.1 distinctly remember....................................................................................................
6.1 was looking forward to............................................................................................

105
7. You can tell me everything to keep from
8. Would you mind .......... 9
d) as an attribute:
1. I have really had no intention of
2. She gave the impression of
3. She is in the habit of...................
4. The Captain had the reputation of
5. He had an opportunity of............. *
6. There was an easy way of...........
7. There was a. reason for not......................
8. Ralph spoke in the hope of...................................................
e) as an adverbial modifier:
1. We worked without..................................................................
2. You’re trying to fight me inspite of
3. You cannot reach there without
4. We are in dreadful danger and you share it by........................................................
5. He lit a cigarette before..................................................................
6. She did not make a mistake for....................... ....................................
7. She went there immediately on................................................................................
8. We arranged everything for.......................................................................
9. They spent the holiday in..................................... . . ...........................................
Practice 7. Insert the required prepositions where necessary.
1. He was a little hesitant about his reason....... wanting to get away so badly. 2.
Yet, ironically, there was seldom any difficulty ........ getting money for non-
opcrational improvements. 3. I am not in the habit letting my judgement be
influenced. 4. You can’t tell how a man’s feeling just ..... looking at him. 5.
Certain people, you see, have a gift ..... seeing things in a crystal. 6. I never
succeeded ........ teaching her to drive. 7. The others insisted......... accompanying
them. 8. Both windows need ....... cleaning. 9. Would you mind ....... being here
again? 10. Why were you so anxious to prevent anybody....... leaving the house?

106
11. Either complete frankness or complete ignoring - that meant....... living with
the sword of Damocles above his head. 12. In the afternoon she was overtaken by a
desperate fit....... sobbing. 13. He looked at me for a long time....... answering.
14. Look here, it may sound funny, but I’m grateful to you....... saying it.
Practice 8. Point out gerundial constructions stating their functions. Comment
on the way the nominal element is expressed.
1. I hate the idea of Larry making such a mess of his life. 2. Later, in the night, I
was awakened by the sound of SQmeone moving soft about the room. 3. Do you
think there is much chance of one seeing him again? 4. Well, it was the same
fellow. And do you remember me saying that I was sure I had seen him somewhere
before? 5.1 insist on your apologizing to them, you are very rude. 6. It was hard to
keep your mind off illness with Doris and Edith talking about it all the time. 7.
“What’s the use of Caroline and me filling ourselves with streptomycin day and
night,” thought Jan. 8. “If I was engaged to you,” said Dick, “there wouldn’t be
any fuss about my paying for you at the hospital.” 9. The thought of Helen being
alone and waiting for him made Dan run the block. 10. He had never thought of
Jean’s meeting his people before. 11. I hadn’t thought of crops failing - not this
one at any rate! 12. Is there any objection to my seeing her? 13. Mr. Barker
consoled himself with the thought that there’s no chance of Diana and Gerald
getting married for years. 14. I don’t like your going off so soon. 15. He hates the
idea of you going there alone.
Practice 9. Point out gerundial constructions stating their functions.
1. I don’t suppose it won’t prevent her being out by the end of October. 2. There
was still a chance of Bart’s coming. 3. No one would dream of his being so near at
hand. 4. They might, she always felt, disapprove of women’s smoking in public
halls. 5. What can be the possible use of Larry’s learning dead languages?
6. “Well, I couldn’t help Irene’s having no money,” he said. 7. His having come
home so late has caused her much anxiety. 8. Besides, there’s no danger of it
happening again. 9. She laughed at the thought of her husband and Johnny looking
after the house. 10. After their coming everything changed at the party. 11. What

107
 annoyed me most of all was his accepting their proposal quite readily. 12. She
avoided his seeing her in the crowd. 13. We were used to Granny’s complaining
every morning of her pains. 14. His breathing heavily was the result of his running
the stairs. 15. I remember your father coming into the office the morning the
Franco-Prussian war was declared. 16. She was woken out of her fevered doze by
Harry shaking, holding her arm. 17. The quarrel was ended on Arthur’s coming in
and shouting at everybody there. 18. In spite of his being a rich one, he refused to
pay for the present. 19. He is never there when you want him. He just takes
advantage of you being so soft. 20. I asked her why she could not sleep and what
kept her thinking so much.
Practice 10. Point out the gerund and gerundial constructions stating their
functions.
Harry Marsh was a driving examiner who had to test people for getting a
driving-license. One day after leaving his office as usual, he saw a car at the side of
the road, with a young man in it. On getting into the car beside the driver, Mr.
Harry began giving orders. His behaviour surprised the driver, but he performed
everything promptly and faultlessly, without saying a word.
The driver began controlling the car by Harry’s instructions. First he turned
to the right, then to the left, drove forward and at last returned to the office.
“Well, my boy, I like your driving,” said Harry smiling on the way.
“Could you, please, tell me why we are doing all these things? asked the young
man. Harry said: “I was only passing through this town and stopped to look at
my map.”
Practice 11. Point out the gerund and gerundial constructions stating their
functions.
Rockwell Kent was a famous American artist, writer and public figure. After
finishing school in New York, he entered the University in Columbia for becoming
an architect. In spite of having entered the University, he didn’t graduate from it.
He was fond of painting pictures. He preferred being a painter. His holding the first

108
 exhibition at the age of twenty made him very famous in America, e became
popular by developing the realistic traditions in American art.
Later R.Kent started writing books about himself, his familj about the
country where he lived. He was a devoted son of America. He was neer tired of
describing America and its people. R.Kent created his great mastefieces by
travelling lot and working hard. He spent many years in Alaska, Greiland and
Canada in painting pictures. Those pictures are famous for being true to l'e.
R.Kent was also an active fighter for peace.
Practice 12. Point out the gerund and gerundial constructions stalng their
functions.
Why do some very good students often fail exams? Such goo/ students’
failing exams was recently studied by a professor of psychology, purfessor Inis
Fodor. She conducted her researching on the anxiety of some students before
taking exams. Prof. I. Fodor stated that many students fail exam for being
extremely nervous and can not think logically. In spite of being reacy, they are
afraid of whatever is on the exam. Their being too excited prevent? them from
answering the questions correctly. Some students only become sick before being
tested. Dr. Fodor gives some useful advice to the students after workiig with fifty
of them. What she told them to do before a test was (a) breathing deeply and
relaxing slowly, (b) being realistic and (c) doing their best.
Practice 13. Point out the gerund and gerundial constructions stating their
functions.
Agatha Christie is said to be the most successful writer in history. She wrote
78 crime novels, 150 short stories, four non-fiction books and 19 plays. That
represents two billion sold books: more than William Shakespeare!
A. Christie’s becoming a writer was quite unexpected. After her husband’s
going to the First World War, she began to miss. She was working in a hospital
dispensary where she learned all the information about poisons that she mentioned
in her books. She decided to write a novel for spending her free time. She chose a
detective novel because of loving to read them. Her first novel, “The mysterious

109
affair at styles”, was an instant success. Each book by A. Christie was loved by the
readers for its ingenious plot; She gave the readers all the information they needed
for finding the solution. •
ShMoved travelling. After becoming rich, she began travelling around the
World. It gave her new plot for writing. A. Christie died in 1976, but her stories are
still imrrtensely popular. Many of them have been adapted for screening films.
Practice 14. Work in pairs. Point out the gerund and constructions with it
stating their functions.
Harry: Nora! Nora!
Nora: (Coming into the room) Yes, what is it now Harry?
Harry: Oh, there you are. Look here, Nora, I’m tired of lying here on my back
with nothing to do. I hate doing nothing.
Nora: Don’t be silly, Harry. You’ve got a temperature, and staying in bed is the
only sensible thing to do. Now just be quiet, and stop preventing me from
doing my housework.
Harry: No, seriously, Nora, I cannot bear it. Lying flat on my back!
Nora: Well, then, try lying on your stomach for a change!
Harry: Stop being funny. I’m going to get up. There! Look, I’m standing up. I’m
quite all right. What’s the use of staying in bed?
Nora: I think you are being very silly. You’ll only make your temperature go up
again.
Harry: It’s no use talking, Nora - being ill doesn’t suit me.
Nora: No - and trying to nurse you doesh’t suit me!
Harry: Now don’t be bitter about it. You know I’m grateful to you for looking
after me. But you mustn’t try to keep me in bed like a naughty boy.
Harry: I’m all against this staying in bed for no reason.
Nora: Harry, being ill is a reason.
Harry: Why do you keep looking at the clock?
Nora: I’m expecting Mother. She has something to tell you.
Harry: Oh, Heavens!

no
Practice 15. Point out the gerund and constructions with it stating their
functions.
My seeing Einstein for the first time was something unbelievable in my life.
I remember our meeting quite clearly. It happened in 1926, in California. The great
scientist had been invited there for lecturing.
On receiving a telephone call from Universal studios, I left home at once as
the call said that Professor Einstein would like to meet me. I hurried to the studio
with the intension of seeing Einstein. So, we met at the Universal studios for lunch,
the Professor, his wife, his secretary and Assistant Professor. I enjoyed Mrs.
Einstein’s speaking English. She spoke very well, even much better than the
Professor himself. They were very delighted for having been invited to lunch.
Mrs. Einstein frankly .enjoyed being the wife of the great physicist. She did
not even try to hide the fact. After lunch their walking around the studio took some
time. Mrs. Einstein whispered by taking me aside: “Why don’t you invite Professor
to your house? You know, he enjoys having a chat with close friends.”
At dinner she began speaking about how the theory of relativity first came to
his mind.
“Professor came down as usual for breakfast, but he sat at the table without
touching anything. I asked him what was troubling him. “Darling,” he said, “I have
a wonderful idea.” And after drinking his coffee he went to the piano and started
playing. His playing seemed strange to me, because now and again he stopped
playing and made some notes, then repeated: “I’ve got a wonderful idea.” I said:
“What’s matter with you? Why don’t you tell me what it is?”
“I can’t tell you, I have to work it out yet.” Then he continued playing and
making notes. Then he went upstairs and asked not to disturb him. He didn’t like
being disturbed while working. So he remained in his room for two weeks. Each
day I sent him up his meals. At last he appeared looking very pale and tired. In his
hand he held two sheets of paper.
“Thai’s it!” he told me, putting the sheets of paper on the table. And thar was
his theory of relativity.”
Practice 16. Point out the gerund and gerundial constructions stating their
functions.
Jane and Alice decided to go to the theatre for watching the new
performance by Volodin. Everybody who had seen it said that the performance was
worth seeing. So Jane and Alice looked forward to seeing it. They got two tickets
by booking through telephone. They preferred watching evening performance as
matinee performance was very noisy for too many children’s being there.
So they settled everything and watched the new play together. After the
performance being over Jane and Alice left the theatre and went home. On the way
home they began to discuss the performance.
Alice: How did you like the performance, Jane.
ill
 Jane: The cast was excellent.
Alice: No wonder, with so many stars.
Jane: N’s acting impressed me deeply.
Alice: So did I. His acting was very real.
Jane: The actress who played his wife was not bad either.
Alice: I think, she might have been a bit more natural. There was something wrong
with her acting today.
Jane: Yes, you are right. But I enjoyed the performance. Thank you, Alice, for the
idea of watching the play.
Alice: Thanks, nothing to speak of.

Common preposition combinations followed by Gerunds

be excited keep (someone) \

about doing it prevent (someone) \
be worried f
from doing it insist -------- ► on doing it

prohibit (someone)/
stop (someone)/

complain believe be accustomed

dream be interested in addition \

^about; of doing it in doing it be committed \

talk participate be devoted \

think succeed to doing it

look forward /

object /
be opposed
be used

apologize be accused
blame (someone)\ be capable
forgive (someone)\ for the purpose \
have an excuse \ be guilty 'K
for doing it of doing it
have a reason / instead f
be responsible / take advantage /

thank (someone) take care /

be tired /

112
Practice 17. Complete the sentences with an appropriate preposition and verb

form.
1. Alice isn’t interested in(look)looking a new job.
2. Henry is excited(leave) ■ India.
3. You are capable(do)better work.
4. I have no excuse(be)late.
5. I’m accustomed(have)a big breakfast.
6. The rain prevented us(complete)the work.
7. Fred is always complaining(have)a headache.
8. Instead(study) , Margaret went to a ballgame
with some of her friends.
9. Thank you(help)me carry my suitcase.
10. Mrs. Grant insisted(know)the whole truth.
11. 1 believe(be)honest at all times.
12. You should take advantage(live)here.
13. Fatima had a good reason (go, not) ' class
yesterday.
14. Everyone in the neighborhood participated(search) the
lost child.
15 .1 apologized to Yoko(make)her wait for me.
16. The weather is terrible. I don’t blame you(want, not)
to go to the meeting.
17. Who is responsible (wash) and (dry)
the dishes after dinner?
18. In addition (go)to school full time, Spiro
has a part-time job.
19 .1 stopped the child(run)into the street.
20. Where should we go for dinner tonight? Would you object(go)
_________ to an Italian restaurant?

113
 21. The mayor made another public statement for the purpose
(clarify)the new tax proposal.
22. The thief was accused(steal)a woman’s purse.
23. The jury found Mr. Adams guilty(take) money
from the company he worked for and (keep)it for himself.
24. Larry isn’t used(wear)a suit and tie every day.
25. I’m going to visit my family during the school vacation. I’m looking
forward (eat) my mother’s cooking and
(sleep)in my own bed.
Practice 18. (Using gerund as the objects of prepositions). Complete the
sentences using the words in parentheses.
Example:
Kostas went to bed instead offinishing his work.
1. Kostas went to bed instead. (finish)
2. I thanked my friend. (lend)
3. I’m excited. (go)
4. I’m not accustomed. (live)
5. Omar didn’t feel good. He complained.(have)
6. I don’t blame you. (want, not)
7. I have a good reason . (be)
8. It’s getting late. I’m worried. (miss)
9. I’m interested. (find out about)
10. I’m thinking. (go)
11.1 apologized to my friend . (be)
12.1 am/am not used. (drive)
13. Nothing can stop me. (go)
14. In that office, who is responsible? (take care of)
15.1 look forward. (go)
16. The thief was guilty. (steal)
17. Sonya has two jobs. In addition . (work)

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 18. Please forgive me • (write, not)
19. Sarah is an honest person. She’s not capable. (tell)
20. Health keeps my grandfather. (travel)
Practice 19. {Using gerunds as the objects of prepositions.) Answer the
questions to complete sentences. Work in pairs.
Example:
Speaker A: Your friend was late. Did she apologize?
Speaker B: Yes, she apologized or No, she didn’t apologize for being late.
1. You were late for class yesterday. Did you have a good excuse?
2. You are going to (a city) to visit your friends this weekend. Are you looking
forward to that?
3. (..... ) picked up your pen when you dropped it. Did you thank him/her?
4. You’re living in a cold/warm climate. Are you accustomed to that?
5. You’re going to (a place) for a vacation. Are you excited?
6. You interrupted (........ ) while she/he was speaking. Did you apologize?
7. The students in the class did pantomimes. Did all of them participate?
8. Someone broke the window. Do you know who is responsible?
9. Americans usually- have their biggest meal in the evening. Are you used to
doing that?
10. The weather is hot/cold. What does that prevent you from doing?
11. (......... ) has to do a lot of homework. Does she/he complain?
12. (......... ) was sick last week, so she/he stayed home in bed. Do you blame
her/him?
13. (........... ) didn’t study grammar last night. What did she/he do instead?
14. You studied last night. What did you do in addition?
Practice 20. {Using gerunds as the objects of prepositions.) Complete the
sentences using by + a gerund or a gerund phrase to express how something is
done.
1. Pat turned off the tape recorder by pushing the stop button .
2. We show people we are happy.

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3. We decided who should get the last piece of pie.
4. We satisfy our hunger_________
5. We quench our thirst _______________________________
6. I found out what “quench” means
7. Tony improved his listening comprehension.
8. Alex caught my attention.
9. They got rid of the rats in the building.
10. My dog shows me she is happy.
1 l.He accidentally electrocuted himself.
12.Sometimes teenagers get into trouble with their parents.

Reference list of verbs followed by Gerund

Verbs with a bullet (•) can also be followed by infinitives.
1. admit He admitted stealing the money.
2. advise’ She advised waiting until tomorrow
3. anticipate I anticipate having a good time on
vacation.
4. appreciate I appreciate hearing from them.
5. avoid He avoided answering my question.
6. can’t bear* I can’t bear waiting in long lines.
7. begin* It began raining.
8. complete I finally completed writing my term paper.
9. consider I will consider going with you.
10. continue* He continued speaking.
11. delay He delayed leaving for school.
12. denv She denied committing the crime.
13. discuss They discussed opening a new business.
14. dislike I dislike driving long distance.
15. enjoy We enjoyed visiting them.
16. finish She finished studying about ten.

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 17. forget* I ’ll never forget visiting Napoleon’s tomb.
18. hate* I hate making silly mistakes.
19. can’t help I can’t help worrying about it.
20. keep I keep hoping he will come.
:: 21. like* I like going to movies.
22. love* I love going to operas.
23. mention She mentioned going to a movie.
24. mind Would you mind helping me with this?
25. miss I miss being with my family.
26. postpone Let’s postpone leaving until tomorrow.
27. practice The athlete practiced throwing the ball.
28. prefer* Ann prefers walking to driving to work.
29. quit He quit trying to solve the problem.
30. recall I don’t recall meeting him before.
31. recollect I don’t recollect meeting him before.
32. recommend She recommended seeing the show.
33. regret* I regret telling him my secret.
34. remember* I can remember meeting him when I was a
child.
35. resent I resent her interfering in my business.
36. resist I couldn’t resist eating the dessert.
37. risk She risks losing all of her money.
38. can’t stand’ I can’t stand waiting in long lines.
39. start* It started raining.
40. stop She stopped going to classes when she got
sick.
41. suggest She suggested going to a movie.
42. tolerate She won’t tolerate cheating during an
examination.
43. try* I tried changing the light bulb, but the lamp

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 still didn’t work.
' S’V A/ *'•’

44. understand I don’t understand his leaving school.

Practice 21. (Verbs followed by gerund.) Create sentences from the given
words.
enjoy + read the newspaper
Speaker A: “enjoy” - “read the newspaper”
Speaker B: I enjoy reading the newspaper every morning while I’m having my
first cup of coffee.
1. enjoy + watch TV 11. delay + leave on vacation
2. mind + open the window 12. keep + work
3. quit + eat desserts 13. keep on + work
4. give up + eat desserts 14. consider + get a job
5. finish + eat dinner 15. think about + get a job
6. get through + eat dinner 16. discuss + go to a movie
7. stop + rain 17. talk about 4- go to a movie
8. avoid + answer my question 18. mention + go to a concert
9. postpone + do my work 19. suggest + go on a picnic
10. put off + do my work 20.enjoy 4- listen to music
Practice 22. (Verbs followed by gerund.) Complete each sentence with any
appropriate gerund.
1. When Beth got tired, she stopped .
2. Would you mind the door? Thanks.
3. The weather will get better soon. We can leave as soon as it quits.
4. The police officer told him to stop, but the thief kept.
5. I enjoy a long walk every morning.
6. I have a lot of homework tonight, but I’d still like to go with you later on.
I’ll call you when I get through.

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 7. I would like to have some friends over. I’m thinking about a dinner

party.
8. He told a really funny joke. We couldn’t stop!
9. Jack almost had an automobile accident. He barely avoided another
car at the intersection of the main road.
10. Where are you considering for vacation?
11. Sometimes I put off my homework.
12. You have to decide where you want to go to school next year. You can’t
postpone that decision much longer.
■!•
13.1 wanted to go to Mexico. Sally suggested .to Hawaii.
14. Tony mentioned the bus to school instead of
walking.
15.1 appreciate;_able t0 study in peace and quiet.

GO + GERUND
(a) Did you go shopping? Go is followed by the gerund in certain
(b) We went fishing yesterday. idiomatic expressions to express, for the
most part, recreational activities.
Go + Gerund
go birdwatching go fishing go sailing go skinnydipping
go boating go hiking go shopping go sledding
go bowling go hunting go sightseeing go snorkeling
go camping go jogging go skating go swimming
go canoeing go mountain climbing go skateboarding go tobogganing
go dancing go running
-- . go skiing go window shopping

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Practice 23. (go + gerund) Create sentences from the given words. Work in
pairs, in groups, or as a class.
Example:
enjoy + go
Speaker A: “enjoy” - “go”
Speaker B: I enjoy going to the Zoo. / My friend and I enjoyed going to a rock
concert last weekend. I Where do you enjoy going in (this city) when you have
some free time?
l.finish+ study 7. go + fish 13. give up + ask
2. go + dance 8. talk about + 14.discuss+ go+ birdwatch
go+ swim
3. keep + work 9. stop + fight 15.appreciate +hear

4. go + bowl 10. postpone + 16.mind +wait

go + camp
5. think about 11. quit + rain 17.think about + not go
+ wear
6. enjoy + play 12. avoid + go 18. talk about + go+ run
+ shop

Practice 24. (go + gerund) Discuss the activities listed in chart.

1. Which ones have you done? When? Briefly describe your experiences.
2. Which ones do you like to do?
3. Which ones do you never want to do?
4. Which ones have you not done but would like to do?

Common Verbs followed by either Infinitives or Gerunds

Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, sometimes with
no difference in meaning, as in Group A below, and sometimes with a difference
in meaning, as in Group B below.______________ _______________________ ___
GROUP A: VERB + INFINITIVE OR GERUND, The verbs in Group A may be followed by

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 WITH NO DIFFERENCE IN MEANING either an Infinitive or a Gerund with little or no
begin like hate difference in meaning.
start love can’t stand '»■ .
4'j i u
continue prefer * can't bear
In (a): There is no difference between began to
(a) It began to rain. I It began raining.
rain and began raining.
(b) I started to work. 11 started working.
If the main verb is progressive, an infinitive
(c) It was beginning to rain.
(not a gerund) is usually used, as in (c).
GROUP B: VERB + INFINITIVE OR GERUND, The verbs in Group B may be followed by
WITH A DIFFERENCE LN MEANING
either an Infinitive or a Gerund, but the
remember regret stop
meaning is different.
forget try need
(d) Judy always remembers to lock the door. Remember + infinitive - remember to perform
responsibility, duty, or task, as in (d).
(e) Sam often forgets to lock the door. Forget + infinitive = forget to perform a

responsibility, duty, or task, as in (e).

(f) I remember seeing the Alps for the first Remember + gerund - remember (recall)

time. The sight was impressive. something that happened in the past, as in (f).

(g) I’ll never forget seeing the Alps for the first Forget + gerund = forget something that

time. happened in the past, as in (g). **

(h) I regret to tell you that you failed the test. Regret + infinitive = regret to say, to tell
someone, to inform someone of some bad
news, as in (h).

(i) I regret lending him some money. He never Regret + gerund = regret something that

paid me back. happened in the past, as in (i).

(j) I’m trying to learn English. Try + infinitive = make an effort, as in (j).
Try + gerund = experiment with a new or different
(k)The room was hot. I tried opening the
approach to see if it works, as in (k)
window, but that didn’t help. So I tried
turning on the fan, but I was still hot. Finally,
I turned on the air conditioner.
(1) stop. He stopped talking to us. He discontinued talking to us.

He stopped to talk to us. He stopped, with the purpose of talking to us.

(m) need. I need to rest a while. I have a need for rest.

My shirt needs mending. My shirt is in need of being mended.

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*Notice the patterns with prefer'.
prefer + gerund: I prefer staying home to going to the concert.
prefer + infinitive: I’d prefer to stay home (rather) than (to) go to the concert.
**Forget followed by the gerund usually occurs in a negative sentence or in a
question: e.g., I’ll never forget; Have you ever forgotten? and Can you ever
forget?- are often followed by a gerund phrase.
Practice 25. (gerund vs. infinitive) Complete the sentences with the correct
form(s) of the verbs in parentheses.
1. I like (go)to the Zoo.
2. The play wasn’t very good. The audience started (leave)before it
was over.
3. After a brief interruption, the professor continued (lecture).
4. The children love (swim)in the ocean.
5. I hate (see) • any living being suffered. I can’t bear it.
6. I’m afraid of flying. When a plane begins (move)down the
runway, my heart starts (race) • Oh-oh! The plane is beginning
(move), and my heart is starting (race).
7. When I travel, I prefer (drive) ■ to (take)a plane.
8. I prefer (drive)rather than (take)a plane.
9. I always remember (turn)off all the lights before I leave my house.
10. I can remember (be)very proud and happy when I graduated.
11. Did you remember (give) ■take my message?
12. I remember (play)with dolls when I was a child.
13. What do you remember (do)when you were a child?
14. What do you remember (do) before you leave for class every day?
15. What did you forget (do)before you left for class this morning?
16. I’ll never forget (carry) my wife over the threshold
when we moved into our first home.
17. I can’t ever forget (watch)our team score the winnig goal in the
last seconds of the championship game.

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 18. Don’t forget (do)your homework tonight!
19.1 regret (inform)you that your loan application has not been
approved.
20.1 regret (listen, not)to my father’s advice. He was right.
21. When a student asks a question, the teacher always tries (explain)
the problem as clearly as possible.
22.1 tried everything, but the baby still wouldn’t stop crying. I tried (hold)
him, but that didn’t help. I tried (feed)
him, but he refused the food and continued to cry. I tried
(burp)him. I tried (change) his diapers. Nothing
worked. The baby wouldn’t stop crying.

THE GERUND AND THE VERBAL NOUN

Gerund Verbal Noun
1. Never used with the articles a, an, the 1. Used with the articles:
a building, the meeting
2. Has no plural form 2. Has singular and plural forms:
a building - buildings, comings, paintings
3. Has nominal and verbal features 3. Has only nominal features
4. Used in the function of an attribute: 4. Modified by an attribute:
He is in the habit of doing morning a high building, a late meeting.
exercises.
5. Modified by an adverb: 5. -
Reading aloud is his habit.
Getting up early is useful.
6.- 6. Used with the words:
some, few, a few, little, a lot of, no, much,
many
He does much training.
7. Takes a direct object: 7. Takes a prepositional object with the
He spent his time by reading books. preposition “of”:
the ending of the party;
the beginning of the performance

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Practice 26. State whether the -ing form is the gerund or the verbal noun.
Explain your reasons.
1. Liza was able to make her own living by working at a factory. 2. When I
imagined that on seeing his pictures I should get a clue to the understanding of his
strange character I was mistaken. 3. He could feel that he was very close to a
beginning of some sort, but he couldn’t tell what sort it would be. 4. He translated
quite mechanically, without paying attention to the words as he wrote them one
after the other. 5. It was everywhere perfectly still, save for the rustling of leaves
and birds. 6. But the most striking thing about him was the feeling he gave you of
suppressed fire. 7. You stay here, my man. No slipping off to warn your master. 8.
He hadn’t tune for worrying about the weather. 9. The twins devotedly gave up
their day to the cutting of sandwiches. 10. I hate the idea of your wasting your
time. 11. I sat in the sun, extremely tired in my bones after the crossing of the
mountain on the previous day. 12. It was a habit with him to tell her the doings of
his day. 13. Pairot lost no time in visiting Hautet. 14. Lewis had offices in Zurich
and London, and his comings and goings were casual. 15. There was a tramping of
feet. 16. He walked to the edge of the terrace, and looked down into the darkness;
he could just see the powdering of the daisies on the unknown lawn. 17.1 didn’t at
all like the prospect of having to break the bad news to him.
Practice 27. Recast the sentences so as to use predicative constructions with
the gerund instead of the subordinate clauses.
Example:
She was very surprised when she saw him at the party.
She was surprised at his coming to the party.
1. Do you mind if I take your dictionary? 2. She insisted we should put off our
conference. 3. Do you think father would mind if we go to the park now? 4. Linda
was surprised. She had no idea that he was good at mathematics. 5.1 was annoyed
because they shouted so loud. 6. uHe’s a dear little man”, she said. “I’d no idea you
knew him”. 7. As we drove away he suggested that we should return by train.
8. Laura remembered she had left that umbrella standing in the comer. 9. She

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suggested that Philip should pass himself off as her brother. 10. A miner insisted
that I should stay at his home. 11. Michael suggested that she should go to the
Crimea to be near her mother. 12. Harold insisted that we wait for you. 13. He
;f ' • . ■' , ; ■ . . ...

suggested that she should take all the books with herself. 14. She remembered that
Charles had once said to her that the origin of poetry was emotion. 15. The hostess
requested that the guests should take their places at the table.
Practice 28. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the gerund or the
infinitive, of the words in parentheses. Refer to the list of the verbs followed
by infinitive or gerund.
1. Hassan volunteered (bring)some food to the reception.
2. The students practiced (pronounce)the “th” sound in the phrase
“these thirty-three dirty trees”.
3. In the fairy tale, the wolf threatened (eat)a girl named Little
Red Riding Hood.
4. Susie! How many times do I have to remind you (hang up)your
coat when you get home from school?
5. The horses tried (pull)the wagon out of the mud.
6. Anita demanded (know)why she had been fired.
7. My skin can’t tolerate (be)in the sun all day. I get sunburned easily.
8. I avoided (tell)Mary the truth because I knew she would be angry.
9. Fred Washington claims (be)a descendant of George Washington.
10. Mr. Kwan broke the antique vase. I’m sure he didn’t mean (do)it.
11. 1 urged Omar (return)to school and (finish)his education.
12. Mrs. Freeman can’t help (worry) about her children.
13. Children, I forbid you (play)in the street. There’s too much traffic.
14. My little cousin is a blabbermouth! He can’t resist (tell)
__________ everyone my secrets.
15.1 appreciate your (take)the time to help me.
16.1 can’t afford (buy)a new car.
17. Kim managed (change)my mind.

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 1 8.1 think Sam deserves (have) ,another chance.
19 . Olga finally admitted (be)responsible for the problem.
< 20.1 don’t recall (hear)you mention his name before.
21. Nadia keeps (promise)(visit)us, but she never does.
22. Margaret challenged me (race)her across the pool.
23. Oscar keeps (hope)and (pray)that things will get better.
24. I finally managed (persuade)Yoko (stay)in school
and (finish) her degree.
Practice 29. Make up your own dialogues on the following situations using
infinitive, gerund or predicative constructions with them.
-1. You call up your friend and make a date for a meal.
2. You call up your friend who turns out not to be in. You speak to his mother
leaving a message.
3. You get a call from an old friend whom you haven’t seen for years.
4. You met your old friend at the book-shop by chance.

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 THE PARTICIPLE
The Participle
- is a non-finite form
- is never used as a verbal predicate
- has double nature: verbal, adjectival and adverbial

The forms of Participle I:

Active Passive
Indefinite Participle writing being written
Perfect Participle having written having been written

The functions of Participle I:

as an attribute: The fence surrounding the garden is newly painted.
as an adverbial Having closed the door, he switched the light off.
modifier: (adverbial modifier of time)
Being late he missed his plane, (adverbial modifier of
cause)
The woman left the room crying bitterly, (adverbial
modifier of manner)
He was silent, again looking at his hands, (adverbial
modifier of attendant circumstances)
He was still on his guard, as if waiting for a further
question from me. (adverbial modifier of comparison)
as a predicative: The effect of her words was terrifying.
as a part of a complex I saw that young man and his wife talking to you on
object: the stairs.
as a part of a complex Their footsteps were heard crossing the room below.
subject:

as parenthesis: Generally speaking, I don’t like him.

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The functions of Participle II:
as an attribute: He answered through the locked door.
as an adverbial When questioned she had implied vaguely, (adverbial
modifier: modifier of time)
It was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of
the law which, if discovered, would bring them into the
police court, (adverbial modifier of condition)
He shook his head as though lost in admiration and
wonder, (adverbial modifier of comparison)
Her spirit, though crushed, was not broken, (adverbial
modifier of concession)
as a predicative: In spite of himself, he was impressed.
as a part of a She has found me unaltered, but I have found her
complex object: changed.

Note: In the function of attribute Participle I and Participle II can be used either in
preposition or postposition from the noun as in: the rising Sun; the Sun rising; the
invited guests; the guests invited.

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 PREDICATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE PARTICIPLE

The
Objective / \ The Prepositional
Participial / \ Absolute Participial
Construction / \ Construction

The Nominative The Subjective Participial

Absolute Participial Construction
Construction

The Objective Participial Construction I heard him coming.

is a construction in which the participle I consider myself engaged to him.
is in predicate relation to a noun in the The governor wants it done quickly.
common case or a pronoun in the objective I had my coat altered.
case. Why don’t you have your hair waved?
The Subjective Participial They were heard talking together.
Construction is a construction in which The horse was seen descending the hill.
the participle is in predicate relation to a
noun in the common case or a pronoun
in the nominative case.
The Nominative Absolute Participial The lamp having been lit, they produced
her son’s letter.
Construction is a construction in which
It being pretty late, we took our candles
the participle stands in predicate relation
to a noun in the common case or a and went upstairs.
pronoun in the nominative case. He turned and went, we, as before,
following him.
Weather (time, circumstances)
permitting, we shall start tomorrow.
The Absolute Participial Construction The daughter sat quite silent and still,
may be introduced by the preposition with her eyes fixed on the ground.
with and is called the Prepositional
Absolute Participial Construction.

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 ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS WITHOUT
A PARTICIPLE

There are two types of absolute constructions in

which we find no participle. The second element of
the construction is an adjective, a prepositional
phrase, or an adverb.

The Nominative Absolute The Prepositional Absolute

Construction Construction

The Nominative Absolute Construction Breakfast over, he went to his counting house.
He went alone, his heartfull of strange
emotion.
The Prepositional Absolute Construction Ifound him ready, and waiting for me, with his
stick in his hand.

PRACTICE ON THE PARTICIPLE

Practice 1. Use the required form of participle I instead of the infinitive in
brackets.
1. I stood for a moment at the window, (to look) at the gaiety of the day. 2. (To
finish) his toilet, he wrapped himself in a thick overcoat and wound a muffler
round his neck. 3. And (to reach) the conclusion, he gave no further thought to the
matter. 4. And then when the table (to set) for and dinner brought in, he put aside
his book and gave her a glance. 5. He peered at her, (to blink). 6. He got out of his
seat and walked over and stood in front of Janet and Mary, (to look) down at them.
7. His father, (to retire), lived in an unpretentious, but not mean, house. 8. It was
about ten o’clock at night; I had been dining by myself at a restaurant, and (to
return) to my small apartment, was sitting in my parlour, reading. 9. He decided to
speak to her in the train (to come home). 10. The next minute the front door was
flung open and he was in the lighted hall (to welcome) ..... by a short, plump,
smiling woman of about forty. 11. She drank deeply, and (to do) so, sighed with
satisfaction. 12. Sam, feeling that the interview, (to reach) this point might be
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considered over, got up. 13. (To finish) dinner, Soames lighted the second of his
two daily cigars, and took up the earpieces of the wireless. 14. And (to say) this in
her official and impersonal tone of voice, the chambermaid then grinned, winked
and vanished. 15. (To watch) them he raised his coffee cup.
Practice 2. State whether the action expressed by participle I is prior or
simultaneous with the action of the verb-predicate.
1. I kept silent for a little while, thinking of what Strove had told me. 2. Gripping
his bag, Manson leaped from the train and walked quickly down the platform,
searching eagerly for some sign of welcome. 3. She passed him, pretending to look
in front of her. 4. Turning back to the first page he wrote at the top “Ballet Shoes”..
5. Jim put on his hat and went out, slamming the door. 6. I was sitting in the cafe,
reading a newspaper. 7. Having buttoned her raincoat up to her throat, she hurried
to Victoria Street. 8. A moment later the other sailor climbed beside him, and then
both stood idly smoking and talking. 9. Seeing the accident everybody stopped to
watch it. 10. Putting on his coat he went out, opening the door hurriedly.
11. Having sent her a telegram, he felt very well. 12. Turning over the pages at last
he found the one he needed. 13.1 wandered about looking at the pictures I knew so
well. 14. Spending the whole night at the noisy club, he felt heavy burden on
himself.
Practice 3. Define the functions of participle I.
1. Being an actress, she was able to make her point. 2. He sat for a long time
watching the flames leap up into the darkness. 3. He stood in front of the
automobile gate with a crowd of staring children, feeling that he had reached the
end at last. 4. Coming out of the dining-room, we met the nurses coming in for an
ordinary breakfast. 5. Telling it frankly, her being there puzzled me a little.
6. Abraham appeared at noon the next day, bringing with him two hundred dollars
in cash. 7. She covered her face with her hands as if crying. 8. While making a
speech, he didn’t look at his notes. 9. She didn’t return with us, having been asked
to a supper party........... 10. Having closed the drawing-room door on him, Isabel
waited a little absorbed in her own thoughts. 11. He was still on his guard, as

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though waiting for a further question from me. 12. Her words about the accident
were terrifying. 13. I noticed them quarrelling in the corridor. 14. Generally
speaking, learning a language is very difficult. 15. They were seen leaving the hall.
16. Lisa walked back, wishing to get home in time to cook the dinner. 17. Arriving
at Hazelmoor once more, they rang again and knocked, but there was no response.
18. She settled herself in a chair and sat watching him. 19. Sally saw the
advertisement of a play being acted at the neighboring town. 20. I have three or
four people waiting for a vacancy to come here.
Practice 4. Point out verbal, adjectival and adverbial characteristics of
participle I.
1.1 got a telegram from Bill’s uncle asking me to come. 2. Having got his son back
like this, he felt he must know what his financial position was. 3. Nick looked on at
the moon, coming up over the hills. 4. Obediently shutting the door, Edna
advanced into the room. 5. To begin with, it appears he caught sight of a man
behaving suspiciously. 6. The car stopped. Drawing a long breath Pat got out.
7. Having arrived in front of the house, she put her hands to her mouth and
shouted. 8. Pushing the people aside, he made his way through the crowd.
9. Turning slowly, holding on to the wall, he dragged his way back into his room.
10. The coming summer promises hot sunny days. 11. “Don’t you remember the
girl meeting us at the gate?”, asked Nick. 12. The following evening, having
refused Elliot’s offer, I arrived at Mrs. Bradley’s house. 13. And for a moment they
all three stood silently looking at one another. 14. She told me everything
confessing the truth. 15. Being accepted heartily he felt very satisfied.
Practice 5. Recast the sentences so as to use participle I instead of subordinate
clauses.
Example:
They got into the car which smelt of hot leather and petrol. - They got into the car
smelling hot leather and petrol.
1. To hide the tears which were coming from her eyes she turned away and walked
homewards. 2. I noticed as we walked along the street that sometimes the men

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stared at my girl-friend. 3. When I went upstairs, I found him asleep, with all his
clothes on. 4. It was quite dark and she didn’t recognize the man who was standing
in front of her. 5. Annie told him as best as she could about Dick when she was
accompanying him down the road. 6. The ship, which was arriving at the dock that
afternoon, had taken fourteen days to cross the Atlantic. 7. Though I felt sorry for
him I could not help laughing. 8. When he came to Botanical Gardens one morning
he found his favorite bench occupied. 9. He was speaking as if he were explaining
something very urgent. 10. And while she waited for him to come her pride began
revolting. 11. When his first picture was exhibited he came to Amsterdam to see it,
with his father and his mother. The mother cried when she looked at it. 12. He
greeted the people who were standing near the gate to see him off.
Practice 6. Define the functions of participle IL
1. Rosie looked round with delight at the great dark smoky house, crowded to the
ceiling with the inhabitants of South London. 2. Sam looked up, relieved. Dear old
Bates was standing in the lighted doorway. 3. Carried away by the melody, Marie
went so far as to dance a step or two herself. 4. He had been seating at the desk for
a long time as if lost in thoughts. 5. Though embarrassed, he tried to pull himself
together and answer his question. 6. They were looking for the documents. If lost
he wouldn’t be able to prove his innocence. 7. When surrounded by difficulties and
uncertainty he immediately called his elder brother. 8. Poirot shook his head in a
dissatisfied manner. 9. I was excited, but not displeased with the role thrust upon
me. 10. The guests were gone, the gate was locked. 11. Though impressed, he tried
not to show it. 12. I found the books left on the table. 13. He saw her name
included into the list. 14. You have taken the books by mistake, if asked I’ll
explain everything. 15. She seemed pleased at Jane’s complimentary sayings.
16. He stood motionless as if fixed to the ground. 17. When left alone, she began to
think about the strange events of the day. 18. I heard his name mentioned several
times. 19. A puzzled look crossed his face. 20. We’ll have supper brought up into
the parlor.

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Practice 7. Insert the required participle I or IL
1. It was a windy day, and the air (to stir) on little Dorrit’s face soon brightened it.
2. He took a (to fold) strip of paper from his vest and gave it to the reporter.
3. There was one bright star (to shine) in the sky. 4. He reminded you of a (to
frighten) sheep (to run) aimlessly hither and thither. 5. At one end was a group of
beautiful women (to gown, to wear) diamonds on their heads and bosoms.
6. Maxim stooped, and picked up a (to fall) petal and gave it to me. 7. They came
to the quiet little station (to light) by a simple bulb, almost (to hide) in a mass of
oleander and vines and palmettos. 8. She remained silent but her silence was like a
quest (to hang) in the dark between them. 9. With (to close) eyes he leaned back on
the bench. 10. We walked down the hill and down the wide thickly (to carpet)
stairs. 11. A tall, thin man with a sharp pointed face sat at a table (to lay) for
dinner. 12. The voice had something (to appeal) in it. 13. There was a balcony
along the second floor (to hold up) by the columns. 14. On the next afternoon
Horace went out to his sister’s again in a (to hire) car.
Practice 8. Point out the objective and the subjective participial constructions.
1. I saw him walking through the crowd wearing a tan raincoat. 2. The boots of
Albert could be heard racing upstairs. 3. In the silence I could hear the clock
ticking. 4. We considered them married. 5. For their New Year’s Eve party she had
all the furniture moved out of the parlour and sitting-room. 6. The two men were
heard descending. 7. She found herself being stared at. 8. Here the nurse's voice
was heard calling from the top landing. 9. He wanted everything planned
beforehand. 10. My door happened to be ajar, and I heard her talking to someone
in the passage. 11. Shut up in her room, she could be heard chattering away hour.
12. They have got me cornered. 13. About ten minutes later he heard the front door
shut. 14. Perhaps she refused to have him sent for because she knew he would
refuse to come. 15. We wished the days passed quickly in the strange town.
16. Nobody felt her crying in the next room. 17. I even heard it suggested that he
might get the Foreign Office. 18. A week later, feeling him betrayed, hysterical and
in terror, Norbert betrayed his friend. 19. He kept his eyes fastened upon his plate.

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20. She had got all the furniture changed by the beginning of the ceremony.
21. They wished the meeting postponed by the next week. 22. After having her hair
done and face made up she looked quite different. 23. The taxi could be seen
waiting outside. 24. He suffered from illness and he might often be seen taking
medicine.
Practice 9. Point out the absolute constructions with or without participle in
the sentences, define their types and functions.
1. She looked at me, her eyes widening. 2. The Strand, it being the hour when the
theatres began to empty themselves, was a roaring torrent of humanity and
vehicles. 3. Supper finished, he led him into the parlour. 4. Then she sprang away
and ran around the desks and benches, with Tom after her, and took refuge in a
comer at last, with her little white apron to her face. 5. Dinner being over, he asked
her to sit beside him. 6. He reached out across the table, his hand covering
Marsha’s. 7. In the afternoon the big canoes were sailing towards the camp, with
the wind blowing from the south. 8. He stood, his hands behind him. 9. Weather
permitting, the harvest time will begin soon. 10. One night, Winifred having gone
to the theatre, he sat down with a cigar, to think. 11. With the watch in her hand
she lifted her head and looked directly at him, her eyes calm and empty as two
holes. 12. Archie sat on a stool by the shelf, his back against the fireplace. 13. The
discussion being over, everybody hurried to leave the hall. 14. He stood by the
radio panel, his fingers fixed on the clock. 15. The lamp lighted, Saxon looked at
the coin. 16. The way being too long, he preferred taking a taxi. 17. “You’re worse
than Clouire”, said Ray, her eyes ceasing to glitter. 18. Hopes failing, life is hard to
live. 19. Now he sat down in an armchair opposite me, with his hands putting on
his knees. 20. He passed through the park, some friends around him. 21. She
counted out the money from her purse, her fingers trembling, her eyes snapping at
him. 22. They walked silently through the street, Tom very grave, Lisa weeping

bitterly.

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Practice 10. Point out the nominative absolute participial construction
defining its functions.
1. As she approached the end of the notes she went slower and slower, her black
eyes twinkling. 2. The late hour being chosen for the party, Mrs. Bramwell’s
evening began at nine o’clock. 3. She turned, losing her restraint, her eyes
sparkling with honest indignation. 4. Denny lit a cigarette, his fingers shaking so
violently he could barely hold the match. 5. The waltz in the back room being
finished, three couples followed by the pianist left the parlour. 6. The night being
fine, we decided to walk back home from music-hall. 7. This important point
settled, he was about to leave. 8. In a moment Lewis leapt from the car, his eyes
blazing with excitement. 9. This done, he seized some strips of long yellow paper,
about three inches wide. 10. He went down the walk, his dog running after him.
11. The hour being early, the saloon bar was free from the crowds. 12. Preliminary
remarks being over, I now precede to the deal.
Practice 11. Recast the sentences so as to use participial constructions.
Example:
I noticed that now his eyes were resting on me with a faint smile of amusement. -1
noticed his eyes resting on me, with a faint smile of amusement.
1. At the comer of the street I saw that a small crowd was collecting, attracted by
the fire. 2. He found that, Harris was waiting for him inside the main entrance.
3. As I began to wash up, I heard Frieda was talking on the telephone. 4. After tea
when all the lamps were lit, work went more briskly. 5. This rain showed no sign
of stopping, and at length with umbrellas and waterproofs they set out. 6. When the
massage was finished Evie brought Julia a cup of tea. 7. He heard that someone
was coming up the stairs very heavily. 8. His brain was inactive, almost dull. He
felt that he knew nothing. 9. Now that the moment had come, he found it difficult
to speak. 10. He woke during the still hot nights; his hand was automatically
reaching his bedside table for a cigarette. 11. I don’t know how long we stood
there, we were eating potatoes, warming our hands, talking and laughing.
12. When I opened my eyes I saw the others were dozing so I sneaked out. 13. As

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Andrew’s pulse was racing suddenly, he remained motionless at the gate.
14. Nancy herself opened the door for Andrew, her face was smiling to him. 15. At
last his preparations were complete, the flowers, the food, the wine were put
accurately on the laid table.
Practice 12. Point out the participle and constructions with it defining their
functions.
It was November, 1891. The day being cold and rainy, the instructor of
Springfield College in Massachusetts and players were busy climbing up a ladder
and nailing a fruit basket to the wall of the gymnasium. Climbing down the ladder
he took a ball and threw it into the basket. The ball going into the basket, the
instructor became very happy. He thought the problem solved. Well, he would
soon see it.
Ten minutes later putting nine boys on one side and nine on the other, the
instructor explained to them how to play.
The game started, and what a game it was! While the play going on, several
players fell to the floor. He watched the players pushing each other. “Something is
wrong in this game, it is too unpleasant” thought the instructor.
He sat down, with a piece of paper and a pencil in his hand. He paused for a
minute as if thinking about something unexpected, then began: “Boys, some rules
must be observed while playing. Rule number one: You mustn’t run with the ball.
You have to throw or bounce it to someone else playing near to you”.
Hearing the good rule all agreed.
“Rule number two: You mustn’t push each other. If anyone pushes the other
player to get the ball, the game will stop. The man pushed will have a free throw at
the basket”.
The rules being settled, the game started again. You could see very few men
pushing or falling. A second basket was nailed to the wall at the other end of the gym.
So, a new game appeared. It was invented by a young Canadian college
teacher. His name was James Naismith.

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Practice 13. Point out the participle and constructions with it defining their
functions.
Having chosen Freddy among her many admirers, Helen thought that she
had made a good choice. Being good-looking and intelligent, everybody respected
Freddy. Their engagement was much talked about.
Having fixed the date of the wedding, they went together to Band Street to
choose rings. While the rings being shown to Helen, she discussed them with a
knowledge that surprised Freddy and the owner of the shop. Examining the rings,
the owner of the shop saw two men entering the shop, and he came up to them. The
men asked the owner to show them some bracelets.
Several bracelets were put on the counter in front of them. The men being
much more difficult to please than Helen began to choose bracelets turning over
and over. It seemed to the shop assistant as if they would never come to a decision.
Suddenly a strange event happened. A car stood in front of the shop. One of the
men struck the assistant on the head, while the other took half a dozen bracelets
lying on the counter and started running toward the door.
Freddy saw Helen standing alone at the door. She stood on the man’s way
making no attempt to step out. Freddy considered her being too paralyzed by
terror. The man approaching the door raised his hand to strike her. But he never
did. At the last moment Helen saved herself moving a step aside. The man’s head
went through the shop window. All this took only a few seconds of time.
Practice 14. Point out the participial constructions defining their types and
functions.
Nora: It’s Peter’s birthday the day after tomorrow. I’ve had this suit made for him
to wear at his party.
Harry: Fine. He will like it. I have heard him saying that he likes a brown colour.
Nora: Oh, yes, I know it.
Harry: Are you going to have a lot of his friends here?
Nora: Oh, Harry, how I want all his friends invited, but our flat is small, you
know.

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Harry: Yes, you are right. Are you going to cook all the cakes yourself?
Nora: Some of them. And I shall have the rest done at the shop. That reminds me, ,
I must get the carpets beaten before the party, M
Robert: And Dad, will you have the tape mended by Friday?
Harry: Well, why don’t you have it mended yourself, Robert?
Nora: What do you want for it?
Robert: We shall use it for dancing.
Harry: What, dancing half the night? r,
Nora: What’s that Harry? I see your face changed.
Harry (jokingly): I must have a bed made up for me at the club, and spend the
night there.
Practice 15. Point out the participle and constructions with it defining their
types and functions.
Last night in my dream I found myself going to Manderley. While passing,
through the iron gates leading to the driveway I felt the familiar smell of roses. The
driveway was just a narrow track covered with grass and weeds. Sometimes I
thought Manderley lost for me, but very often I found myself there again, beneath
a fallen tree or beyond a muddy pool formed by the winter rains. The trees had,
thrown out new low branches stretched across my way. Coming up to the. house I
stood there with my heart beating fast and tears filling my eyes.
There wras Manderley, our Manderley, always secret and silent, proud with
the grey shining stone in the: moonlight of my dream. Time couldn’t spoil the
beauty of Manderley. I didn’t find the walls of Manderley changed.
Though I saw the garden covered with weeds everywhere, it looked beautiful
under the playing moonlight. Manderley was not empty, it was alive, it was
breathing with the light coming from the windows, the curtains playing on the
windows.

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Practice 16. Point out the participle and predicative constructions with it.
State their types and functions.
Nora: Good afternoon, Mrs. Wood. You are looking pleased. Have you
found out who took your missing spoons?
Mrs. Wood: Yes, it’s really very funny, I must tell you. Of course, I’ve been'
awfully nervous since yesterday, my husband being away and there
being nobody else in the house. Coming back from shopping this
afternoon I found the back gate opened and suspicious noises
coming from the house.
Nora: Goodness.
Mrs. Wood: Thinking that if I went for help the fellow would get away, I decided
to catch him myself.
Nora: How very brave of you!
Mrs. Wood: And then, looking in through the kitchen window what should I see
but. ..?
Nora: A man?
Mrs. Wood: No - a monkey!
Nora: A monkey?
Mrs. Wood: Yes, a monkey, sitting on my kitchen table and taking all my knives
and forks out of the table drawer.
Nora: Wherever had it come from?
Mrs. Wood: I couldn’t think at first and then I suddenly remembered that the
house at the end of the road has just been taken over by an old sailor
who has all sorts of strange pets.
Nora: I know - Mr. Benbow. So the monkey sitting on the table was his.
What extraordinary creature - taking your spoons one day and
coming back for your knives and forks the next! Did you manage to
catch him?
Mrs. Wood: I couldn’t catch him myself, but I fetched Mr. Benbow and he soon
did it.

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Nora: Did you find your lost spoons?
Mrs. Wood: Yes, we found them hidden at the end of our own garden!
Nora: How funny! With the police hunting everywhere for a criminal too.
Still, “All is well that ends well!”
Practice 17. Point out the participle and participial constructions stating their
types and functions.
I had never supposed the life at Manderley so orderly planned. I remember
now, looking back, my first morning here. I found Maxim up, dressed, even
writing a letter early in the morning. When I came downstairs I saw his finishing
his letter. He looked at me smiling. He came up to me, with the letter in his hand
and said: “This is something you must get used to.”
Showing around he said: “Running a place like Manderley is hard work”.
While talking with me I heard Maxim mentioning his sister’s and her husband’s
names saying that they wanted to come and have dinner with us.
“Today?” I said, my heart sinking.
“Yes, she won’t stay long. You will like her. She is very honest. If she
doesn’t like you she will say it to your face”, said Maxim.
I found it hardly comforting.
“I must go now. I have a lot of work to do. I must see Frank, the leading
person here”. Picking up the letter that he laid on the table he hurriedly went
downstairs.
The news being unexpected, I found myself lost in thoughts. I couldn’t
imagine my first morning being like that.
Practice 18. Point out the participle and predicative constructions with it,
defining their types and functions.
Long ago there lived a man called Tony. The gold being a lovelier thing for
him, Tony spent most of his time thinking how to make gold. Having used up all
his money at last he found his family ’s face turned pale from lack, of food.
Tony’s wife went to see her father and told him everything. Hearing his
daughter’s words he asked her to send Tony to him.

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 Tony went to his father-in-law, accepting the invitation. Seeing his son-in-
law coming, the father-in-law met him speaking gently.
The father said that he had heard him discovering the secret of making gold,
but he couldn’t. The old man said smiling that he had discovered that secret, but he
was old and helpless, so he couldn’t do anything.
The excited Tony said at once that he was ready to do everything, with his
heart full of curiosity.
The old man said that he had everything for making gold, but there was one
thing missing.
The secret being too important for him, Tony promised that he would do his
best.
The old man went on saying that he needed three kilos of the white fluff
from under banana leaves. Whenever he brought three kilos of fluff from his own
banana trees they would make gold together.
Hearing the father’s words Tony became very happy. Returning home he
told everything to his wife. The next day they started planting banana trees. Soon
the trees grew tall. When they were fully grown, Tony carefully scraped the white
fluff from under each leaf. While doing it he didn’t notice his wife and children
picking the bananas and taking them to the market.
During three years Tony had collected only half a kilo of fluff. It was hard
work, but he kept his mind on the thought of making gold one day. He and his
family planted more banana trees for getting more fluff each year.
At last ten years passed. Collecting three kilos of white fluff Tony came to
his father-in-law, putting it into a large jar.
“Yes, you have done it following my instructions carefully, my boy”, said
old man. “Now open that door over there”, said the old man.
Opening the door Tony saw his family standing in the centre of the room full
of gold.
“This is the gold we have made selling our bananas for the last ten years”,
said his wife smiling.

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 “Now you are a rich man, Tony. Go home and look after your banana trees
with your family. You have turned bananas into gold”, said the father-in-law.
Practice 19. Complete the sentences using participial constructions from the
list.
Smiling happily; enjoying the gaity of the day; having nothing more to say; putting
on her apron; while reading that story; fancying that she heard a knock; feeling
that the interview was over; turning to his sister; advancing towards me; shutting
the door behind him.
1.1 remained in the garden.............................................................................................
2. She came into the kitchen.........................................................................................
3. He shook my hand.....................................................................................................
4. Suddenly she rose and went to the from door.........................................................
5. He held out his hand.................................................................................................
6.1 could not help laughing.........................................................................................
7. He left the room.........................................................................................................
8. He laughed merrily....................................................................................................
9. He got up....................................................................................................................
10. He grasped her hand....................................................................................... • • •
Practice 20. Complete the sentences so as to use objective participial
Construction.
1. They watched the children........................................................................................
2. He didn’t see her ............................................................................... •'...........■ •........
3. He liked to watch his father......................................................................................
4. She will have her flat.................................................................................................
5. He felt her...................................................................................................................
6. I’ve never heard you..................................................................................................
7. He found himself.......................................................................................................
8. We didn’t get anybody..............................................................................................
9. The students want the holiday.......................................................................... soon.
10. We imagine them............................... .....................................................................

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11. Did you overhear them.................................... ?
12. He watched the theatre crowd...................... ..........................................................
13. The girl found someone........... ..............................................................................
14. Have you ever noticed him.................................................................................... ?
Practice 21. Make up sentences using the subjective and the objective
participial constructions.
1'. They were seen.................................................... ......................................................
2 him listening .
3................................................................................................. the waves rolling .
4 . She was heard
5.......................................................... . Pete was seen..............................
6................................................................................................. ............. a voice saying.
7........................................................................................................... his shoes mended.
8 him smoking.
9................. ......................................................................................... the work finished.
10.................. the carpets washed.
11
12 . Her granny was found
13....................................................................................... the crowd screaming.
14............................................................................................... the door slamming open.
15 her hair dyed.
Practice 22. Complete the sentences using absolute constructions.
1. The day being fine and sunny..................................................................................
2. It being too late.................................................................. .......................................
3 with her voice trembling.
4. The working day being over..................................................................................
5 her face lightening.
6. All his friends around him.........................................................................................
7. My friend having declared.........................................................................................
8. Weather permitting.................................................................................. ;.................

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9. ..:...................................................................................... , with no one helping her,,.
10. His stick and cap in his hand..................................................................................

11 -............................................................................. his hand reaching for a cigarette.

12. This finished ........ ....................................................................................................
13. Breakfast over..........................................................................................................
14. The door bell heard . . .. ............................ ..................... ........................................

15 , with a bunch of flowers.

16. The hour being early............................................................................................... .
17. All the shops closed................................................................................................
Practice 23. Make up sentences using constructions with participle II.
1. kept her eyes fastened upon; 2. have the report typed; 3. heard it suggested;
4. found him absorbed in; 5. will get his new song recorded; 6. has had the article
printed; 7. with his eyes lowered; 8. will get her hair cut very short; 9. considers
herself offended; 10. will have his car repaired.
Practice 24. Specify the functions of the participle by inserting the
appropriate conjunction.
while, when, as if, as though
1. She kept inclining her head....... listening for something. 2. He did not look his
best....... smiling. 3. And then suddenly....... smoking a placid after-lunch pipe, his
mood changed. 4. He stood up from the sofa....... shocked by an explosive. 5. He
is safe ........ living in the country. But he keeps dashing away from the country
and losing his head. 6. The house ......... finished was fresh and gay. 7. He was
sitting there ......... lost in thoughts. 8............ passing the bookshop I stopped to
look in the window and had noticed among other new books the translation of a
novel of mine. 9. He was speaking ......... saying something extraordinary.
10...........saying these words he got up.

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Practice 25. Make up dialogues using participle and constructions with it.
Some topics are given for you.
1. you meet your friend at the book-shop; 2. your class has planned to celebrate the
New Year; 3. you get acquainted with a fellow passenger while travelling by ship;
4. you meet your parents after a sea-voyage.
Practice 26. Define the non-finite form of the verb and its function.
1. Lisa set about getting her tea. She thought it would be rather lonely eating it
alone, so pouring out a cup of tea and putting a little milk into it; she cut a huge
piece of bread-and-butter and sat on the doorstep. 2. Another woman came
downstairs,- and seeing Lisa, sat down beside her and began to talk. 3. He had to
work hard. He had only some long nights in which to study. He studied sitting into
the early hours of the morning. 4. There were some women talking at their
doorways, and as he passed they stopped talking, to smile and give him a friendly
“Good morning”. 5. Without speaking they went along, and there was no one to be
seen either in front or behind them. 6. It was on her tongue to tell him that she was
not used to being spoken to like that. 7. He was looking for someone to help him,
as if surrounded by difficulties and uncertainty. 8. Though being midnight, when
Andrew reached home he founded Joe waiting for him, walking up and down
between the closed surgery and the entrance to his home. 9. Sally refused to allow
the conversation to be diverted. 10. I remember being taken for a drive by a kind
lady. 11. He felt, with growing anger, that he was lying to him. 12. Having arrived
the day before and booked a room, he knew the clerk very well. 13. I hate getting
up for a nine o’clock breakfast to eat things I have no mind to. 14. His mother was
found listening to each word of their quarrel.
Practice 27. State whether the -ing form is the participle, the gerund or the
verbal noun. Give your reasons.
1. Here I am, trying to answer as you keep interrupting me with questions. 2. “Are
you making a good living?” I asked, smiling. 3. For a while the two women sat
still, waiting for the doctor’s coming and Lisa lay gazing vacantly at the wall. 4. As
he approached his house he felt the rapid beating of his heart. 5. The speaking of

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the man impressed him. It was really hard for a gentleman like him to live without
trying to earn money. 6. “Oh”, cried Sally, seeing the advertisement of a play being
acted at,the neighbouring theatre. 7. It appeared that the night-porter had been
awoken by the ringing of the telephone from Miss King’s room. 8. He could help
being sorry for Winifred. 9. The setting of the scene admired the audience.
10. Adrian, glancing round, suddenly saw Kate stepping hurriedly after him.
11. No one ever thought of protecting him. 12. At that moment Freddie arrived,
leaping from his taxi and entering the hotel with a bell-boy carrying his golf clubs
behind him. 13. There was a clear tramping of feet. 14. He came to the verandah,
stood listening to the music coming from down.
Practice 28. Define the type and function of the predicative constructions in
the following sentences.
1. Tommy heard the sound of the key being turned in the lock. 2. I felt they
expected me to say clever things, but I couldn’t think any till their leaving the
party. 3.1 wanted no one to take notice of me, so that I could observe them talking
in the parlour. 4. My uncle was sitting near the window. He seemed to be staring
into space, his hands clenched nervously on the edge of the chair. 5. Her heart gave
a sudden rise when she saw him come in. 6. He left his wife sitting on the sofa, her
hands on her lap, waiting for him to go out. 7. For Fancy it was a dance that she
was not likely to forget. 8. We found Mr. Brown awaiting us in the hall and I
surprised at his meeting us at the door. 9. When it was time for me to go, I asked if
I could see the rooms. 10. Martin was supposed to be engaged to Christine. 11. We
saw her sitting under the sunshade, with her back to us. 12. When she opened her
eyes it was with a shock that she saw Nigel standing beside her, her lost kitten in
his arms. 13. Nobody knows the time of their coming back. 14. They appeared to
have been living in the same district for many years. 15. I am ready to give
everything to see that girl smile. 16. You don’t seem to understand how happy I am
to see you again. 17. His having been in practice in this remote Welsh mining town
worried him. 18. He really strolled about, the weather being cold, stepped into a
hotel. 19. I can’t imagine your coming to see me after so many years. 20. He

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watched her sitting by the lamp, with the mending on her lap. 21.1 won’t have Carl
talk that way. 22. She was moving towards the door, her head reverted, her heels
clattering. 23. He and the poet are now in the office,, with him trying to make the
poet go to bed. 24. He passed by, his face averted, eyes fixed straight ahead.-
25. Rebecca stood silent, with her lips parted.
Practice 29. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them.
Harry: It’s very nice to be at home. Had a good day, Nora?
Nora: Not very good. People kept knocking at the door all the morning. I must
have come downstairs a dozen times to open the door.
Harry: Oh, who are they all?
Nora: Oh, nobody special. Just the electric - light man to read the meter, the
man selling fruit, the postman............. But Harry, I’ve got something
awful to tell you!
Harry: What’s that?
Nora: I went to the market to buy some meat. I knew that my buying meat
would take some time, so I decided to take my dog Rex with me. And he
disappeared!
Harry: What did you say? Your dog disappeared while buying meat.
Nora: Yes. One minute I paid for the meat, the next minute I looked round to
find my dog gone. Of course, we looked for the dog everywhere, but
couldn’t find it. So I had to go to the police station to report it. But they
had no news to give.
Harry: Oh, never mind. He will be all right. Your dog is clever enough to
come home.
Nora: He seems to have been run over (hearing a knock at the front door).
Who’s that now? Why, it’s Mr. Grimble, the butcher!
Grimble: Yes, madam. I see from the collar that he’s yours. I found him eating
meat under my stall.
Nora: Oh, thank you Mr. Grimble. It is very nice of you to bring Rex back.

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Grimble: H’m. And I want to give you this bill for five pounds of best beef. Your
dog eats it while being under my stall.
Practice 3O.Use the appropriate form of the verbals opening the brackets.
Every person has his own or her own personal interests and ways of (to
spend) free time. What is it? How is it called? - It is a hobby. (To have) a hobby is
a good manner, an article says. People can (to learn) a lot of information by (to
chose) a hobby.
What are the most popular hobbies (to spread) among the people?
Of course, (to collect) stamps, stones, coins, (to grow) flowers, (to gather)
records, pictures, photos etc. are said (to be) popular hobbies for many years
among the people all over the world.
Some people are interested in (to dance) or (to listen) to pop or light or
classical music.
Some people are fond of (to take) pictures. (To take) their cameras with
them and (to find) it more interesting they always try (to take) photos or pictures
(to seem) unusual to them.
The members of my family have different hobbies. For example, whenever I
come home I find my father either (to read) classical literature or (to watch) a
football match on TV, but mother (to cook).
Something delicious in the kitchen as one can feel its fine smell (to come) on
the stairs.
(To grow) various flowers in our small garden one can easily find my
Granny (to dig and to water) something there every day. She can’t live without (to
spend) most of her time there. Besides it you may observe different coloured wood
balls (to play) on the floor. They are my Granny’s. She is a great knitter. A lot of
colorful and nice ornaments are seen (to hang) in her room. I enjoy (to watch)
them.
As to me, I must say that I haven’t got a serious hobby. But I like sports. I
like (to go) in for different sports. But sometimes I don’t feel like (to leave) the flat
even for a moment.

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Practice 31. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them
stating their functions.
The Google history looks like a fiction. It started working in 1995 when two
PhD students of Stanford University, California, found that they had a common
vision for the development of a system which could make it accessible to everyone
in the world to gain some information in an organized and easy way to use.
Linking their web pages with the other highly relevant web pages, the young
scientists tested their thesis and laid the foundation for using their search engine.
Originally, the search engine used the Stanford University website with the
domain google. Stanford.edu. the domain Google, com was said to be registered on
September 15, 1997, and the company was incorporated as Google Inc. in
September 1998 at a friend’s garage in Menlo Park, California. In March 1999 the
company turned out to move into offices in Paulo Alto, home to several other
noted technology startups.
The company’s unofficial slogan became “Don’t be evil”.
By the end of 2003 the company had indexed 3 billion documents on the
internet. But now this figure is noted to have grown over 25 billion. With different
sites Google is becoming the most important player in the internet.
Practice 32. Point out the verbals and constructions with them stating their
functions.
1. She didn’t see anyone enter the room. 2. He was believed to be an experienced
doctor. 3. I watched her removing with cold water the traces of emotion. 4. I am
having my books bound. 5. The boy will have your things brought up and
unpacked at once. 6. Weather permitting, the performance will be held out of
doors. 7. Without stopping to try to understand his words or the tone in which they
were spoken, I turned off to a point that had just come into my mind. 8.1 never had
any reason to doubt the exact truth. 9. A soft rain began to fall, hissing gently on
the leaves. 10. Everybody turned his head to watch her go. 11. Our baskets being
full of mushrooms, we returned home. 12. You may depend on his performing his
part of the work officiately. 13. This is the best way for us to go. 14. He is

150
expected to be here at half past six in the evening. 15. The dewy freshness of the
morning was already lost in the rapidly mounting heat of the June day. 16. He was
sitting by the window, watching the gold of yellow trees fly through the air, and
the read leaves dancing madly down the long avenue. 17.The sun was completely
veiled so that down passed into day almost without their knowing it. 18. The
weather is too fine for you to stay at home. 19. In a day or two he was up again, but
cold weather holding, he stayed in. 20. She is known to be an active member of our
organization. 21. Somewhere near them ran a river, its course marked by a black
line of brush-wood. 22. His being present was a great help to me.
Practice 33. Point out all the predicative constructions expressed by adverbial
modifiers and define their functions.
1.Marcellus strode heavily to and fro before the enterance, his impatience
mounting. 2. On her applying to them, reassured by this resemblance, for a
direction to Miss Dorrit, they made way for her to enter a dark hall. 3. Well,
women’s face have had too much power over me already for me not to fear them.
4.1 almost doubt whether I ought not to go a stepfather, and bum the letter at once,
for fear of its falling into wrong hands. 5. Michelangelo went to Jacopo’s side, ran
his hand carresingly over the sarcophagus, his fingers tracing out in its low relief
the funeral procession of fighting men and horses. 6. Michelangelo went into the
yard and sat in the banking sun with his chin resting on his chest. 7. That over, she
sat back with a sigh and softly rubbed her knees. 8. He opened the door for the
Senator to precede him. 9. They were returning to Fogarty’s; their hands full of
flowers. 10. She pressed his hand mutely; her eyes dim. 11. His being an older
man, that made it all right. 12. On the second of these days Granacci burst into the
studio, his usually placid blinking hard. 13. He stood beside me in slince, his
candle in his hand. 14. In a room within the house, Cowperwood, his coat and vest
off, was listening to Aileen’s account of her troubles. 15. There was enough room
for me to sit between them.

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 MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs Meanings Examples
CAN

Can - present tense 1. Ability He can lift the box easily.

Could - past tense a) physical ability 1 could play chess when I was 6.
b) mental ability I have been able to see her today.
...... i
To manage + Infinitive I managed to settle the difficulty.

To succeed +Gerund I succeeded in settling the difficulty.

Can j +Indefinite
Could Infinitive
Can 2. Possibility
■j +Indefini<.e
Could / a) due to the Where can I have a cup of tea?
Infinitive
circumstances
b) due to the existing Every citizen can get education in our
laws country.
Can | + Indefinite 3. Permission (in You can take my book.
Could Infinitive affirmative sentences)
4. Request (in interroga­ Can I take your book?
tive sentences)
Can j +Indefinite 5. Prohibition (in You can’t take my book.
Could Infinitive negative sentences) You can't smoke here.
Can (could) + all the 6. Doubt, uncertainty, Can (could) he wait for you every day?
forms of the Infinitive in astonishment Can (could) he be waiting for you now?
interrogative sentences (astonishment - only Can (could) he have already waitedfor
in interrogative you?
sentences) Can (could) he have been waiting for you
for an hour?
He can 7 (couldn ’t) waitfor you every day.
He can't (couldn ’t) be waiting for you now.
He can't (couldn’t) have already waitedfor
you.
He can’t (couldn’t) have been waiting for
an hour.

152
Could +Perect Infinitive 7. Reproach You could have informed us beforehand.
Note: sometimes there He can’t (couldn’t) have failed to warn you.
are 2 negations in one
sentence. In this case
one of them is expressed
by the verb to fail.
MAY

may - present tense 1. Permission (in They may smoke in the room.
might - past tense affirmative sentences) You may join them.
to be allowed

to be permitted
may + Indefinite He said that I might go.
might Infinitive
may 2. Request (in May I smoke here?
+ Indefinite
might interrogative Might I smoke? (polite request).
Infinitive
sentences)
may + Indefinite 3. Prohibition (in You may not smoke here.
might Infinitive negative sentences) He said that Ann might not go there.
may + Indefinite 4. Possibility (in You may see a lot of houses in Baku.
might Infinitive affirmative sentences) He said that he might see houses in Baku.

might +Indefinite and 5. Reproach and You might have given me your book
Perfect Infinitive disapproval yesterday.
You might come a bit earlier.
May (might) + all the 6. Uncertainty, doubt, She may (might) be at home.
forms of the Infinitive in supposition She may (might) be doing her lessons.
affirmative and negative She may (might) have done her lessons.
sentences in the meaning Maybe, he is coming now.
ofperhaps, maybe. She may (might) have been waiting for her
for an hour.
She may (might) not be at home.
Note: The verb to fail is He may have failed to notice you.
also used with may.

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 MUST
must + Indefinite 1. Necessity, duty (in One must learn the new words.
Infinitive affirmative and We must prepare our lessons every day.
interrogative
sentences)
Note: the absence of Must I do this work now?
necessity is expressed by No, you needn't.
need not.

must + Indefinite 2. Obligation We must stop our work.

Infinitive We are obliged to stop our work.
to be obliged to; We have to stop our work.
to have to;

to be compelled to;

must + Indefinite 3. Prohibition (in Pupils must not speak at the lessons.
Infinitive negative sentences) You must not tell him anything.
must + Indefinite 4. Command, urgent You must leave the room, (command)
Infinitive request, emphatic You must see the film. (emphatic advice)
advice (in affirmative You must not miss the chance.
and negative
sentences)
must + all the forms of 5. Supposition (in He must be hungry.
the Infinitive affirmative sentences) He must be waiting for us.
He must have already come.
He must have been working for you.
Note 1: in negative Evidently, they have not returned yet.
sentences supposition is
expressed by the modal
word evidently.
Note 2: Supposition Probably, they will understand me later.
referring to the future is
expressed by a modal
It’s likely to rain.
word probably or modal
expressions to be likely,
to be unlikely, to be not He is unlikely to return.
likely.

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If there are 2 negations
in the sentence
We use: Nobody must have seen you.
1) neg. pr: nobody,
no one, nothing
2) neg. prefixes: -
mis, -dis, -un, -in
3) the verb: to fail He must have failed to understand you. *
TO HAVE TO

Have (has) to - present 1. Obligation or I had to tell him everything.

tense necessity arising out Did I have to tell him everything?
Had to - past tense of circumstances 1 didn t have to tell him everything. ' :
Shall (will) have to- He has to get up early.
future tense Does he have to get up early?
He doesn ’t have to get up early.
to be obliged to; But: He will have to go there.
to be compelled to; Will he have to go there?
have got (has got); He won’t have to go there.
He has got to go there.
Has he got to go there?
He hasn ’t got to go there.
TO BE TO

Am, is, are + to - 1. Necessity or Our lessons are to begin at 8.

present tense obligation resulting We were to meet at 2 yesterday.
Was, were + to - past from the previously

tense + Indefinite arranged plan,

Infinitive arrangement (time­

table, schedule)
Was, were + Perfect 2. The action didn’t I was to have come, but Ifailed.
Infinitive take place in the past

To be to + Indefinite 3. Possibility' The book is to be found in any shop.

Infinitive passive
To be to 4. Orders and He is to live here alone.
instructions (in You are not to neglect him.

155
 affirmative and
negative sentence)
Was, were + to 5. An action that is This man was to be my teacher andfriend
destined to happen for a long time.
To be to 6. Strict prohibition (in You are not to tell anybody about it.
negative sentences) You are not to smoke in this room.
SHOULD

Should +Indefinite 1. Advice, desire, He should stay at home when you are ill.
Infinitive (the action obligation

refers to the present or

future)
Should + Perfect You should have stayed at home yesterday.
Infinitive (the action
refe® to the past)
Should + Perfect a) in affirmative You should have brought the book.
Infinitive sentences shows that
a desirable action
was not carried out
b) in negative setences You shouldn 't have forgotten your promise.
shows that the
undesirable action
was carried out
Should + Indefinite 2. In special questions or Why should I stay at home?
Infinitive in object clauses How should I go there?
beginning with why, I don't understand why he should burst into
how. tears.
Should +Indefinite 3. Supposition (in The film should be interesting.
Infinitive affirmative sentences)
OUGHTTO

Ought to + Indefinite 1. Moral obligation, The children ought to respect their parents.
Infinitive (the action advice, duty (in all kinds The boys ought to join the army.
refers to the present or of sentences)
future)
Ought to + Perfect a) in affirmative You ought to have sent the letter yesterday.

156
Infinitive (the action sentences shows that
refers to the past) a desirable action
was not carried out;
b) in negative sentences You ought not to have gone there alone.
shows that the
undesirable action
was carried out;
Ought to + Perfect 2. Reproach You ought to have helped him.

Infinitive
Ought to + Indefinite 3. Probability You ought to be hungry.
Infinitive
Ought to + Indefinite 4. Supposition (in There ought to be many interesting winter
Infinitive affirmative sentences) games.

■ • SHALL . . . : g- v. •. ■;>, --OO;

Shall + Indefinite 1. Obligation, strict You shall write = You must write this
Infinitive order (for the 2nd and exercise.
3 persons in You shan 't do anything of that kind.
affirmative and
negative sentences)
Shall + Indefinite 2. Threat and warning You shall be punished ifyou go there.
Infinitive (for the 2nd and 3rd

persons)
Shall + Indefinite 3. Promise (for the 2nd You shall have what you want.
Infinitive and 3 rd persons) You shall be happy.

Shall + Indefinite 4. In interrogative Shall I open the door?

Infinitive sentences shall is used (Do you want me to open the door?)
for the 1st and 3 rd

persons in the meaning

of desire or will
WILL (WOULD)

Will (would) + 1. Habit (in affirmative My father will sleep after dinner.
Indefinite Infinitive sentences) My friend would read papers after lessons.
Will (would) + 2. Insistence, resistance The pen won’t write.
Indefinite Infinitive refusal (in negative I tried to open the door, but it wouldn ’t.

157
 sentences) The knife won’t cut.
Will (would) + 3. Polite request Will you help me?
J 1
Indefinite Infinitive Would you like to join us?
Will (would) + 4. Will, intention, desire I will teach you Grammar.
Indefinite Infinitive (for the 1st person (I want to teach you Grammar by all means)
singular and plural) I shall be very glad ifyou will lend me your
syn. to want, to desire, book.
to intend, etc.
Will (would) 5. Supposition (for the I think this wiU be the house where my
+Indefinite and Perfect 2nd and 3 rd persons) friend lives.
Infinitive That will be the postman, I think.
NEED '

Need + bare Infinitive 1. Necessity (generally in You needn’t go there now.

Need + Indefinite interrogative and
Infinitive (the action negative sentences)
refers to the present or
future)
Need + Perect Infinitive (in negative sentences) You needn 't have come yesterday.
(the action refers to the expresses an action We needn’t have copied the text; I have a
past) which has been carried book.
Need + Perect Infinitive out, though it wasn’t
necessary;
Asa finite verb need has necessity He needs my help.
all necessary forms Does he need my help?

including verbals. He doesn’t need my help

Need may be followed We didn’t need to hurry.
by a noun and the Did you need to do it?
infinitive with to.
DARE

Dare - present tense to have the courage to do I dare go and speak to that girl.
Dared - past tense smth. Dare you go and speak to that girl?
You dare not go and speak that girl.
I dare say... How dare you talk to me like that!
He isn t here, but I dare say, he 'll come

158
 soon.
As a finite verb dare has to have the courage to do He dared to say it to me.
all necessary forms smth. Did he dare to say it to me?
including verbals. It’s He didn’t dare to say it to me.
followed by the
infinitive with to.

PRACTICE ON THE MODAL VERBS

Practice 1. Explain the meaning of can in the sentences.
1. But the next day she was not well. She could not leave the cabin. 2. What on
earth induced her to behave as she did, 1 never could understand. She could have
married anybody she chose. 3. I ate the next course grimly to an end, she couldn’t
have been enjoying her meal much either. 4. What can have happened to change
him so much? 5. Can there have been any misunderstanding in our first encounter?
6. The teacher said they could all go home. 7. A policeman arrived and told him he
couldn’t park there. 8.Can he have changed now? Do you think it possible? 9. How
did he get to know it? Who can he have been talking to? 10. You and I are in
charge of a great business. We cannot leave our responsibility to others. 11 .He
could not take his eyes off her. 12. You can’t take the knowledge you gave me.
13. He was so weak that he could not lift his head. 14. Oh! It can’t be true!
15. Anne can’t mean that, it’s not like her. 16. He couldn’t have done it by himself.
Somebody helped him, I’m sure. 17. Can you believe the girl? Can it be true?
18. What is done cannot be undone. 19. I don’t believe a single word of his, he
can’t have failed to learn the news before us. 20. You can take a horse to the water,
but you cannot make him drink. 21. Could this old woman be Louise? She can’t
have changed like that. 22. She can’t have failed to notice this mistake. 23. He
offered his help in good time. Nothing could have been more useful to her at the
moment. 24. Can they have failed to let her know that they were not coming?

159
Practice 2. Decide whether the modals express; request, permission, invitation,
offers, promises, suggestions, advice, obligation, necessity, possibility or
impossibility, future time, predictions, abilities or past habitual actions.
Example: Can you ask a question? request
Can you speak Spanish ? ability
1. Will you open the door?----------------------------------------------- ----------------- .
2. Will the office be open tomorrow?-------------------------------------------------- .
3. 1 can’t hear you.--------------------- ——------------------- -------- ------------------ -.
4. You can’t smoke here; it’s a church.----------------------------------------- —------ .
5. You shouldn’t smoke; it’s bad for your health.-------------- ------------------- —.
6. You really ought to see a doctor.--- -------------------------------------------------- .
7. The doctor has just finished with another patient, and ought to be ready to see
you in just a minute.-------------------------------------- ------ ----- -------- ------- .
8. You walked twenty miles today? You must be tired.----------------------------- .
9. You must leave at once if you don’t want to miss the train.-------------------- .
10 .1 may be late tonight, so plan on eating dinner without me.------------------- .
11. Can I speak to Dr. Martinez?--------------------------------------------------------- .
12. You may not leave before the teacher tells you to.-------------------------- -—.
13. I’m interested in buying that car; but it could be too expensive.----------- .
14. Could you pass the butter? —--------------------------------- ---------------------- .
15. Could you read when you were five years old?---------------------------------- .
Practice 3. Complete the dialogue with the correct form of will or going to.
The first one has been done for you.
Aunt Polly: Tom Sawyer, you are going to paint the fence. That is already
decided.
Tom: But Aunt Polly, I don’t want to paint the fence.
Aunt Polly: I................... stand for this, Tom. You.......... cause my death.
You.............. do some work.
Tom: But all the other boys.............. go swimming.
Aunt Polly: Well, you................ do some painting.

160
 Ben: Why are you carrying that bucket and brush, Tom? What....... do?
Tom: I........ paint the fence.
Ben: Why.........do that? I............ go swimming. You......... have any fun.
Tom: Because Hike to. I.......... . have fun.
Ben: Hey, that looks like fun, let me try doing it.
Tom: No, Aunt Polly............ like that. Besides, I’m having fun.
Ben: Please, Tom, let me do it.
Tom: Okay, but what.......... give me?
Ben: How about this apple?
Tom: Okay.
Practice 4. What is possible for you in the next year? Write a sentence using
affirmative or negative statements and be going to, will, may, or might to
describe your possible future actions.
Example:
get a new pet... I might get a new pet in the next year, (a possibility)
I’m not going to get a new pet in the next year.
1. get a new pet
2. move to a new house or apartment...........................................................
3. finish taking English lessons.....................................................................
4. win the lottery............................................................................................
5. get married..................................................................................................
6. take a vacation............................................................................................
7- read a novel................................................................................................
8. get a better job...........................................................................................
Practice 5. Complete the dialogue with the correct form of be going to. The
first has been done for you.
Helen: Are you going to get ready for the party?
Paul: I don’t want to. It............................ be fun at all. This............... be
a boring party.
Helen: It..... 2. be boring. It...........................................................be fun.

161
 Paul: Your uncle........................ want to show his vacation slides. The
slides.............................. put me to sleep. Then we............ listen to
him talk about everything in detail. What...... eat for dinner?
Helen: We...............................have roast beef.
Paul: It............................ be undercooked. I...................... to eat the
meat if it is too rare. Your aunt...................... eat it; then she
................. feel well. I know.............. get sick.
Practice 6. Put a check mark ( x) by the sentences that are true.
1 .Before leaving on a trip abroad (to another country), you should get a travel book
with information about that country. 2.You shouldn’t carry all of your money in
cash, and you shouldn’t put all your money in one place. 3.To enter some tropical
countries, you musn’t have some vaccinations and other shots to protect against
tropical diseases. 4.When you check in at the airport, you don’t have to pay extra if
you have too much luggage. 5.You’ve got to pack your camera and passport in
your suitcase. 6. During the flight, you musn’t smoke in the non-smoking section.
7.When travelling abroad, you must learn to say ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ in the
local language. 8.To drive in North America, you have to have a driver’s license.
9. You should be able to carry all of your luggage by yourself. 10. If you’re lost in
North America and you see a police officer, you should ask him (her) for help.
Practice 7. For each of the following pairs, write a sentence using should,
ought to, had better, or their negative forms.
1. Father to the son..........................................................................................
2. Student to the teacher.......................................... ......................................
- 3. Doctor to the patient.... ...................... ,......................................................
4. Mechanic to the car owner................................................ ........................
Practice 8. Identify the meaning that each modal is used to express
(permission, necessity, etc.).
Example:
(l)I’m not looking forward to this afternoon because I have to (obligation) go to
the dentist.

162
(2) I have a broken tooth, and I can’t eat anything tough. (3) I’m supposed to be
there at three o’clock, and I mustn’t be more than five minutes late, or they’ll
cancel my appointment. (4) So I guess I had better leave plenty of time to get there.
(5) The bus is supposed to come every ten minutes, but it’s often late. (6) I know
that I ought to go to the dentist more often, but I really don’t like to. (7) She’s
going to tell me that I have to take better care of my teeth. (8) I know I’m supposed
to brush my teeth after every meal, but sometimes I just can’t find the time. (9)
After my appointment I won’t be able to eat anything for six hours, and I’m not
supposed to eat anything for three hours before my appointmnt, either. (10) I know
I’m going to be hungry tonight.
Practice 9. What modal meanings are expressed by the following sentences?
Example:
Don’t leave the cheese where the dog is going to be able to reach, (future activity,
ability)
1. You’re going to have to leave soon. 2. If Alicia has another cup of coffee, she’s
not going to be able to fall asleep. 3. The management isn’t going to allow anyone
to go behind the counter. 4. Most people have to be able to get a full night’s sleep
in order to be alert. 5. Horses have got to be allowed to exercise enough if they are
going to stay healthy. 6. Some people feel that anyone who wants to become an
American citizen ought to be able to speak English. 7. Children under sixteen years
old aren’t supposed to be allowed to work without their parent’s permission. 8.
You don’t have to be able to swim in order to enjoy the beach.
Practice 10. Identify the way each modal is used. Select one of the choices.
Then write an additional sentence of your own in the same way.
Example:
Can you help me to open the door?
(making offers; making requests; making suggestions)
Can you lend me your jacket?
1. Shall I put away the groceries?
(expressing advice; making promises; making offers)

163
2. We could try that new Thai restaurant tonight.
(making suggestions; making promises; expressing advice}
3. You’d better not pay your rent late.
(expressing necessity or prohibition; denying permission; making
suggestions}
4. Would you like me to walk you to the bus stop?
(makingpromises; making offers; making requests}
5. You ought to try harder to get to class on time.
(making requests; making suggestions; expressing advice}
6. Would you join us for some coffee?
(making offers; giving invitations; making requests}
7. You’re act allowed to dive in the pool.
(expressing prohobition; making suggestions; denying permission}
8. Can you come to our study group meeting?
(giving invitations; expressing advice; askingfor permission}
9. I’ll mail that letter for you.
(making suggestions; expressing intention; giving permission}
10. You don’t have to hand in your paper until Friday.
{making suggestions; expressing intention; expressing advice}
11. You’d better not smoke in class.
(expressing prohibition; making requests; denying permission}
12. I’m going to graduate, even if it takes me five years.
(expressing obligations; expressing intentions; making suggestions}
13. Could you please turn down your stereo?
(asking for permission; expressing advice; making requests}
14. We mustn’t forget to give our teacher ‘a thank you’ card.
(expressing advice or obligation; making suggestions; expressing intentions}
15. Can you come to my wedding next month?
(making offers; making requests; giving invitations}

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Practice 11. Explain the meanings of may in the sentences.

Lit may be so or it may be not.... I don’t know and what’s more, I don’t care.
2. You may want a friend some day. 3. Jane may have met him at her uncle’s.
4. They may not have come back yet. Let’s ring them up and find out. 5. He had
known before he looked, but a vague hope that he might have been mistaken had
encouraged him. 6. I think you might work harder! 7. Let’s go a little further. I’m
afraid they may hear us from the house. 8. He might be seen in the club any night
of the year. 9. May I talk to you sometimes? I know I’m not a bit clever but I’ll try
not to be bore.10.Of course I’m too young to be a really good writer yet, but I try
hard, and one day I may achieve something. 11. I asked him if I might come over
to remove something that I had left in a book. 12.“What’s happened to the dog?”
“It isn’t here. Dan may have taken it with him.” 13. Harry might often be seen
sitting on the porch with a pipe in his mouth. 14. Arthur looked touchingly white
and weak. He had been through a hard time. He might have died. 15. “Then may I
send Kate to you?” “But of course.” 16. She longed for a letter from John. It might
contain an explanation of why he had gone away. 17. There was so much they had
shared together and so much more they might have shared that they had not.
18. Darling, I’m sorry I was so drunk yesterday; I may have seemed churlish, but
don’t think I’m not deeply grateful for your concern. I may yet need your help.
19. “The door was open,” he said. “Might I see your wife for a minute?” 20. It was
some special occasion. I don’t remember what. It may have been my birthday.
21. A faint wind moaned through the trees, and Tom feared it might be the spirits
of the dead.
f
Practice 12. Identify the meaning that each modal is used to express
(permission, necessity, etc.).
Example:
Can you answer the phone for me? request
You shouldn't eat with your mouth open, advice
1. You must keep the bandage dry. ———------------------------------------------------ .
2. You shouldn’t eat so much fat.----- ——---------------------------------------------------.

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3. Will the library be open on New Year’s Day?------------------------------------------ .
4. You just got a ticket? You must be upset!------------------------------------------------.
5. Can I borrow your car?--------------------------------------- -—-------- ------------------ •
6. 1 couldn’t drive when I lived in my country.--------------------------------------------- .
7. Jackie used to run five miles every day.-------------------------------------------------- .
8. Karen may go to Honduras this summer.------------------------------------------------ .
9. You really ought to type your term paper.----------------------------------------------- .
10. Your package might arrive this afternoon.---------------------------------------------.
11. Could you shut the door?------------------------------------------------------------------ .
12. Is the cake going to be ready in time for the party?--------------------------------- .
13. You can’t possibly mean that!------------------------------------------------------------ .
14. Would you like to join us?--------------------------------------------------------------- .
15. I’ll drive you to the airport tomorrow morning.-------------------------------------- .
Practice 13. Based on the meaning of each sentence, decide whether must or
should would be a better choice in the blank. You may need to use a negative
form.
1. Every citizen ------------ pay taxes. 2. Parents--------------------- read to their
children. 3. You-------------- smoke in a library. 4.1 saw Jane at the tennis club with
a tall, handsome man. He ---------- be her new husband. 5.You ------------- be
saying things like that about a relative of yours. 6. The President has only three
more days to announce his decision. He ------ be under a lot of pressure.
Practice 14. What modal meanings are expressed by each of the following
sentences? Circle the meaning you select.
1. Students should be able to wordprocess their term papers, (advisability;
ability)
2. Charles may have to explain his absence, (necessity; permission)
3. He’s not going to be able to pay his house payment if he buys a new car.
(future activity; ability(negative))
4. Dogs shouldn’t be allowed to run free in city parks, (inadvisability; necessity
(negative))

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 5. My neighbor will have to return to his country soon, (future activity;
necessity)
6. Senior citizens ought to be able to drive, (obligation; ability)
Practice 15. Complete each blank with an appropriate form of the infinitive
using the cues in brackets. The first one has been done as an example.
(1). Josef thought that Henry (must/be bom) must have been born on another
planet. (2).Inna agreed and added that his mother (not/cduld /know) much about
dating etiquette either.(3).Takiko thought Henry’s date (might / call) him later and
(tell) him what the problem was. (4) For a response to his letter, we (would/inform)
Henry that his date (may/be) a bit surprised to find out that Mom was chaperoning
and that next time Mom should stay home. (5) As for the Wild Animal Lover’s
dining experience, we all agreed that we (not/would/want) to hurt the great aunt’s
feelings. (6). I suggested that he (might/say) he was allergic to squirrel or possum.
(7). That excuse (not/would /stray+ -ing ) too far from the truth since he probably
(would /get) sick from eating it. (8) Finally, concerning the last letter; we disagreed
about how Sally (should/respond) to her hairdresser. (9). Rosa thought Sally
(could/ask) the hairdresser to restyle her hair. (10). Marty said she (might/ suggest)
to him that her spiked hair could hurt someone. (11). We all concurred that Sally
(should/fmd out) what her hairdresser planned to do before he styled her hair. (12)
We also agreed that the hairdresser (must/think+ -ing) only of his own preferences
at the time and that Sally should look for a new stylist.
Practice 16. Make a statement expressing a judgement about each of the
following situations. Use should, could, or might + appropriate form of the
infinitive in your response. Examples are given for the first one.
Example:
A friend failed a test yesterday.
She could have spent more time studying.
She might have asked from teacher for help before the test.
l.One of your classmates returned a paperback book to you with the cover tom.
When you gave it to him, the book was new. 2.A manufacturing company was

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charged with pouring chemicals into the river. 3.You were stopped by the police
while driving your car. Your license plates had expired. 4.A neighbour locked
herself out of her apartment and didn’t know what to do. So she just sat down on
the front steps and waited for someone to notice her. 5.A friend wanted to get a pet
but her roommates didn’t like cats or dogs. So she moved out of the house she
shared with them.
Practice 17. The following story describes the unfortunate experiences of the
Park family - Seung, Eun Joo and their daughter Anna - at a hotel where
they recently spent a vacation. For each situation, state wrhat you think the
hotel staff or the Parks should have, could have, or might have done.
Example:
When the Parks arrived at the hotel, the front desk clerk was talking on the phone
to her boyfriend and ignored them.
The clerk could have at least acknowledged their presence.
The Parks should have looked for another hotel!
l.When the clerk got off the phone, she told the Parks that their rooms had been
given to someone else. However, other rooms would be available in four hours.
2.The Parks decided to have lunch in the hotel restaurant. Their waiter, who had a
bad cold, kept coughing on their table as he took their orders. 3.When the food
arrived, Eun Joo's soup was so salty she could feel her blood pressure rising by the
second. Seung’s pork chop was about as edible as a leather glove. Anna’s spaghetti
looked like last week’s leftovers and it tasted worse. 4.When the Parks were
finally able to check into their rooms, the bellhop forgot one of their bags in the
lobby. Instead of getting it, he rushed off, explaining that he had to catch the train.
Mr. Park ended up bringing the bag up by himself, which made him quite angry.
Practice 18. The following sentences express some hypothetical statements
about how native languages are learned. Fill in the blanks, using must, can, or
should + an appropriate form of the infinitive.
Example:

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Researchers believe children can 7 have learned their first languages just by
memorizing words.
1. Since the number of possible sentences in any language is infinite, we (learn)---
----------- our native languages by simply storing all the sentences we heard in a
“mental dictionary”. 2.Children (develop) ------------- their ability to speak their
native languages by learning rules from adults because adults are not conscious of
all grammar, pronunciation, and meaning rules either. 3.A child (acquire)-----------
- his or her native language by the age of five; if not, we suspect that something is
physically or psychologically wrong. 4.When a native English-speaking child says
words like ringed and doed, this shows that she or he (apply) -------------------a
familiar rule for the past tense. 5.Similarly, if a child says words like tooths and
childs, we speculate that she or he (overgeneralize) ----------------- the rule for
regular plurals.
Practice 19. Each numbered group of statements below expresses certainty
about the cause of a situation. For each, give an alternate explanation, using a
modal + perfect infinitive that expresses possibility.
Example:
Look! The trunk of my car is open! Someone must have broken into it!
Alternate explanation: You may have forgotten to shut it hard and it just
popped open.
1. Rebecca made a lot of mistakes on her economics assignment. She must not
have studied the material very carefully. 2. Our English teacher didn’t give us back
our papers today. She must have been watching TV last night instead of reading
them. 3. We invited Nora and Jack to our party but they didn’t come. They must
have found something better to do. 4. Carlos usually gets off the work at five and is,
at home by six. It’s now eight and he’s still not at home. He can’t have left work at
five. 5. Christopher Columbus went looking for India and ended up in North
America. He must have had a poor sense of direction.

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Practice 20. Carol and Dave decided to stop seeing each other. Both of them
have been thinking about the reasons their relationship went bad. Fill in each
blank with modal + perfect infinitive.
Example:
Carol wonders whether she could have treated (could, treat) Dave better.
Carol thinks she (could, be)-----------------more patient with Dave when he
forgot her birthday; Dave thinks he often (may, spend)------------------too much time
with his friends instead of with Carol. Carol feels that she (should, not expect)------
------------------- Dave to know how hurt she was about the birthday incident without
telling him; Dave knows that he (should, not long up)---------- on Carol when they
got into their last argument. Both of them feel that they (could, do)---------------------
----- a lot of things differently to improve their relationship.
Practice 21. Fill in each blank with modal + infinitive in the passive form.
Example:
Dave knows that some things should have been left (should, leave) unsaid.
Carol’s brother agreed that their last argument (could, handle)----------------
better; Dave’s sister insisted that she (should, told)-------------------- about the
problems they were having. Carol feels that there (might, not be)------------------
so many problems between them if they had only talked more; Dave feels that
there were a lot of things that (should, not say)-------------------- . Both of them
feel that their problems (could, avoid)------------------if they had seen them more
clearly.
Practice 22. Review the meanings expressed by the modals should have, could
have and might have. Underline the word(s) in each sentence that provide a
clue to help you choose the best modal. Then fill in the blank with the
appropriate modal. Some blanks have more than one possible answer.
Example:
I regret that I yelled at you. I should have been nicer.
Carol was really annoyed when Dave said that their problems were all of her
fault. She felt that he (accept)----------------some of the blame.

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 Dave felt that Carol (do)——————a lot to help a friend of his who
worked with her. It was well within her abilities as office manager to prevent him
from getting laid off.
Carol believed it was really thoughtless of Dave to volunteer to work
overtime on Christmas Eve. He (work) ------------------overtime almost any other
night of the year.
Dave told Carol that he really regretted some of his actions and that he (be)—
------------ more thoughtful.
Carol was really angry at Dave when he showed up an hour late for a dinner
date. She felt that at least he (call)---------------------- .
Dave thought that Carol made a really rude comment to his sister about her
old dress. Carol (have)------------------the decency to keep her negative thoughts to
herself.
Despite being aware that Dave had an exam the next week, Carol felt that he
was perfectly able to help her move into her new apartment and that he (help)-------
-------- with some of the heavy items.
Dave strongly criticized Carol for saying that she wasn’t feeling well one
evening when she later went out with friends. She (tell)------ him the truth.
Carol reproached Dave for the same offense, saying that he (remember)------
--------- the time that he had said he had to work overtime but went fishing instead.
Both of them know that they did some pretty thoughtless things and that they
(think)----------------- before they acted.
Practice 23. Complete the conversation by filling in each blank with the
correct form of must or have to, as indicated. When not indicated, answer with
the pronoun and the auxiliary do. The first one has been done for you.
Claudia and Andres, two foreign tourists are renting a car. They’re asking the
agent about driving in the United States.
Andres: (1) Do I have to (I + have to) have a driver’s license?
Agent: Yes, (2)------- —

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Andres: What about Claudia? She has an international driver’s license. (3) (she
+have to)- -get another license?
Agent: No, (4)--------- . She can drive here with an international license.
Claudia: What about seat belts? (5) (we +have to)-------------------wear seat belts?
Agent: Yes, you (6) (must)------------- wear seat belts. It’s the law in most
states.
Andres: What (7) (we + have to)----------------do with that thing in the front seat
of the car?
Agent: What thing? (Andres points to the litter basket) Oh, that’s the litter
basket. It’s for litter: garbage, paper and things that you want to throw
away.
Claudia: Can’t we just throw those things out the window?
Agent: No, you (8) (must + negative)------------- throw anything out the
window. There’s a $500 fine for littering! You (9) (have to)-------------
keep everything inside the car.
Andres: (10) (we -have to)------------- drive on the left side of the road the way
they do in England?
Agent: No! You (11) (must +negative)----------------drive on the left. Stay on the
right.
Claudia: Are there any other laws that we should know about?
Agent: Well, if you are going to turn right or left, you (12) (have to) use your
turn signal. On the highway, you (13) (must) follow the speed limit, and
if you’re driving more slowly that the other cars, you (14) (have to)-----
----- ■.—stay in the right lane. The left lane is for faster traffic. Obey the
laws, or the police will stop you.
Practice 24. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of have to. The first one
has been done for you.
1. It’s time for my yearly checkup. I have to remember to call the doctor’s office
sometime this month. 2. I burned my finger while I was cooking. The first-aid
book says that I-------- hold my finger under cold water. 3. She spilled hot oil over

172
her leg and foot. John, You------------- take her to the emergency room now! 4. His
face is blue! We----------------- check his throat to see what he’s choking on.
5. There are jellyfish in the area. The lifeguard’s telling Tommy that he--------- stay
out of the water today. 6. Did that little girl drown? She stopped breathing. The
lifeguard-------------- start mouth-to-mouth respiration as soon as possible. 7. I cut
my, finger, and it’s bleeding a little. What should I do? The neighbour, who’s a
nurse, says that you-------------- wash the cut and then put a bandage on it.
8. There’s something in my eye again! Oh, Lee. You----------- stop wearing so
much eye makeup. 9. The children------------------ get their vaccinations before
school starts.
Practice 25. Explain the meanings of must in the sentences.
1. A man must stand up for his rights. 2. Must it be done before tomorrow? 3. She
must work from morning till night to earn her living. 4. Give him something to eat.
He must be hungry. 5. That fellow must be made of steel. He’s never tired. 6. It’s
quite a charming letter. It must have taken the poor young man an hour to write it.
7. I hear somebody’s steps on the stairs. She must be coming! 8. Judging from the
books and papers on his writing table he must have been working for several hours.
9. The children must brush their own shoes. 10. His mind turned to the incident. It
was the kind of thing which must not occur again. 11. Dear Paula, there is no point
in delaying the happy news. I know how much you must have been waiting and
expecting. 12. It’s lovely to have you home. We must have a party to celebrate.
13. You must give it back to me before you go. 14. You mustn’t tell anyone about
it. You must change your shoes. I won’t have you in here with muddy feet. 15. I
have brought your man - not without risk or danger; but every one must do his
duty. 16. Something must have happened. He behaves quite differently to me, he’s
cold and he looks at me in such a terrifying way as if he were thinking about
killing me. 17. You must be dying with curiosity. Take a peep. 18.’’You must
speak out. You must not allow your father to take such a mad step. You must
prevent it, Agnes, while there’s time.” 19. We must have met somewhere, your
face seems very familiar to me.

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Practice 26. Fill in the blanks with must, to have to or to be to.
l.She ... go to bed at eight o’clock to be up in time for the first train. 2. At this
boarding school the children ... go to bed at eight o’clock. 3. “I’ve told my husband
he ... (not) smoke in the drawing-room.” “And I ... (not) tell my husband such
things; he’s a bom gentleman. 4. He ... stay the night with us. I won’t let him drive
to the country in this rain. 5. He ... to stay the night with us because he has missed
the last train. 6. He ... to stay the night with us and tomorrow he sets off on his tour
to Europe. 7. You ... take the dog away. I won’t have it here any longer. 8. They ...
take the dog along with them because there is no one who could look after it.
9. What a pity you ... go. I know it’s time for you to catch your train. 10. My bike
is under repair and I... walk here this morning. 11. My bike was under repair and I
... collect it that afternoon. 12. My bike is under repair and I ... have collected it
yesterday. 13. He told me that i ... (not) repeat what I had heard. 14. He told me
that I ... (not) use the words which I didn’t know. 15. He told me that I ... leam by
heart some twenty lines every7 day to know English well. 16. My mother was
unwell, and I ... go to the chemist’s. 17. There was no one to help him so he ...
move the furniture himself. 18. Don’t worry about that. You ... do as you think
best. 19. By that time of evening only a few persons ... be seen on the wet streets
and most of the shops and stores were dark and closed for the night. 20.1 saw that I
... speak louder to make myself heard.
Practice 27. Explain the meanings of should.
l.Can you show me any English woman who speaks English as it should be
spoken? 2. I confess I did not foresee this turn of events. But I should have
foreseen it. 3. You have discovered what I intended you should never have known.
4. He should not have said it. The moment the words crossed his lips he knew it
was not the right thing to say. 5. “You should come here often,” he said to
Shelton... “You ought to come here often,” he repeated to Shelton. 6. You ought to
finish your work before going out. - I know I should. 7. I should have hated that,
but I enjoyed going there so awfully. 8. You shouldn’t go out without an overcoat.
9. If you are interested in pictures you should look in at the British Museum.

174
10. Perhaps she said things that should have been left unsaid. 11. I suppose he
shouldn’t have touched anything at all. 12. You should read a receipt carefully
before you sigh it. 13. Do you know that an officer should be with his troops?
14. Soames thought: “Why is all this? Why should I suffer? What have I done? It is
not my fault!” 15. Bosinney looked clever; but he should be easy to deal with in
Money matters. 16. And suddenly Lanny remembered ... on the highveld one did
riot speak to a white man till he spoke to you. He should have remembered. 17. “I
shouldn’t have missed the chance,” he reproached himself.
Practice 28. Complete the sentences with should, ought to, must or had better,
as necessary.
Inez: How can I register to take the TOEFL?
Patsy: First you-------------- complete this application form.
*********

Naoko: I want to get a good score on the TOEFL, but I’m not sure how to
do that.
Kate: I think you--------------- take every opportunity to practice your
English.
k’kk'k'k'k'kkk

Tom: I’m sorry I haven’t been coming to class recently. My father is in

town.
Advisor: You-------- start attending class regularly if you want to stay in this
program.
-k'k'k'k'kk'k'k'k

Herbert: I think I’m getting the flu.

Eleanor: You------------- go to bed and drink plenty of orange juice.
* W k Wkk kW

Claudia: I’ve lost my credit card.

Rafael: You-------------- report it immediately.
Doctor: You------- take these pills four times a day. If you forget one, you
will feel a lot worse.

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 *********

Andrey: I just can’t sleep at night.

Shannon: You—try drinking herbal tea just before you go to bed.
*********

Carmen: I’d love to visit Poland.

Cherry: Well, first of all you------- get a special visa.
*********

Debbie: I’ve got a sore throat.

James: You---------- try not to talk too much.
Practice 29. Circle your choice and comment on that.
l.You {should not; must not) smoke when you are in a movie theater in the
United States. 2. While you are in Los Angelos, you ( had better; should) try to
visit Disneyland. 3.In the state of Michigan, people under the age of twenty-one
{should not; must not) try to purchase alchohol. 4.People {should; had better)
wear helmets when they ride bicycles. 5.Look, the bus is coming! We {should;
had better) run if we want to catch it. 6.Everybody who comes into the United
States {must; should) show a valid passport or picture ID. 7.I’ve just spilled
coffee on the new rug. I {should; had better) clean it up right away before it
stains. 8.Tourists visiting my hometown in the spring (had better; should) bring
cameras, as it’s very beautiful at that time of the year. 9.My brother wants to
have more friends. He (must; should) join the tenant’s association; maybe he
can make some friends there.
Practice 30. Make a modal for each situation below. Work with a partner and
decide which you would use for each one, have to or have got to.
l.Your sister’s four-year-old son takes a nap every day and goes to bed at 8:00
every night. But today he didn’t take a nap, and it’s now 10:00 p.m. She says to
her son, “You-------------- go to sleep now.” 2.The last time your friend went to
the dentist was four years ago. He doesn’t think he has any problems with his
teeth, but he feels he should probably go to the dentist for a checkup. He
says,”I------------- make an appointment to see the dentist sometime soon.”

176
 3.You haven’t been reading the assignments for your history class, and you did
very badly on the first two quizzes. You are afraid that you’ll fail the course.
You tell your classmate, “I--------------- study every day if I don’t want to fail
my history class.” 4. Your roommate is making dinner. She has just put a loaf of
bread in the oven. Suddenly she realizes that she doesn’t have an important item
that she needs for dessert. She says,” I—------- .------ go to the store. If I’m not
back in ten minutes, can you take the bread out of the oven? It-------- come out
at 7:00 or it’ll be ruined.” 5.You are at a friend’s house. You are feeling a little
tired and want to go to sleep early. You say,” I-----------------leave now. I’ll see
you after class tomorrow.”
Practice 31. Maggie and her friend Jan are talking about jobs. Maggie is
describing a job she had last summer. Complete their conversation with-io
have to in the affirmative and negative forms in the present, past or future.
Maggie: The worst job I have ever had was last summer, when I worked as a
waitress in that tourist restaurant down by the aquarium.
Jan: Oh, really? What was so terrible about it?
Maggie: For a start, I-------------- get up at 5:00a.m and, as I didn’t have a car then,
I---------------- walk.
Jan: Why didn’t you take the bus?
Maggie: It doesn’t start running until 7:00, and I------------------- be at the restaurant
by 6:30 to see the tables for breakfast.
Jan: That’s tough. Did they make you wear a silly uniform or anything?
Maggie: No, thank godness. We-------------------- wear any special uniforms, except
for hats. We all-------------------- wear really stupid sailor caps. Mine was
too small and it kept falling off.
Jan: So you’re probably not planning or working there again next summer.
Maggie: Absolutely not. I’m earning twice as much at my present job, so with a bit
of luck, I’ll be able to save some money and I------------- work at
all next summer.
Jan: That sounds good. What’s your present job like?

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Maggie: It’s much better. I start work at 11:00 a.m.
Jan: So you------------------------------------ get up early. What about weekends?
Maggie: I----------- work on weekends, but if I want to make some extra money, I
can go in on Saturday. It’s ideal.
Jan: Maybe I should try to get a job there. Our landlord raised the rent last month
and I just can’t afford to stay there on my present salary.
Practice 32. Read the conversations carefully and complete the missing parts
with must, (do not) have to, or have got to.
Ann has just finished talking on the phone with Tom. When she hangs up
the phone, her friend Bill wants to know about their conversation.
Bill: You sound worried. Is Tom having problems?
Ann: Tom’s landlord sold the appartment house, so Tom------------------- find
another place to live.
Bill: Oh, that’s too bad. When-------- -——(he) move out of his appartment?
Ann: I think he--------------------------------- move out by the end of the month. *
* * * * *
Emily, a five-year-old, is playing outside. Her mother, who is watching from the
house, suddenly runs out to her. A big car zooms by.
Emily’s mother: Emily! You——--------- be more careful! Don’t cross the
street without looking for cars!
Emily: But I didn’t see the car!
Emily’s mother: You— ------ ——-—look in both directions before you
cross the street.
* * * * *

Outside the classroom, you hear a conversation between your teacher and Wang,
one of your classmates.
Your teacher: Wang, I’m afraid this is the last time I’m going to tell you
this, You------------------ hand in your homework on time.
Wang: I know, I know. But...
Your teacher: No more excuses! You really----------------- try to keep up with
the class if you want to pass.

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 * W * * -Jr

It’s the end of the school year. Ron and Marion have just had their last class.
Ron: Vacation time at last! We--------- come to school for two whole months!
Marion: Not me. My grades were bad, so I-------------- go to summer school
all summer, without one single day off.
Ron: I know how that feels. I flunked physics two years ago, and I---------------------
read physics books while my friends were going to the beach every day.
Practice 33. Underline the correct or more natural answer. If both answers
are possible, underline both of them.
1. Valuables can/are able to be left in the hotel safe. Please ask at the
reception desk. 2. We could/were able to finish the football match before it started
snowing too heavily. 3. The rebels could/were able to draw on the support of over
20, 000 soldiers. 4. Could you/were you able to understand Professor Larsen’s
lecture? I found it really difficult. 5. “Do you want a game?” - “Sorry, I can 't/am
not able to play chess. 6. Look at me, I can/am able to ride my bike without any
help. 7. When the fire officers arrived they could/were able to put out the flames in
a couple of minutes. 8. The air was so polluted in the city centre; I could
hardly/was hardly able to breathe. 9. I knew John had been smoking. I could/xvas
able to smell the cigarettes when I came into the room. lO.Can you/are you able to
drive without your glasses? 11. No changes can/ are able to be made to this rail
ticket after purchase. 12. He could/was able to untie the ropes without the guards
noticing. 13. She looked all over the house, but couldn’t/wasn’t able to find her
keys anywhere. 14. I was very busy at work, but I could/was able to have a couple
of days off last week.
Practice 34. Complete the passages with can, could and be allowed to. Use
negative forms where necessary. Where two answers are possible, give them
both.
(a) We went camping in the north of Spain last July. As you probably know, it
.............................. rain a lot on the coast, even in mid-summer, and the day we
arrived we........................... believe how heavy the rain was. Eventually we found a

179
place to camp, in a field next to a beach. We had a new tent - advertisement for it
said, “This tent .............................. be assembled in two minutes with no previous
experience. “What a joke! Now, there .................... be many people who haven’t
had difficulty putting up a tent at some time, but it took us more than two hours.
And then, just as it was finished, a man came along* and said that we
.camp there - it was private properly. So we had to take the tent
down again. Then Sue just said, “Well, we ..................... stay here all night. Let’s
go to that hotel in the last village we drove through.” Unfortunately, when we got
there they were full. But they were very kind and we............................ camp at the
end of their garden!
(b)It is often said that sports coaches ...................... be strict, but athlete Peter
Black’s was incredibly hard on him in the year before the Olympic Games. For
instance, Peter..................................stay up later than 9.00, although on his birthday
he .............................. watch television until 10.00 as it was a special occasion! Of
course, all Peter .............. think of was going out with his friends in the
evening, and he.............................. hardly wait for the Games to finish and get back
to a normal life. When he complained, his coach just said, “Trust me and you’ll
win gold - you................ lose!” And his coach was right. He won a gold medal in
the 400 metres in a world record time. And on the night of his victory Peter
............................... celebrate - by staying up until 11 o’clock! “But no later,” said
his coach. “The World Championships are only two years away.”
Practice 35. Complete the sentences with will (or won 7) or would (or wouldn ’t)
followed by one of the verbs. If it is not possible to use will or would, use a
verb in the past simple.
come decide eat help invite keep remember
I.,.Army works really hard. Every afternoon she ................................. home from
school at 4.15 and do an hour of piano practice. 2. Richard phoned yesterday and
................................. me... out for dinner. 3. When Dominic was young he
............ ............. .any green vegetables. 4. The creaking noises in the old house
• ................................... me awake until I became accustomed to them. 5. I’m sure that

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many people ............................ seeing Sarah Thomas on television in the 1980s.
6. Whenever I had a problem with my maths homework, Sam........................... me.
7. After standing on the bathroom scales, I ........... that I needed to lose some
weight.
Practice 36. Complete the sentences with will have or would have and past
participle of one of the verbs.
buy hear hurt notice prefer say record
1. “I wanted to watch The Simpsons last night, but I missed it.” - “I’m certain
Derek ....................... ...it. We can go over to his place to see it.” 2. Don’t accept
lifts from strangers - as my mother ......................... 3. I don’t think the dog
anyone, but I was still glad when the owner took it away. 4. I’m sure
by now you............................... about yesterday’s robbery at the supermarket. 5. My
parents weren’t very affectionate towards me. I always thought they ........... a
daughter. 6. Sampras’s rivals.................... the difficulties he had with his shoulders
in the tournament last week. 7. “Did you like the present Joan gave you for your
birthday?” “Well, an umbrella stand isn’t something I......................... myself, but I
suppose it might be useful.”
Practice 37. Complete the sentences with either may or might. If neither
possible, suggest an alternative completion.
1. We ........... go for Mexico for our holiday this summer. 2. The planet Venus
.............................. be seen clearly in the night sky during this month.
3...........................................you see Becky this weekend? 4. I feel really sore after
playing tennis. I think I................................... have a bath. 5. “Someone’s left their
coat.” “.................... it be Ken’s?” 6. Exceeding the stated dose ................. cause
drowsiness.
Practice 38. Complete the sentences with may or might followed by one of the
forms of the infinitive verb in brackets. If both may and might are possible,
indicate this.
1. There’s a man lying down on the pavement over there. Do you, think he
.... himself? (hurt)
2. I.......................... you this before. I can’t remember, (tell)
3. Is that John’s car that just stopped? He................................. for us. (wait)
4. In the early 19th century a person ......................................... to Australia for
stealing as little as a loaf of bread, (send)
5. “Ann looks exhausted.” “I suppose she.......................................... ” (run)

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 6. I’ve heard that the newsagent’s is losing a lot of money and it........... down,
(close)
7. Real Madrid started well and.......................... an early lead when Figo hit the
post, but Barcelona scored first after 20 minutes, (take)
8. As little as 50 years ago a worker still ............................... for being ill.
(dismiss)
9. “When will the painting be ready?” “Well, I .......................... it by this
evening.’’(finish)
lO. The race had to be stopped because the oil on the track.......................... an
accident, (cause)
Practice 39. Complete these sentences with must followed by one of the forms
of the infinitive in brackets.
1. When I left my laptop on the train I thought I’d never see it again. But
someone..................it and handed it in to the lost property office, (find)
2. Janine owns a big car and a yacht. She............................ incredibly rich, (be)
3. “Everyone’s going into the hall.” “The meeting............................ soon. Let’s
go.” (start)
4. Without things like a washing machines and dishwashers our grandparents
............ much harder in the kitchen than we do today, (work)
5. “Where’s the camera?” “If it’s not in the cupboard, Ken............................. it.
He said he was going to take some photos of the city centre today, (use)
6. The children are putting balloons outside their house. They
.......................... a party, (have)
7. I didn’t think Bob was coming to the meeting. He ................................. his
mind, (change)
8. “I wonder how you get permission to go into the building.” “ I suppose you
. some form of identification.” (show)
9. “I thought Paul Would be home.” “He ......................... .Jenny to work. He
said he would.” (take)
10. Look at all those birds. There .......................at least a thousand of them,
(be)
Practice 40. Rewrite the sentences in a formal style using need.
1. It is hardly necessary for us to remind you that the money is now due...........
We need hardly remind you that the money is now due.
2. It is only necessary for us to look at the population to see the seriousness of
the problem......................................................................................................

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 3. With such a lead in the opinion polls it is hardly necessary for the Democrats
to bother campaigning before the election................................................. .
4. It is not necessary for anyone to know who paid the ransom to the
kidnappers...........................................................................................
5. After such a large lottery win, it is not necessary for him to work
again...................................................................................................................
Practice 41. Here are some extracts from a speech made by the managing
director of a company to her employees. Correct the mistakes.
1. You needn’t to worry about losing your jobs. 2. Need we make any changes
in company policy? We are always happy to hear your views. 3. Changes in
technology mustn’t be a problem, but could be seen as a great opportunity. 4. I
don’t have to remind you that we are competing with two other companies. 5. I
need hardly to tell you how important it is that we get this order. 6. You don’t have
to cancel your holiday plans. 7. We mustn’t allow our speed of production to drop.
8. The present financial difficulties mustn’t mean that people will lose their jobs.
Practice 42. Complete the sentences with should/ought to + an appropriate
form of the infinitive using each of the infinitives only once.
answer arrive be go put remove resign send take visit
wear win
1. He is running so well at the moment that Thomas .......................... the 800
metres easily. 2. Where .......................... I........................ the cheese? In the
fridge? 3. The tickets......................a couple of weeks before we go on holiday.
4. Payment for the full amount................with this application form. 5. You
really ....................................... the exhibition before it closes. There are some
wonderful paintings. 6. Don told us not to take this road. We....... his advice. 7.
All packaging .................... before switching on the printer for the first time. 8.
It’s important to look smart at the interview. You....................................... a suit.
9. There are many people who think the President.................................. years
ago. 10................ we................ ....the questions in English or in French? 11. If
you want my advice, I ............................... by train rather than car. 12. I can’t
imagine what’s happened to Kathy. She................. here by now.

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Practice 43. In which sentences can you use should or must and in which can
you only use must! Where both are possible, consider the difference between
should and must.
1. A timetable........................... be set for withdrawing the army. 2. Les isn’t home
at yet. He ................. have been held up at work. 3. “I wonder how old Mike is?”
“Well, he went to school with my mother, so he................. be well over 50.” 4. If
you smell gas, you ...........................phone the emergency number. 5. You
............. try to visit Nepal - it’s a beautiful country. 6. “I know I’m always
complaining that my house is small, but it’s very convenient for work,” “Yes, it
............................... be handy living so close to your office.”
Practice 44. Correct the sentences using should/ought to, must, shall or had
better where necessary.
1. Cyclists had better not be allowed to ride on pavements, even where roads are
very busy. 2. “There’s something wrong with David’s computer yet again.” “He
should wish he’d never bought it.” 3. The concert starts at 7.45. I’d better make a
note of that. 4.1 shall take my library books today, but I don’t think I’ll have time.
5. “The children from next door have been throwing stones at our windows. “Well,
they shouldn’t do it again, otherwise I’ll call the police.” 6. “I’m freezing.” “You’d
better have worn a thicker coat.” 7. We have to be in Bristol by 4.00. I think we’d
better get started. 8. I should phone Gary this evening, but it will probably be too
late by the time I get home. 9. “I’ve looked all over the house and can’t find the car
keys.” “Well, if they’re not here, they must still be in the car.” 10. We believe that
parents had better pay grandparents to look after their children.
Practice 45. The following story is a well-known logic problem. Get together
with some of your classmates and decide on the best solution.
A woman went shopping. First she bought a large piece of cheese. Then she
stopped at a pet store to buy a white mouse for her nephew’s birthday. Just as she
was leaving the store, she saw an adorable black and white cat. She couldn’t leave
the store without it, so she bought the cat as well.

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 Unfortunately, her car is parked a long way from the pet store, and it’s only
possible for her to carry one thing at a time. What could she do in order to get
everything to her car? How many solutions can you find?
She could...........................................................................................................................
There are no parking areas near the pet store, so she cannot move her car and
there is nobody around to help her. Unfortunately, cats eat mice and mice eat
cheese. This means that if she leaves the cat with the mouse , the cat will eat the
mouse, and if she leaves the mouse with the cheese, the mouse will eat the cheese.
What should she do? What is the best solution to her problem?
She should..........................................................................................................................
Practice 46. Your friends always come to you when they have problems
because you usually have lots of great ideas about what to do.
Step 1 For each problem, write down as many possible solutions as you can
think of, using could or might.
Step 2 Get together with two or three other students and compare your ideas.
Decide who has the best solution to each problem and write it down , using
should.
l .Your friend’s husband snores. Possibilities:..........................................................
In our opinion, the best solution:.............................................................. .................
2 .Your friend’s father is planning to come and visit for a few days.
Unfortunately, he is a heavy smoker and your friend’s roommates are
nonsmokers who do not permit smoking in the house. Possibilities:...................
In our opininon, the best solution:.............................................................................
3 . A classmate has just spilled coffee on her favorite white shirt. She doesn’t
know what to do. Possibilities:..................................................................... ...........
In our opinion, the best solution:................................................................ ..............
4 .Your friend can’t sleep at night. She feels exhausted every morning and
doesn’t have enough energy to do anything all day . Possibilities:.....................
In our opinion, the best solution:..............................................................................

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 5 . One of your classmates wants to learn more about American culture and
customs and would really like to make friends with some Americans. He
doesn’t know to start. You have lots of ideas. Possibilities:...................................
In our opinion, the best solution:...............................................................................
6 . Your partner never has enough money. At the end of the month, he is always
broke. He comes to you for some ideas about what to do. Possibilities:...............
In our opinion, the best solution:...............................................................................
7 .Two of your friends are taking a university class. The professor speaks very
fast and they find it hard to follow the lectures. They are afraid that they are
going to flunk the class. Possibilities:.......................................................................
In our opinion, the best solution:...............................................................................
8 .Your friend’s fiancee has two dogs. She has had these dogs since she was a
child and is very attached to them. Unfortunately, your friend is allergic to dogs.
He loves his fiancee very much, but the dogs are making him sick. He doesn’t
want to upset her. Possibilities:................................................................................
In our opinion, the best solution:..............................................................................
Practice 47. Use must not or need not to fill in the blank.
l.You ... ring the bell; I have a key. 2.You ... drink this; it is poison. 3.We ... drive
fast, we have plenty of time. 4.You ... drive fast, there is a speed limit here.
5.Candidates ... bring books into the examination room. 6.You ... write to him for
he will be here tomorrow. 7.You ... bring an umbrella. It isn’t going to rain. 8.You
... do all the exercise. Ten sentences will be enough. 9.You ... strike a match, the
room is full of gas. 10.We ... make any more sandwiches, we have plenty now.
1 l.You ... put salt in any of his dishes. Salt is very bad for him. 12.You ... take
anything out of a shop without paying for it. 13.You ... carry that parcel home
yourself, the shop will send it. 14.You ... clean the windows. The window-cleaner
is coming tomorrow. 15.You ... make your bed. The maid will do it. 16.1’11 lend
you money and you ... pay me back till next month. 17.We ... climb any higher, we
can see very well from here. 18.You ... look under the bed. There isn’t anybody
there. 19.You ... ask a woman her age. It’s not polite. 20.You’ve given me too

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much. - you ... eat at all. 21.Wc ... forget to shut the lift gates. 22.Mother to child:
You ... interrupt when I am speaking. 23.If you want the time, pick up the receiver
and dial 8081; you ... say anything. 24.Mother to child: you ... play with matches.
25.1 want this letter typed but you ... do it today. Tomorrow will do.
Practice 48. Fill in the blanks by using must, can’t and needn’t + perfect
infinitive of the infinitives in brackets.
1 .Did you hear me come in last night? - No, I... (be) asleep. 2.1 wonder who broke
the wineglass; it ... (be) the cat for she was out all day. 3.You ... (help) him. (You
helped him but he didn’t need help) 4.1 had my umbrella when I came out but I
haven’t got it now. - You ...(leave) it on the bus. 5.He ... (escape) by this window
because it is barred. 6.1 saw a rattlesnake near the river yesterday. - You ... (see) a
rattlesnake. There aren’t any rattlesnakes in this country. 7.He is back already. -
He ... (start) very early. 8.He returned home with a tiger cub. - His wife ... (be)
very pleased about that. 9.1 bought two bottles of milk; You ... (buy) milk; we
have heaps in the house. 10.1 phoned you at nine this morning but got no answer. -
I’m sorry. I ... (be) in the garden. 11.1 left my bicycle here and now it’s gone. -
Someone ... (borrow) it. 12.When she woke up, her watch had vanished. -
Someone ... (steal) it while she slept. 13. I’ve opened another bottle. - You ... (do)
that. We’ve only just started this one. 14.1 told him to turn left and he immediately
turned right! - He ... (understand) you. 15. Perhaps he swam across. - No, he ...
(do) that; he can’t swim. 16.Do you remember reading about it in the newspapers?
- No, I ... (be) abroad at the time. 17.He ... (walk) from here to London in two
hours. It isn’t possible. 18.He is very sick last night. - The meat we had for supper
... (be) good. 19.1 have just watered the roses. - You ... (water) them. Look, it’s
raining now! 20.That carpet was made entirely by hand. - It ... (take) a long time.
21 .The door was open. - It... (be) open. I had locked it myself and the key was in
my pocket. 22.He said that he watered the plants every day. - He ... (water) them.
If he had watered them, they wouldn’t have died. 23.He came out of the water with
little red spots all over his back. - He ... (be) stung by a jelly-fish. 24.We’ve sent
for a doctor. - You ... (send) for him. I am perfectly well.

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 REVISION TESTS
REVISION TEST I
1. Use the correct tense and voice.
Rosemary Jell was not exactly beautiful. She was young, brilliant, extremely
modem and well-dressed P ^^mary (tn ma,rrip^) for two voor.-; h>-.’ ’■-------- -

(to be fond) of her. They (to be) rich, really rich. If Rosemary (to want) to go
shopping, she (to go) to Paris.
One winter afternoon she went into a small shop to look at a little box which
the shopman (to keep) for her. He (to show) it to nobody so that she (may be) the
first to see it. Outside rain (to fall), there was a cold, bitter taste in the air. It (to
rain) for two hours.
2. Insert articles where necessary.
My journey took me across ... Atlantic Ocean from .... Europe to ...
South America. I travelled through ... Amazon rainforest and down through ....
interior of Brazil. From there I headed north again, through Bolivia, round ... lake
Titicaca and up to Curco. Then I crossed ... Andes and finally arrived in Lima. For
... last part of... journey I flew to Jamaica in ... West Indies.
3. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them stating their
functions.
Downstairs, the doctor left three different medicines in different colored
capsules with instructions for giving them. The germs of influenza can only exist
in an acid condition, he explained. He seemed to know all about influenza and said
there was nothing for him to worry about if the fever didn’t go above one hundred
and four degrees.
Back in the room I wrote the boy’s temperature down and made a note of the
time to give the various capsules. “Do you want me to read?” “All right, if you
want to,” said the boy. He lay still in the bed and seemed very detached from what
was going on. I sat at the foot of the bed and read to myself while I waited for it to

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be time to give another capsule. It would have been natural for him to go to sleep,
but he was looking at the foot of the bed, looking strangely.
4. Use the correct modal verb with the correct form of the infinitive.
I arrived at a little town late at night and felt too tired to drive any further, so I
went to a hotel.
“Can you give me a room for the night?” I asked the receptionist. “I’m sorry”,
she said. “You (should/book) a room in advance. If you had, it (can/be) all right.
But now everything’s full. I wish I (can/suggest) somewhere else, but this is the
only hotel in town and every room (must/book)”. “What a nuisance!” I said. “I
have been travelling since breakfast and I’m very tired”. “Well”, she said kindly,
“before giving up completely, we (should/look) the register. Someone
(may/change) his/her reservation. Yes, here’s a telegram: I (can not/come). I
(have/to change) for the 7th instead of the 6th. You are lucky. You (can/have) this
gentleman’s room for tonight. You (not to have to/look) for another one”.
5. Translate the following passage.
Balzac, who was known as a famous French writer, was a man of a great
talent. But he himself was proud of his ability to tell a person’s character by his or
her handwriting. He often told his friends that he could tell anybody’s character
exactly by his handwriting.
One day a woman-friend brought him an exercise-book. She said that she
wanted to know what Balzac thought at the boy’s character.
Balzac studied the handwriting carefully for a few ten minutes. The woman,
however, told him that he might tell her the truth since the boy was not her son.
“All right.” said Balzac. “I’ll tell you the truth.” And he said that the boy was a:
bad, lazy fellow.
“It is very strange,” said the woman smiling. “This is a page from your own
exercise - book, which you used when you were a boy.”
When Balzac heard it, he had nothing to do but keep silent.

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 REVISION TEST II
1. Use the correct tense and voice.
Michelangelo, the famous Italian sculptor, lived in Florence. Once a
beautiful piece of white marble (to bring) to Florence, and the governor of the city
told him that he wanted him to make a statue out of the marble.
The sculptor (to work) for two years to make the statue as beautiful as
possible. When the statue was ready a lot of people gathered in the square.
Everybody (to wait) for the governor. At last he came, but he didn’t like the statue
at all because the statue’s nose was too long.
When the governor (not to look) he picked up handful of marble dust and
went up to the statue. He (to drop) the marble dust he (to pick) up little by little to
make the governor believe that he really (to change) the shape of the nose. The
governor thought that the sculptor (to do) as he (to tell), and so when he finished
working, he said proudly: “Now, the statue (to be) wonderful.”
2. Insert articles where necessary.
Craig David was bom and grew up in .... Southampton, on .... coast of
England. As ....teenager he used to write music on ....dictaphone, and his taste in
music at ...time ranged from Terence Trent D’Arbey to Michael Jackson and
Stevie Wonder. ....first record was “Human”. It was .... version of ... song that
made David become bdtter known and his first album was produced in ....
summer...... event took place in 2000.
3. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them stating their
functions.
Being a great football fan, Bill often went to the stadium to watch matches.
He preferred watching them with his friends. But once he went there alone. He saw
a lot of people watching the game. The weather being cold, everybody there put
on warm clothes. But then the weather became warm. The fat man sitting
behind Bill put off his coat and put it in front of him. But Bill felt the coat fall on
his head. It made him feel nervous. He tried to hide it. Turning back Bill said to the
man: “Thank you - but where are the trousers, sir?”

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4. Use the correct modal verb with the correct form of the infinitive.
Hello, Marry! I (should/ring) you before now but I (have to/ work) so hard at the
office that I didn’t have time.'My boss(to be to/go) on holiday tomorrow and he
wants me to arrange everything before he( have to/leave). If he had given me
sensible instructions I (can/do) the work next week. But you( must/have) the same
problems with your boss. Anyway, you have been given two tickets for the new
play at the Grand Theatre on Saturday. We (shall/to go) and see together? - I’m
sorry, I (can not/go), I (be to/ finish) my job or I (shall/punish).
5. Translate the following passage.
’ One cold winter day some ants were looking at their store house in which
they kept the grain, they had gathered in summer. While the ants were talking a
grasshopper came up to them. He begged to give him something to eat as he was
very lean and hungry. But they asked him why he had no grain of his own. ,
“Oh, I had no time,” he replied, “I was always singing”. Then they laughed
and said: ”If you choose to sing all the summer, you may go and dance all the
winter. When the grasshopper heard it, he was sorry for what he said. After the
grasshopper went away the ants went on working by saying: “Make hay while the
sun shines.”

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 EXAMINATION TESTS
EXAMINATION TEST I
1. Use the correct tense and voice.
A dentist in Bavaria (to haunt by a voice which (to swear) at him all the time.
The voice (to come) out of light sockets, washbasins and the telephone. It is a
sharp, deep voice which (to laugh) at the dentist and (to mock) him. The poor
dentist (to suffer) from a bad case of nerves. Recently the voice (to record) and'(to
broadcast), so now everyone in Bavaria (to look for) the ghost, but so far no one
(to succeed) in finding it.
2. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them stating their
functions.
When I was a girl, my parents sent me to a very strict school. They had to
buy me an expensive uniform.
Our headmistress, Miss Prim never smiled. She explained the school rules to us
and expected us to obey them. We wrote a letter to our parents once a week. We
were not allowed to lend anything to anybody. We were not allowed to give each
other help. She made all students report unusual situations. She seemed to have
known everything. It was too difficult to hide anything from her.
One morning, during assembly, a girl fainted (hu§unu itirmak). The next
morning, two more fainted. This continued to happen for several mornings. Only
Miss Prim could solve this problem. Miss Prim put an end to it. She ordered all the
students not to faint. And after that no one did!
3. Use the modal verb in the correct form followed by the appropriate
infinitive.
Tracy Evans (not to have/to be) at work till 10, so she ignored (fikir
vermamak) her alarm clock. But she woke up with a start when she heard a strange
sound coming from the wardrobe! What was it? It (must/to be) a mouse, Tracy
thought. “No, it (can/not to be), she knew there were no mice in her room. I

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(must/to be) careful” Tracy said to herself as the opened the wardrobe. There, in
front of her, was a lovely pair of sandals she had bought the day before. She
thought, “(can/to talk) my shoes?” Then she heard the sound again! “Oh, my shoes
(can/to talk)! It (must/to come) from my sandals”, she cried. She picked them up
and was sure enough one of them was “talking”! Tracy (to have /to be) at work at
10, but she still had enough time to visit Mr. Lucas, her shoemaker. He removed
the wooden heel and they were both amazed to see a white larva {la:va} ho§arat
siirfosi) eating the wood. Mr. Pope, a professor, solved the mystery. “These shoes
(must/to import) from Brazil. An insect (must/to lay) its eggs in the tree from
which the shoes were made”, he explained.
4. Define what part of speech the underlined word is.
Statistics is a branch of economics, but it is often said that there are lies,
damn lies and statistics. Recent statistics of British life show that the family is
happier than it used to be. The youth of today are likely to live longer than the
previous generation. People own more things than they used to, but more police are
employed to fight crime.
Mathematics is a subject which is studied more by boys than girls, as physics
is. The earnings of working people are getting higher all the time and many women
earn more than their husbands.
5. Translate the following passage.
Traditional games on Halloween Night are usually difficult, such as trying
to get an apple from a bucket of water without using hands or trying to find a coin
in a bowl full of flour. While playing such kind of games children have a fun. On
New Year’s Eve, people used to take a soaking in the fountains in Trafalgar
Square. The Christmas tree put in Trafalgar Square is always a present from
Norway. On Christmas day people hear the Queen give her traditional Christmas
speech on TV and radio.
At Easter time, the British often give their children chocolate eggs, which is
opened and eaten on Easter Sunday.

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 EXAMINATION TEST II
1. Use the correct tense and voice.
Cissie, the woman who (to work) in our office, wanted to phone Mr.
Robinson, but she (to dial) the wrong number. The number she dialed (to turn out)
to be the number of a public call - box in the street. A man who (to pass) at the
time (to hear) the phone ringing and (to answer) it. “Is that Mr. Robinson?”, Cissie
asked. “Speaking”, the man answered. It (to turn out) that the man she (to speak to)
actually (to call) Robinson and just (to happen) to be passing by the call - box
when she rang.
2. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them stating their
functions.
When no one was paying attention, the two prisoners escaped from the back
of the police van. They were hand-cuffed to each other. It was minutes before a
policeman saw them running down the street. We’ll follow, the two policemen
said: “Have the driver brought the van to the end of the road. Tell him not to let
them get away. If we aren’t careful, we’ll have the whole neighborhood
complaining that we have been careless!”
The prisoners were still running side by side. The policeman saw them race
and disappear round the comer. “We’ll never catch them now”, one of them said.
“I told you not to leave them unattended!” Suddenly they saw a lamppost. It just
took time for the police to find them, lying on the pavement, unhurt, dazed and
with silly grins on their faces.
3. Use the modal verb in the correct form followed by the appropriate
infinitive.
John was thirty years old and he had very long hair. He thought people
(may/ to love) him with such hair. He lived in a big city but (cannot/ find) any
work there.
So he (have/ to go) to a small town looking for work. He (have/ to go) to many
places, but he (needn’t/ go) anywhere as people didn’t want him. Then he
happened to meet his old friend who told him: “You (must/ cut) your hair”.

194
 People don’t like long hair here. Go to the barber and have your hair cut.”
John went to the barber and said: “You (can/ cut) most of my hair. It (may/ to be)
very long. So the barber (have/ to cut) most of his hair. Suddenly he said to John:
- “You (must/ be) in the army some years ago.”
- “Yes, I was. How did you guess it?” - asked John.
- “I’ve found your cap” - said the barber.
4. Define what part of speech the underlined word is.
John lived with his mother in a rather big house. When she died, the house
became too big for him; so he bought a smaller one. There was a very nice old
clock in his first house. John decided to take the clock for himself. “Perhaps, the
new host will break it and mending will be expensive”. So he took the clock and
began to carry it. It was heavy, so he stopped to have a rest two or three times.
Then suddenly a small boy came along the road. He looked at John and said:
“You’re a stupid man, aren’t you? Why don’t you buy a watch like
everybody else?”
5. Translate the following passage.
One day a man who had a quarrelsome family, after having tried in vain to
reconcile them by words, thought he might more readily prevail by an example. So
he called his sons and bade them lay a bundle of sticks before him. Then having
tied them into a faggot, he told the lads, one after the other, to take it up and break
it. They all tried, but tried in vain. Then, untying the faggot, he gave them the
sticks to break one by one. This they did with the greatest ease. Then said their
father, “Thus, you my sons, as long as you are united, you are a match for all your
enemies, but if you differ or separate you are undone”.

195
 THE CATEGORY OF MOOD

The Indicative The Imperative The Oblique Moods

Mood Mood

The Indicative Mood

- denotes real facts We study foreign languages.
- is used in all tense forms (in the If Arsenal wins the coming match, 17/ cut
active or passive voice) my moustache.*
- is used in real conditional If he fails, you must help him.
clauses; in different principal We sent the telegram yesterday.
and subordinate clauses She will join us, too.
, - refers the action to the present,
past or future

Practice 1. Open the brackets using the required tense and voice of the
indicative mood.
1.1 want to see how much he (to change) since I (to see) him last. 2.1 (to ring) the
bell for the last quarter of an hour. 3. Then she found that the tears (to flow) quietly
from her eyes. Perhaps they (to flow) for a long time. 4. One day of the New Year
she (to sit) as usual at her window when Edward (to come) on horseback. 5. But
what I (to do) if you (to kill)? 6. I (not to speak) to Mr. Boldwood since the
autumn. I want to explain I (to long) to do it ever since I (to return). 7. The sun (to
shine) with different degrees of heating power in different parts of the world. 8. In
1834, the Houses of Parliament with the exception of Westminister Hall (to
destroy) by fire. They (to rebuild) by Sir Charles Barry. 9. “But what we (to do)?”
she asked. “I (to think) about it a lot. I (to think) about it all week. But I (not to
know) what to do”. 10. Mrs. Banty (to take) the telephone receiver, (to ring) up
twice and each time the answer (to be) the same:” Mrs. Marple is out”. 11. They
(to arrive) no sooner at this point than a most violet and startling knocking (to hear)

196
at the door. 12. I hope all the goods (to sell) by the time we (to return) back again.
13. “Are we alone now?” Yes, the waiter (to go) and the door (to lock)”. Janny
noticed that he (to watch) by three white men from the coffee stall on the other side
of the road. 15. The sun (to move) a long way up and it (to begin) to get really hot.
16. Wait till you (to see) him and (to talk) with him. 17. I called to ask if my
diamond brooch (to find). 18. Professor Brown (to arrive) on Monday, but I (not to
see) him yet. 19. The mother (to cook) dinner and (to wait) for the children.
20. “You (to be) to Tbilisi?” Yes, I (to be) there last autumn. I (to invite) to a
scientific conference and (to work) as an interpreter.
Practice 2. Open the brackets using the proper form of the indicative mood.
Mr. Kelada was everywhere and always. He (to be) certainly the best-hated
man on the ship. We (to call) him Mr. Know-All to his face and he (to take) it as a
compliment. He (to know) everything better than anybody else, and it never (to
come) into his head that he (can) be mistaken.
There (to be) four of us at table. A man (to call) Ramsay, who (to be) as
dogmatic as Mr. Kelada, his wife and myself. Ramsay (to be) in the American
Consular Service and now he (to be) on his way back to Japan after he (to fetch)
his wife from New York where she (to spend) a year at home. Mrs. Ramsay (to be)
a very pretty little thing with pleasant manners who (to know) how to wear her
clothes. She (to be dressed) very simply because the Consular Service (to be) ill-
paid.
On that evening, while we (to sit) all at dinner, we (to start) speaking about
pearls. Mr. Kelada (to tell) us all that was to be known about pearls. Mr. Ramsay
(to know) nothing about them at all, but he (to start) a heated argument with Mr.
Kelada. At last Mr. Kelada (to get) angry and (to cry) out:
“I (to know) what I (to talk) about. I (to go) to Japan just to look into this
Japanese pearl business. I (to be) in the trade.”
That (to be) news for us, because Mr.Kelada never (to tell) anyone what his
business (to be).

197
 Then he went on speaking. “That chain Mrs. Ramsay (to wear) is worth
more than thirty thousand dollars.”
Mr. Ramsay (to smile): “You (to be surprised) to hear that my wife (to buy)
this chain at a department store the day before we (to leave) New York, for
eighteen dollars”.
“Let me (to look) at the chain”, Mr. Kelada (to ask)”, “and if it (to be)
imitation, I (to tell) you quickly enough”.
“Take it off, dear”, (to say) Mr. Ramsay. “Let Mr. Kelada (to look) at it as
much as he (to want)”.
I (to have) a sudden feeling that something unpleasant (to be going):to
happen. Mrs. Ramsay (to take) the chain off and Mr. Ramsay (to hand) it to Mr.
Kelada. Mr. Kelada (to take) a magnifying glass from his pocket and (to examine)
the chain. There (to be) a smile of triumph on his face. He (to be going) to speak
when he suddenly (to catch) the look of terror in Mrs. Ramsay’s eyes; her face (to
turn) quite white. I (to wonder) why her husband (not to notice) anything.
Mr.Kelada (to stop) with his mouth open.
“I (to make) a mistake”, he (to say)”. “It (to be) a very good imitation”.
Practice 3. Choose a suitable verb from those given in brackets and fill in the
blanks with the correct form of the indicative mood.
1. a) The Scandinavian Sea-rovers ............. pieces of uninhabited land to the
south-west of Greenland a long time before Christopher Columbus
discovered the New World. They ................ settlements which did not
survive for long, b) Some time after Columbus discovered the islands called
the West Indies the Europeans ................ that they were not part of India;
they bordered on a new, unknown continent (to find, to found, to find out). :
2. a) Anne threw herself flat on the sofa and ............... motiqnless for some
minutes, b) The children ............. the table and sqt quietly waiting for the
dinner, c) The secretary .......... . the documents out on the table for the
commission to examine them, d) The secretary................the papers out on
the table and the commission were examining them when the telephone

198
 rang, e) The father felt certain that the boy............. , but he had not stopped
him. He did not want to embarrass him in the presence of strangers, f) Eliza
............ in bed for two weeks and was now too weak to go out; as a matter
of fact she could hardly walk (to lie, to lay, to lie).
3. a) The old man ............ his hat to greet all those guests, b) The passenger
........... the heavy suitcase and was trying to put it on the upper shelf, c) That
was real success. The spectators ........... from their seats and clapped their
hands shouting “Bravo”, d) The balloon......... high up in the air and moved
over the forest driven by the wind (to rise, to raise).

199
 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
- is used to denote a command or a request Be careful!
- formed from the infinitive without the Please, open the door!
particle to for the 2nd person singular or Don’t be late!
plural Let him stay at home!
- for first and third persons let + noun (or Don’t let him go out!
object pronoun) + bare infinitive is used or
- don’t is used for the negative form Let him not go out!
- emphatic form is used with the verb to do Do come a little bit earlier!
Do respect him!

Practice 1. Point out imperative sentences and comment on their meanings.

Robert: Hello, Dan.
Dan: Hello, Robert. Glad to see you.
Robert: So am I. Well, Dan, please do me a favour!
Dan: Most willingly. What can I do for you?
Robert: You see, my cousin comes from Moscow by train. I promised to meet
her, but unfortunately I have an exam today. Please, go to the station and
meet her.
Dan: Don’t worry! I’ll help you, believe me. If you have her photo, show it to
■'* <...
me. > - x -.
Robert: Here it is. She is a fair girl.
Dan: Yes. She is a good-looking girl and resembles your mother. Don’t worry,
I’ll find her among the crowd easily. Give me the number of her train
and carriage.
Robert: Yes, of course. Here it is.
Dan: Let me put it down. Be sure, I’ll meet her.
Robert: Many thanks, Dan.
Practice 2. Point out imperative sentences. Comment on their meanings.
Shop-girl: What can I do for you, madam?
Mother: I’d like a pair of strong walking shoes for everyday wear.
Shop-girl: What size do you take in shoes?
Mother: My size is 37.
200
Robert: Mother, take these brown ones, they are very fashionable.
Mother: O.K., Robert. Please, give me those brown shoes.
Shop-girl: Yes, please, try them on.
Mother: Robert, I think, the heels arc a little higher. They will trouble me while
walking.
Robert: Yes, mum. I think so. Change them, please.
Shop-girl: Of course, but there is no problem. Try these ones. They have flat
heels and are very suitable for you.
Mother: Oh, how perfect! Give me a shoe for the left foot, please. How much
are they?
Shop-girl: 75 dollars.
Robert: Wrap them up, please. Where is the cashdesk?
Shop-girl: It’s at the end of the department. Thank you.
Mother: Thank you. Good bye.
Practice 3. Construct imperative sentences using these words and phrases.
1. nonsense, stop, talking. 2. write, the words, and, sentences, your, in, exercise
book, down. 3. go, out, don’t, it, is, hard, raining. 4. go, let us, to the beach, today.
5. let, play, the children., in the garden. 6. the children, let, go, to the beach, today.
7. us, play, in, the play-ground, today, after, classes, let, football. 8. immediately,
me, alone, leave. 9. go, out, in the dark, don’t, it, is, dangerous. 10. the, window,
leave, open, it is hot in the room. 11. do not, the, door, leave, open, it is, cold,
outside. 12. do, not, let, the children, windy, today, it is, to the,beach, go.

201
 THE OBLIQUE MOODS
Synthetic forms Analytical forms

The Past Perfect The Conditional The Suppositional

Subjunctive Mood Mood Mood

The Present Subjunctive Mood (Subjunctive I)

-denotes a problematic action
-refers the action to the present or future
-has the same verb forms for all persons - I, you, he, she, we, they - be, have, go,
come, etc.
-used in poetry and elevated prose or in official documents
-used in subject and object clauses; adverbial clause of concession, etc.; in
expressions and simple sentences denoting wish, concession, imprecations, etc.
-May + Infinitive model is used to denote wish
-Let +Infinitive model is used to denote concession

Subjunctive I is used:
1) Subject clauses after the
following patterns:
is necessary smb. do smth.
It ■ was important
that It is necessary that he see the doctor at
^\will be desirable
requested once.
demanded
It was requested that the guests sit at
advisable
arranged the table.
ordered

202
6) The following sentence patterns
with the object clause: smb. do smth.
to think important We consider it advisable that she look
to believe it advisable that after him.
to consider desirable We don’t find it important that Tom
to find better have a talk with him.
necessary
7) The predicative clause with the
following sentence patterns: smb. do smth.
order
demand The order was that nobody leave the
•
suggestion is room.
recommendation was that The request is that everybody attend
wish willbe the classes.
motion My only wish is that she be happy.
rule
arrangement
request

Practiced. Comment on the use of the present subjunctive mood.

1. It was arranged that the town be evacuated by 5 o’clock. 2. The order was that
no ship leave the harbour before daybreak. 3. Do you demand that she retell the
dialogue? 4. May them be a happy couple! 5. Tell her to put the money into her
purse lest she lose it. 6. We didn’t consider it advisable that Helen spend the night
alone at he camp. 7. Is it important that the meeting take place tonight? 8.1 suggest
that we start right now. 9. Damn our enemies! 10. Wherever he go, he will return
here at the end. 11. Come what will! 12. The request was that each student enter
the hall with a card. 13. Have you arranged that she be met at the station? 14. I
woke him up lest he miss his train. 15. May God rest him in peace!

204
Practice 2. Open the brackets using the present subjunctive mood.
1. It is requested that the late-comers (to take) seats in the gallery. 2. She positively
insists that the notes (to be) on the left side of the page. 3. She promised to arrange
that mother (to come and sit) with the baby. 4. At the family gathering it was
agreed that she (to send) to school. 5. It was ordered that no child (to allow) to get
out of the yard. 6. It is requested that he (to return) in time. 7. It was proposed that
no child over twelve (to admit). 8. It was demanded that the documents (to type) at
9
once. 9. It was arranged that the race (to take place) on Sunday. 10. He ordered that
nothing (to touch).
Practice 3. Complete the sentences.
1. No one demanded that.... . I'.UAlk..............................
2. She suggested that.... xtiAQ........ .... .......................

3. She has arranged....................

4. Is it necessary that... f ?

5. Does he order that.... M..

6.................................. Jti. 1A. [....................... that no one interfere.
7.............. : ...05... ..... that a car be sent to meet them.
8. Is it absolutely necessary that .... Lj4'.
9. Did anyone insist that.... ................. £
10 that the children be provided with hot meals.
11......... JZ . U.. that the mail be delivered at once.
12. It is advisable that.... .C&?. I .......
13 .............. . .(A..... .................................................... that nobody know about it.
14. ....kt 4... kS...... ......................... . . ...... that the old furniture be moved at once.

Practice 4/Open the brackets using the present subjective mood.

1. Please, mark the place in the book lest I (to waste) time looking for it. 2.1 think
we had better take an earlier train lest mother (to worry). 3. The late-comers must
take seats in the gallery lest they (to disturb) the others. 4. Watch that milk I tell
you lest it (to boil) over. 5. I agreed to share his umbrella lest my best hat (to be
spoiled). 6. We did not want to talk about it lest something (to happen) to spoil it

205
all. 7. She always kept the jam cupboard locked lest the children (to get) at it. 8.
She kept the children indoors lest they (to disturb) him as he sat in the garden. 9.
Please, send her a message lest she (to come) in time. 10. Tell her the truth lest she
(to offend).
Practice 5. Answer the questions.
Example:
Why did you close the window? - Lest the wind break it, a storm is coming.
1. What do you want to leave her a message for? W *** •
2. Why did you write the rule on the blackboard?
3. Why do you give me this plan?
4. Why do you want us to start so early?
5. Why do you make her wear her coat?
6. Why do you want us to sit in the front row?
7. Why do you always make a shopping list before starting?
8. Why do you keep the dog chained? -
9. Look at that fat man. Why is he running so? /t* *
10. Why do you always pack your son’s bag?
Practice 6. Complete the sentences.
1. Open the window lest ..th.?..3? .'*4

3. Put down my address lest

4. Leave the cat alone lest ...4.

rYia
7. I’ll take my umbrella lest. .<J... .■&?. ..............................
8. I switched off the lamps lest ...J... ■ ■ ■ XWr...................
9. She put her keys into her bag lest...ikvL.....

10. He took a taxi lest.... .

11. Be careful with the dishes lest.
12. Put down the number of the exercise lest...

206
 THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
- is a synthetic form
-contradicts the reality
-denotes unreal actions, wish, desire, imaginations, etc.
-has the same verb form with the Past Indefinite of the Indicative Mood - had,
came, saw, knew, etc.
-refers the action to the present or future
-is used only in some subordinate clauses and simple sentences

Compare
The Past Subjunctive Mood The Past Indefinite tense form
Similarity
Both of them have the same verb forms I, you, he, she, they - had, came, spoke,
for all persons: (except the verb to be). took, saw, were, etc.

Differences
1) contradicts the reality 1) denotes real past actions
2) refers the action to the present or 2) refers the action to the past
future 3) used with adverbs of past time: ago,
3) used with adverbs of present or future yesterday, last week, last year, then, etc.
time: now, today, tomorrow, next week,
etc. '
4) used only in some subordinate 4) used both in principal and
clauses and simple sentences. subordinate clauses. '
5) the verb to be has only one form - 5) the verb to be has two forms - was
were - for all persons: and were:
I were, he were, she were, you were, I was, he was, you were, they were, etc.
etc.

207
 The Past Perfect Subjunctive Mbod
- is an analytical form
-contradicts the reality
-refers the action to the past
-has the same verb forms of the Past Perfect of the Indicative Mood - had had, had
known, had seen, had been, etc.
- is used with the adverbs of past time - ago, then, yesterday, last week, last
Sunday, etc.
- is used in some subordinate clauses and simple sentences
- is never used in attributive clause after the principal clause: It is time, It is high
time, It is about time. Only the Past Subjunctive Mood is used in this clause, as in:
It is time we went there. It is high time he spoke English.

The Use of the Past Subjunctive and the Past Perfect Subjunctive Moods
Kinds of subordinate The Past Subjunctive The Past Perfect
clauses Mood Subjunctive Mood
1) In if unreal Unreal I Unreal II
conditional clause If he were here now, he If he had been here then, he
would help us. would have helped us.
If we saw them today, If we had seen them that day,
we could speak to them. we could have spoken to
Ifthey arrived them.
tomorrow, they would If they had arrived yesterday,
be able to join us. they would have been able to
join us.
Note: When if is omitted Were he here now, he Had he been here yesterday,
he could have seen everything
inversion happens. could see everything
himself.
himself.
2) In the adverbial clause You speak as if (as You speak as if (as though)
of comparison after as though) you had time. you had had time yesterday.
if, as though She behaves as if she She behaved as if she hadn’t
didn’t know me. known me.
3) In the predicative She looks as if she were She looks as if she had been

208
clause after the link ill. ill lately.
verbs: to be, to seem, to He was as though he He was looking as if (as
look, to feel, to sound were angry. though) he had got into
with the conjunctions as It sounded as if it were trouble.
if, as though true. He felt as though he had spent
his life in desert.
4) In object clause after I wish he were here I wish he had been here
the verb to wish now. yesterday.
She wished they asked She wished they had asked
her about her trip. her about her trip.
They wished they could They wished they could have
catch the train. caught the rain.

Note: To make the I wish she would go

sentence more emphatic there at once.
you can use would + or
Infinitive after the verb I wish she went there at
to wish. (Only if the once.
subjects in both clauses I wish you would wear
are different and if the your red cloth.
wish refers to the present We wished she would
or future. It is chiefly not interfere.
used in sentences
expressing request or
annoyance.)
5) In attributive clause It is time she knew
after: It is (was) time, It Grammar well.
is high time, It is about It was high time he
time he spoke (or could arrived.
speak)

209
Note: In this clause only It is about time we
the Past Subjunctive arranged everything for
Mood is used. the party.
6) In the adverbial clause Even if (though) she saw Even if (though) she had seen
of concession with the everything with her own everything with her own eyes,
conjunction even if even eyes, she wouldn 7 she wouldn 7 have believed.
though believe. Even though he hadn’t been
Even if he were not invited there, he would have
invited, there he would come.
come.
T) In simple sentences: If only he knew him. If only he had known him.
a) beginning with oh, Oh, it it were summer Oh, if it had been summer
that; if only, oh, if They now. then.
denote wish. Oh, that he told him the Oh, that he had told him the
If only did smth. truth. truth.
Oh, if smb.
Oh, that had done smth.
b) denoting advice with: You had better stay at
had better home, it is raining.
He had better wait here.
She had better not speak
about it.
c) denoting preference She would rather
with: (sooner) stay at home
would rather; and read a book.
would sooner; I had much rather
had rather; (sooner) not interfere.
had sooner; The weather is so fine.
We’<7 rather walk at
least part of the way.

210
Practice 1. Comment on the use of the past and the past perfect subjunctive
mood.
1. If I were young, I should have a walking holiday. 2. It seemed as though he
wished to speak, but feared to give offence. 3. Dora wished she could get her book
out of her suitcase. 4. We should have never found the house if a passer-by hadn’t
helped us. 5. If only he were able to enter the University. 6. The vase is beautiful.
You couldn’t find another to match it if you tried. 7. You are speaking as if you
were the only one who had seen the accident. 8. She looks as if she had cried. 9.
Oh, if he didn’t hate her. 10. It is time the baby would be able to walk. 11. She felt
as if the temperature of the room were sinking steadily. 12. Were he here now, the
party would be quite different. 13. The idea was fine. I wished I had thought of it
myself. 14. The colour of his face changed and he seemed to breathe as if he had
been running. 15. Even if you were right, I should prefer to act in my own way. 16.
I’d rather phone him myself or he would complain. 17. You had better meet her
yourself. 18. You would sooner tell him the truth. 19. Even if he saw us, he
wouldn’t come up to us. 20. It is high time she could drive a car.
Practice 2. Comment on the use of the past and the past perfect subjunctive
mood.
1. Ten to six. It’s time he were here. 2. She spoke as if she were sure of it. 3. Isn’t
it time you went to bed, young man? 4. She looks as if she hadn’t slept for some
days. 5. He behaved as though nothing had happened. 6. Don’t you think it’s time
-you got the cake-out? I can smell it burning. 7. Oh, that he were not quarrelling
with them. 8. They would rather not change their plan. 9. You had better check the
gas and electricity before leaving your flat. 10. I wish he were here. 11. I wish I
had known that before I got involved. 12. He wished he knew the facts. 13. He is
as if he were offended. 14. She opened the door as if there were nobody in the
room. 15. If only nobody had seen him there!

211
Practice 3. Open the brackets using the proper form of the past and the past
perfect subjunctive mood.
1. How I wish I (can go) too! 2. I wished I (can drive) the car myself. 3. I wish I
(not to give) my word. I can’t go back on a promise. 4. We wished we (to take) the
upper road. 5. You’ll wish you (to stop) it in time. 6. It started raining soon after
we came there and mother wished she (to bring) her raincoat. 7. She wishes we (to
come) againg next summer. 8. I wish you (not to sit) there doing nothing all day
long. 9. When you leave the camp, you’ll wish you (to have) a good friend there.
10. I wish they (to take part) in my party. 11. That awful child again. I wish they
(not to bring) him.
Practice 4. Compose the sentences expressing an unreal wish.
Example:
She doesn’t know him well enough.
She wishes she knew him well enough.
I left the child alone in the room.
I wished I hadn ’t left the child alone.
1. I did not bring a heavy sweater. 2. I missed the ten fifteen train. 3. She hasn’t
seen the film. 4. You don’t realize how important it is. 5. She always interferes into
what doesn’t concern her. 6. You are still making spelling mistakes. 7.1 have a pile
of compositions to mark. 8. Nobody helped him. 9. It’s very late and we can’t meet
them. 10.1 knew no one there.
Practice 5. Answer the questions using the proper form of the past and the
past perfect subjunctive mood.
Example:
Have you been here before? - No, I only wish I had.
Have you read this book? - Yes, but I wish I hadn’t read it.
1. Is the car waiting for you?
2. Have you done the washing up?
3. Does this dog belong to you?
4. Did you take part in the last year boat-race?

212
 5. Is she fond of you?
6. Has the baby gone to sleep?
7. Did your daughter bake that cake?
8. Do you live in London?
9. Have you checked the tests?
10. Did you buy this book when you were in Moscow?
11 .Do you know the subject well?
12. 1s your mother-in-law staying with you?
Practice 6. Comment on the use of the past and the past perfect subjunctive
mood.
1. She just stood there as if she did not mind. 2. You are running as if dogs were’
after you.3.1 felt as if all my world lay in ruins at my feet. 4. Day after day we saw
him leave the office as though nothing special had happened to him. 5. Just take a
glass of that, and you’ll feel as if you hadn’t care in the world. 6. They were
looking as if they had walked a lot. 7. He turned up on Wednesday with a box of
sweets and a large doll as if it were the most usual thing to do. 8. She seems as if
she hadn’t seen such a place before. 9. Her words sounded as if they were true. 10.
It is not as if you were tired.

213
 THE CONDITIONAL MOOD
- is an analytical form
- contradicts the reality
- has two tense forms: the Present and the Past Conditionals___________________
should
would + Indefinite or Continuous Infinitive for the Present
could Conditional
(should go, would come, could see, might know, etc J
The Present Conditional refers the action to the present or future used with
adverbs: now, today, tomorrow, next week, etc.
should
would + Perfect or Perfect Continuous Infinitive for the Past
could ' Conditional Mood
(should have gone, would have come, could have seen, might have
known, etc.)
The Past Conditional Mood refers the action to the past, used with the adverbs:
yesterday, ago, last year, week, etc.: If I had seen him I should have greeted him.
The Conditional Mood is used in the principal clauses and simple sentences:
I, we - should
You, he, she, it, :hey - would
The Use of the Conditional Mood
The Conditional Mood is used:
The Present Conditional The Past Conditional
Kinds of sentences (should, would, could, (should have, would
have, could have, might
might + inf.) have + PII)
1) The principal Unreal I Unreal II
clause of a complex If I were you, I should invite If you had phoned me, I
sentence with an him. should have come long
unreal conditional If he found the book, he before.
clause introduced by would give it to you now. If he had found the book,

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the conjunction “if”. Were I you, / should invite he would have sent it to
Note: When ‘7f” is him. you.
omitted, inversion Had you phoned me, I
appears. should have come long
Note: There arc before.
mixed types of unreal
conditional clauses:
Mixed type I:
The Past Perfect If we had sent him a If you had taken the
Subjunctive + The message yesterday, he medicine regularly, you
Present Conditional would be here now. would feel better now.
(had had, had come
...+ should, would,
could, might + -ing)
Mixed type II:
The Past Subjunctive If she were lazy, she If he could swim, he
+ The Past couldn’t have done so much would have already
Conditional (had, work by herself. crossed the river.
saw, came + should If she were not talented,
have, would have, she wouldn ’t have written
could have, might such good poems.
hpye + PIl)
■2) The principal Even if I knew the address, I Even if I had known the
clause of an adverbial shouldn ’t give it to him. address then, I shouldn’t
clause of concession Even if he could do it, he have given it to him.
introduced by the might deny it. Even if he could have
conjunction even if, * done it, he might have
even though. denied it.
3) A simple sentence i Oh, mother is here! What Did you ask him? He
with implied should I do without her? (If would have gladly helped

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 condition. it were not for my mother you (If you had asked
(The unreal what should I do?) him, he would have
condition is not gladly helped you)
expressed but He refused. He would do it He had refused. He would
understood from the better than everybody. have done it better than
context.) everybody.
4) A simple sentence But for her pale face, But for her illness, she
with unreal condition nobody would think her ill. might have been the best
beginning with the But for the rain we could go student.
expression But for = to the picnic. But for their laziness, we
If it were not; If it could have finished the
hadn’t bcenfor. work in time.
5) A compound Take your keys or you The way was shown to
sentence connected would lose them. him, otherwise he would
by the conjunctions have been lost.
or, or else, otherwise. Prepare your lessons in time She intended to go, or
otherwise you might fail else she would have
exams. refused. ■ '■
6) A simple sentence To see him would make him To have seen him'would
beginning with an happy. have made him happy.
infinitive or a Crossing the river in such a Having crossed the river
gerund. storm would be dangerous. in such a storm would
have been dangerous.

Practice 1. Comment on the use of the conditional mood.

1. I am busy today. I should so like to meet her. 2. If he had a chance, he would
really change his flat. 3. He is so lazy. Even if he followed your advice, he
wouldn’t achieve his aim. 4. But for the meeting, we should call on her at once.
5. Try to sleep in time, or you would get sick. 6. He was seriously ill. Even though
he had consulted the doctor, it wouldn’t have helped him. 7. But for his mother he

716
would have been here long ago. 8. Stopping now would mean losing everything.
9. To have seen an old friend would have pleased him. 10. But for his manner,
everybody would love him. 11. His car was broken. He would have given you a
lift. 12. If you hadn’t gone out in that weather yesterday, you wouldn’t be ill. 13. If
you knew him well, you wouldn’t have spoken like that about him. 14. Put on your
raincoat, otherwise you would get wet through. 15.1 phoned him at once, or else he
would have got nervous.
Practice 2. Answer the questions using the proper forms of the conditional
mood.
Examples:
Why didn’t you let him take his ball? - (to lose) - He would have lost it.
Why don’t you let him go there alone? - (may lose) - He might lose the way.
1. Why didn’t you ask him to help you? - (to refuse). 2. Will you take your
younger child along? - No, (may get tired). 3. Did you tell her about it? - No, (to
be upset). 4. Why didn’t you copy the poem? - (to take too long). 5. Will you take
a taxi? - No, (to be expensive). 6. Why didn’t you take her to the theatre? - (not to
like). 7. Why didn’t you let him have an ice-cream? - (may hurt his throat). 8. Why
didn’t he stop to talk to you? - (to miss his train). 9. Why didn’t you come to see
your boy act in the play? - (may be nervous). 10. Could yoti come and have dinner
with us tomorrow? - (to be delighted)
Practice 3. Complete the sentences using the proper form of the conditional
mood.
1. But for her illness........................................................................................................
2. But for the weather.................................................................. ...................................
3. But for the rain..............................................................................................................
4. But for his missing the last train...............................................................................
5. But for the barking dog...............................................................................................
6. But for the small kitchen............................................................................................
7. But for her nose...........................................................................................................
8. But for the guests.........................................................................................................

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9. But for my exams........................................................................................................
10. But for her sister who always helps her ........ ..........................................................
11. But for my own car...................................................................................................
12. But for his neighbours..............................................................................................
Practice 4. Compose the sentences with the pattern but for + the conditional
mood or a modal verb in the past and the past perfect subjunctive mood.
Example:
It began to rain and we didn ’t go for our walk.
Butfor the rain, we should have gone for! our. walk, ,
With your help I can finish it in time.
But for your help, I couldn’t finish it in time. * ,
1. He wants to go fishing but he has a bad cold. 2. He could not see. the play as he
had some work to do.3. I don’t want to tell you this. But I promised to. 4. His wife
made him see the doctor. 5. He did not die. The operation saved him. 6. We didn’t
have a good time after all. The weather was too bad. 7. Of course, I want to help
you, but I have a conference today. 8. I could do it all in so short time only because
of your kindness and understanding. 9. He can make a good teacher but he has a
slight defect of speech. 10. He had a good guide, so he could climb the mountain.
Practice 5. Replace the infinitives in brackets using the proper form of the
conditional mood.
1. To tell her the truth (to help) her. 2. To have heard such good news (to delight)
everybody. 3. Going back now (to be) impossible. 4. To have given him a hand (to
cost) you very little. 5. It (to be) nice to be able to say it. 6. Solving this problem
(to put an end) to many questions. 7. It (to be) queer to feel a stranger in one’s own
home town. 8. To have learned the truth (to change) the situation greatly. 9. To
have landed on that field (to be) certain death. 10. Refusing his invitation (to hurt)
him. ।
Practice 6.' Open the brackets using the mixed type of the conditional mood.
1. If I (not to leave) my watch at home, we (to know) the time. 2. If he (to be) your
close friend he (to tell) you everything. 3. If it (to rain) in the night, the ground (to
be) soft. 4. If she (not to know) anything about cooking she (cannot cook) so well.
5. Your course-paper (to be) ready now if you (not to waste) so much time. 6. I (to
come) if I (not to promise) mother to stay at home for the baby. .7. If she (to be)

218
absent-minded she (not to recite) such a long poem. 8. They (to approach) home
now if they (to take) a taxi. 9. If he (to come) here now they (not to quarrel).
10. He (not to speak) like that if he (not to make up) his mind in advance.
Practice 7. Replace the infinitives in brackets by the proper form of the
subjunctive mood referring the action either to the present, to the future or to
the past.
1. If you (to understand) children, you (not to speak) like that. 2. She (to grow up)
a sensible person if they (to stop) treating her like a plaything. 3. If it (not to be
raining) steadily for a fortnight, we (to cross) this river easily. 4. If you (not to be)
so angry, you (can see) it yourself. 5. Even if he (to be) here, he (to say) the same
words. 6.1 (cannot go) today even if you (to ask) me. 7. The dog (to bark) his head
off if it (to be) someone he didn’t know. 8. He (to be delighted) even if he (not to.
find) any better work. 10. He (to do) the right thing even though he (not to like)
you personally.
Practice 8. Replace the infinitives in brackets using the proper form of the
conditional mood.
1. They (to go) for a swim in the lake if it were warmer. 2. If the poem were not so
long, I (to recite) it easily. 3. Even if it were not so late, I don’t think I (to go) to
the cinema. I am too tired. 4. If you (not to be) in my way, I should not ask you to
step aside. 5. Even though he realized how bad his health is, he (not to stop) the
preparations for the experiment. 6. If you (to attend) to the explanation, you would
not have made so many mistakes. 7. Even if I had had a dictionary, I don’t believe
I (to be able) to translate the text in the short time we were given. 8. I should
reconsider my decision if I (to be) you. 9. Even if you had given her every
opportunity to do so, she (can not do) it in so short a time. 10. If you (to remind)
me to bring the book, I should not have left it at home. 11. Even if I wanted to, I
(can do) nothing now. 12. If you really wanted to help, you (can do) it even now.
13. Even if I (to know) what it was all about, I should not have paid any attention
to them. I was too tired. 14. Even if it (to rain), it would not have spoiled the party.
Practice 9. Compose conditional sentences on the basis of the statements.
Example:
It's raining hard. We can’t go out.
If it were not raining so hard, we could go out.
1. She thought of her figure and refused a second helping pie. 2. He was deep in
his thoughts and did not notice the “no parking” sign. 3. I have a composition to

219
write, I can’t go to the pictures. 4. There is no one to sit with the baby, I have to
stay at home. 5. The sun came out at last, and we began to enjoy ourselves. 6. She
did not think much of her son-in-law and never took his advice. 7. There were so
many people, but nobody noticed his absence. 8. He is a friendly dog. The children
are very fond of him. 9. He lost his temper and said things he did not really mean.
10. She knows how kind he is, so she does not mind.
Practice 10. Complete the sentences using the proper form of the conditional
mood.
1. She never intended to go, otherwise she.............. (to pack) her things. 2. She’s
really fond of children, otherwise she.............. (not to be) children’s doctor. 3. He
prepared his speech, otherwise he ................. (not to speak) so well. 4. I use only
the freshest butter, or my cakes .............. (not to be) so good. 5. She must have
heard of it, otherwise she (to be) curious about it. 6. I’m sure he did not get the job,
otherwise he ........ (not to look) so downcast. 7. Probably they are out, or
somebody .............. (to answer) the phone. 8. The train delays, or else they (to
arrive) long ago.
Practice 11. Open the brackets using the proper form of the conditional mood.
1. But for the long way he (to reach) the office in time. 2. She had an unpleasant
habit of criticizing people to their friends, otherwise everybody (to love) her. 3. I
(not to call) her exactly pretty, but there was something in her that caught and held
attention. 4. We had to make certain concessions or they (to refuse). 5. But for his
broken leg he (to be) the best player. 6. Why didn’t you turn to him? He (to be
delighted) to help you. 7. It was no use telling the children. It (to frighten) only
them. 8. Do you think the baby (to like) this doll? 9. What a pity, you didn’t leave
at once, they (not to mind). 10. I told her at once who I was, or she (may take) me
for one of them. 11. It’s getting too cold for comfort, otherwise we (can stay) here
a little longer.

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 THE SUPPOSITIONAL MOOD
- is an analytical form
- denotes problematic action
- has two tense forms: the Present and the Past Suppositional Mood
- the auxiliary verb should is used for all persons
- the Present Suppositional is formed by:
/ Indefinite
should + Infinitive
Continuous
It is (was, will be) necessary that she should see the doctor.
- The Present Suppositional refers the action to the present or future
- the Past Suppositional is formed by:
Perfect
should Infinitive
' - Perfect Continuous '
It is (was, will be) natural that he should have said it.
The Past Suppositional refers the action to the Past. _______________________
Notei: The Present Subjunctive Mood (Subjunctive I) and The Suppositional Mood
denote problematic action.
Note2: The Past Subjunctive or the Past Perfect Subjunctive Mood (Subjunctive II)
and the Conditional Mood contradict the reality.
The Use of the Suppositional Mood:
Kinds of sentences Sentence patterns
1) Subject clauses with the following
patterns: It is necessary that he should-' 1
^x-is necessary phone (orphone-Present
It'x“— was important
Subjunctive) them.
will be desirable
requested that smb. should do smth.
It was desirable that everybody
demanded smb. do smth. should enter (or enter-Present
arranged Subjunctive) the hall.
advisable
ordered

2) Object clauses after the following verbs:

to suggest \ He suggested that we should
to demand
return (or return) at once.
to insist A that smb. should do smth.
to order / smb. do smth.
to arrange They insisted that Helen should
to request
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 stay (or stay) at their house.
3)Object clauses after the following We consider it advisable that
patterns: she should give him advice
to think \ necessary herself (or give advice)
to believe important
They found it necessary that
to consider advisable smb. should do smth.
to find / desirable sb. do smth.
they should take (or take) a taxi.
better

4) Predicative clauses after the following >

abstract nouns used as the subject of the The order was that nobody
principal clause: should leave (or leave) the
order room.
demand \
The demand will be that
suggestion \
recommendation \ is
everybody should keep (or keep)
wish t was that smb. should do smth. the rule.
motion / will be smb. do smth.
rule /
arrangement/
request /

5) Attributive clauses modified by such

nouns: The order that all should stay
order x. (or stay) in the camp was
demand x.
accepted by everybody.
suggestion x.
recommendation
The demand that every person
wish that smb. should do smth. should take (or take) his
motion f smb. do smth.
document was given by him.
rule /
arrangement/
request '

6) Adverbial clause of purpose with the I put down the page lest I
conjunction lest'. should forget (or forget) it.
to do smth. lest smb. should do smth. Remind him lest he should take
smb. do smth.

222
 or (or take) the book with him.
I’ll cut them some sandwiches
that may (can) do smth.
so that they may (can) eat them
to do smth. so that smb. may (can) not do smth.
’ in order that might (could) do smth.
on the train.
might (could) not do smth. She turned her back to us so that
we could not see her crying.
7) Subject clauses after the following
sentence patterns: It is natural that she should
natural drive the car herself.
understandable
characteristic It is curious that she should
surprising
,Xis strange have been absent.
It\ curious that smb. should do smth.
<was odd smb. should have done smth. It was not surprising that she
doubtful
impossible should have changed her mind.
unpleasant
a pity
a shame

Is it possible that he should

Note: Only in interrogative sentences:
have failed the exam?
Is it possible that he should have said so?
In affirmative sentences “may + infinitive”
It is possible that they may join
is mostly used:
you.
It is possible that he may know this.
8) Object clauses in the following sentence I think it only natural that he
patterns: should like his job.
natural We found it curious that he
strange
should have refused it.
to think odd
to believe it curious that smb. should do smth.
He believed it possible that
to consider pleasant smb. should have done smth. somebody should have
ti find unpleasant
succeeded the race.
possible -
impossible

9) Object clauses after the verbs: I am sorry that you should think

223
to be sorry so.
to be astonished that smb. should do smth.
We were astonished that she
to be satisfied (pleased) smb. should have done smth.
should have done it.
I’m very pleased that you
should like it.
10) Object clauses after the verbs denoting
fear: I fear lest he should be late.
to fear She is afraid lest the baby
to worry lest smb. should do smth.
should fall down.
to be afraid
to be uneasy
or
to fear can (could) I’m uneasy that he may make a
to worry that smb. may (might) do or
mistake.
to be afraid have done smth.

to be uneasy She worried that they might lose

the way.
11) Problematic conditional clause If you should see him, give my
beginning with the conjunction if: best wishes to him.
If he should come, tell him to
wait for me.
Note: If is omitted and inversion appears. Should you see him, give my
best wishes to him.
12) Adverbial clause of concession We shall change our plan
beginning with the conjunctions though, whatever should happen (or
although, whoever, whatever, wherever + happen)
smb. should do smth. They will start though it should
smb. do. smth. rain (or rain).
13) Special questions beginning with why: Why should I do it?
Why should he arrange it?

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Practice 1. Comment on the use of the suppositional mood. (Explain in which
sentences Subjunctive I can be used as well).
1 . It is desirable that each girl should be able to type and make notes. 2. It is
necessary that somebody should interfere. 3. My suggestion was that the boys
should help the girls about the housework. 4. Her only wish was that somebody
should write to her regularly. 5. It is not necessary that she should give any
decisive answer today. 6. I suggest that we should not take any steps until we hear
the results from her. 7. She kept the children indoors lest they should disturb her
while working in the garden. 8. He read and re-read every sentence so that he
might miss a single mistake. 9. She ruled that no child should come to school
unwashed. 10. Let’s walk a bit slower that they can catch up with us. 11. It is
surprising that he should have said it about them. 12. We consider it unbelievable
that no one should notice anything. 13. I’m sorry that he should have lost the
contest. 14. She fears lest she should be late. 15. She worried that early frost could
damage the fruit-trees. 16. Why should he answer every time? 17. Her anxiety was
lest she should make some silly mistakes. 18. It’s odd that he should have lost his
way in the place so familiar to him.
Practice 2. Complete the sentences.
Example:
........... that nothing should be done for the present.
She insisted (suggested, demanded); It is necessary, It was important that nothing
should be done for the present.
]............. /4........................................................................ that she should see a doctor.
2 'J.. <4>.... ............... that someone should be held responsible.

3 that hot meals should be provided for the children.

4 that steps should be taken to prevent the disease.
5 . that nothing should be moved.
6 that a car should be sent to meet them.
7 that the information should be sent to them at once.
8 that he should prepare his documents.

225
Practice 3. Complete the sentences.
Example:
Her only wish was............ that she should be left free.
1. In these letters she repeatedly expressed a wish....................................................
2. She regularly followed the doctor’s recommendation...........................................
3. He quite forgot the rule.............................................................................................
4. Finally we made the arrangement.......................................................................
5.1 have heard no order................................................................................................
6. Her suggestion is......................................................................................................
7. Their demand was......................................................................................................
8. Her request is.................................................................................................. ;.........
Practice 4. Open the brackets using the proper form of the suppositional
mood.
1. We had better take an earlier train lest mother (to worry). 2. I’d rather you did
not ^o ouj. lest the train (to start) and you (to be left) behind. 3. Watch that milk lest
it (tq boik) over. 4. I agreed to share his umbrella lest my best hat (to-be spoiled).
5. I only asked her lest she (toTeel) left out. 6. We didn’t want to talk about it lest
something (hf happen) to spoil it all. 7. She always kept the jam cupboard locked
lest the children (to get) at it.
Practice 5. Open the brackets using the proper form of the suppositional
mood.
1. It was annoying that the comer seats (to be taken) already. 2. Isn’t it strange that
this boy (to be) always out when you want him? 3. So it was not in the least
curious that he (to behave) the way he did. 4. It’s odd that he (to lose) his way in a
place, so familiar to him. 5. It’s nice that you (to think) so. 6. It’s rather
characteristic that he (to object). 7. It was not surprising that they (to make)
mistakes. 8. It’s practically impossible that a boy of twelve (to do) all this. 9. It’s
shame no one (to know) the truth about the accident. 10. Is it possible that the
nurse (to confuse) the bottles in the dark?

226
Practice 6. Paraphrase the sentences.
Example:
Strange that he should think so.
Ifind
I think—n strange that he should think so.
I consider . » .
if ixp-o-s
1. Rather odd that no one should have noticed anything. 2. It’s simply impossible
that the safe should have remained open without anybody noticing it. 3. It was
annoying that the train should be late. 4. It was curious that I should not have been
told at once. 5. It’s not surprising that you should feel rather tired and unwell. 6. It
was quite understandable that we should grow fond of the animal.
Practice 7. Paraphrase the sentences.
Examples:
He knows nothing about it.
Ifear lest he should know nothing about it.
I’m astonished that he should know nothing about it.
I’m sorry that he should know nothing about it.
1. They will oversleep. 2. There’s something wrong with her heart. 3. She did not
give her consent. 4. She refused to act in the play. 5. I have lost his address. 6. The
rain will go on for hours. 7. They did not like the picture. 8. They meant to stay to
dinner. 9. It got rather cold in the night.
Practice 8. Complete the sentences.
1. The only thing that made her lie awake at night was a certain fear that ...........
(lest ... ). 2. She had no fear that ... (lest ...). 3. Have you ever felt a fear that ...
(lest ...)? 4. The only worry she has is that ... (lest ...). 5. She was urged by a
constant worry that .. (lest ...). 6. There was no anxiety lest ... (that ...). 7. Your
only fear will be lest .... (that). 8. You’ll be troubled by a recurrent worry lest ...
(that...).

227
Practice 9. Complete the sentences using the suggested word combinations.
Example:
to take smb. to the pictures
1) They are out. It looks as z/he................................ had taken her to the pictures.
2) It was arranged that I.......................................................... should take her to thepictures.
3) I came home earlier than usual so that I.............. might take her to the pictures.
4) She suggested that I............................................. should take her to the pictures.
5) I wish you......................................................................... took me to the pictures.
6) Her only wish was that he ... should take her to the pictures.
a) to do the shopping
1) I’m so busy today. I wish........................................................................................
2) The ice-box is full. It looks as if mother.................................................................
3) She positively insisted that I....................................................................................
4) When she saw the parcels heaped on the kitchen table she feared her husband ....
5) She did not mind their critical remarks. It was not as if she herself...................
6) It was arranged that I................................................ while they went to the beach.
7) The arrangement was that her sister.......................................................................
8) She did not approve of the arrangement that her elder daughter.........................
9) He gave her half of what was left of the money so that she..................................
b) to have a milk cocktail and a cream bun
1) It will be arranged that every child............................................................................
2) Someone suggested that each child..........................................................................
3) She wished she............................................................................................................
4) I won’t give you any money lest you............................................... before lunch.
5) She felt hungry. It was not as if she............................ like all the other children.
6) Here take some change so that you..........................................................................
7) I did not like the arrangement that they.....................instead of a sit down meal.
8) She felt no fear that the children................... instead of the regular school-lunch.
9) Isn’t it time we all......................................................................................................
10) She won’t be pleased that you ... with the money she gave you.

228
 c) to do the washing up
1) Mother insisted that we............................................................................................
2) The arrangement was that each Sunday we..........................................................
3) He behaved as if....................................................................................... all his life.
4) There’s not so much as a single cup in the sink. It looks as if..............................
5) I don’t see why you should interfere, it’s not as if you...........................................
6) She put a kind of striped pinafore over her party dress so that.............................
7) The party was over and she had only one wish that somebody.............................
8) . It was necessary that Mary......................................................... . ........ .................
9) Looking at the pile of dirty dishes in the sink she wished ... before going out.
10) She feared lest her mother-in-law...................... and complain about it for days.
Practice 10. Translate the sentences into Azerbaijani.
(1) Everybody was astonished that she should know nothing about it. 2) We were
simply delighted that everything should have gone so well. 3) The doctor fears lest
there should be complications. 4) She’s worried lest something should happen at
the last moment to prevent her leaving. 5) Mother will be pleased that you should
have remembered her birthday. 6) Were you surprised that he should have already
gone? 7) I fear lest we should have taken the wrong turning. 8) He was astonished
that she should not have left a message. 9) She feared lest he should drive too fast.
10) Don’t you fear lest he should have misunderstood the directions? 11) Was she
pleased that the children should have saved her a piece of cake? 12) Is she afraid
lest there should be something really wrong with her health?
Practicell. Complete the sentences using the proper form of the suppositional
mood.
1. No one demanded that (the meeting................to be cancelled). 2. She suggested
that (I................to speak). 3. It’s not advisable that (the child................. to eat) so
many sweets. 4. It will be arranged that (she....................to be examined). 5. She
has arranged that (the text-books .............. to be bought). 6. It is agreed that (the
conference............. to begin). 7. Is it absolutely necessary that (we all ....................
to come)? 8. Did anyone insist that (measures................. to be taken)? 9. After all

229
she did not suggest that (we ................ to do) it. 10. Is it advisable that (you
........... to send)? 11. It wasn’t requested that (you to take the
examination). 12. Will you please arrange that (the students ................. to be
supplied).
Practice 12. Replace the infinitives in brackets using the proper form of the
subjunctive mood.
1) She lived in constant fear that she (to lose) her health. 2) The order was that we
(to camp) there till the sand storrp abated. 3) I was not so disappointed after all. It <_
■ ,■ ■ j.■ ' c
was not as if I (to expect) her to do something. 4) I wish you (to make up) your
mind one way or the other. 5) Now you’ve spoiled every chance I had. I do wish
you (not to interfere) at least this time. 6) She’s making herself ill with the worry
that the children (to grow) to forget her. 7) I could not remember whose suggestion
it was that we (to call in) the police. 8) He promised to arrange that there (to be) a
car to meet me at the station. 9) Do it now lest they (to change) their mind. 10) She
repeated her words slowly and distinctly so that there ^to.bc^ip misunderstanding.
11) He greatly feared lest someone else (to be given) the job. 12) I don’t worry that
the results (to prove) to be negative. 13) To me she looks as if there (to be)
something wrong with her liver. 14) Why do you always burst into the room as if
there (to be) somebody after you? 15) Is it necessary that I (to go) to all that
trouble? 16) I personally think that it is high time somebody (to tell) her about it.
Practice 13. Open the brackets using the proper form of the subjunctive
mood.
1. I don’t know how to address him. I wish I (to know) his name. 2. I feel as if my
head (to be) on fire. 3. If only I (to know) earlier, I (to send) you a telegram. 4. My
wife says she wishes I (to be) thousand miles away. 5. He felt as if he (to float) in
the air. 6. He stared at me as if I (to ask) him something very odd. 7. At that
moment she wished she (not to send) for him. 8. If I (to tell) you, you might have
thought it was my choice. 9. Even if it (to be) twice as dangerous I (to carry out)
my plan. 10. I wish I never (to see) you. 11. Don’t look at me as if you never (to
see) me before. 12. I think it (to be) natural if you (to join) them. 13. Remember

230
her! As if I (can) forget her! 14. Then he suddenly said: “You (to take) me to
Grayhallock if I (to ask)?” 15. Don’t you think it (to be) rather nice if we (to ask)
her to stay on for a week as our guest? 16. “How I wish I (to be) there with you,” I
said with deep regret. 17. “Don’t be sorry”, she said. “I (to be) relieved if you (to
go), if it (to be) settled somehow”. 18. Well, at any rate, the weather isn’t going to
present difficulties. It looks as though it (to set in) fine. 19. I (to be) sure of it if I
(to be) you.
Practice 14. Replace the infinitives in brackets using the proper form of the
subjunctive mood.
The Gate without a Latch
A farmer had a gate which opened into a field, and as the latch on it was *
broken it always stood open. So the chickens ran out into the field and the cattle got into
the yard. The^farmer’s wife often complained about it and repeated: “I wish you (to
buy) a’newUatch!” To wliich the farmer answered angrily: “You?re always wanting me

to buy things. If I (to listen) to you, we never (to have) a penny.” '
1 ' i f I.! d

Once the farmer was tying his horse in the yard when he saw his fattest pig
go out into the field, “(to catclif^iTbefore it crosses the field and gets lost in the

wood,” he thought and ran after the pig, letting the horse go.
His wife who was ironing his best shirt saw it all out of the window. “As if
he (can catch) a^pig without me!” she thought and ran after him.
< '■< - i. ‘ ■
Their young daughter who was minding the soup watched them for some
moments pityingly and then ran out too. • \ 4. ‘ I 1 •' ' 4* * Z *
/ ’

“Those old people,” she thought. “They never (to catch) this pig unless some
one young and strong like me (to help) them.’!
It happened that she fell and hurt her leg. Her parents had to take her home
while the pig disappeared in the wood.
At home they saw that the horse had trampled the kitchen-garden. The iron
had burnt the farmer’s best shirt and the soup had boiled over.
Then they started quarrelling.

231
 “If you (not to leave) the horse untied, it (not to trample) the kitchen-
garden,” shouted the wife.
“And if you (to mind) your own business, my shirt (not to be
through!” answered the farmer. *

Then they both attacked the girl: “If you (to watch) the soup, we (to
some dinner now and the pig (not to escape).
But it was the wife who had the last word of course. She said: “If you (to
■ „ buy) a latch, nothing (to happen).
u* . vG t
■r >*■< r ■ ■ ' * * . *■. C>
* * * 1
C; ;

When Cinderella heard about the ball the king was giving to have the prince
meet the prettiest girls in the country, she wished she (to be invited) so that she
(may see) the prince. But naturally nobody thought of asking her.
On the night of the ball, after her stepsisters left all dressed up, she felt as if
her heart (to be breaking). WX C

“Oh, if I too (can go) to the ball!” she exclaimed.

“You shall go!” her godmother, a good fairy, said appearing in front of her.
She raised her wand, and Cinderella found herself wearing a wonderful dress,
which fitted as if it (to be made) for her^and the prettiest glass slippers.
The fairy raised her wand again, and Cinderella saw a coach and coachman
draw up to the door. Nobody (can guess) that the coachman was a fat rat and the
coach - a pumpkin.
“Go,” said the fairy. “And have a good time but be sure you leave before the ,
clock strikes twelve.”
Cinderella went to the party and had a rare good time. The .moment the
prince saw her, he fell in love with her and demanded that she (to dance) every
dance with him. But for the fairy’s warning Cinderella (to1 be) ;Tulte happy. As it
was, she kept watching the clocks and ran out of the king’s palace on the stroke of
twelve losing one of her slippers as she ran.

232
 , At first the prince did not take her disappearance seriously. “It's not as if I
(x ,•
(to lose) her for ever,” he thought. But when he realized that nobody knew who she
was, he began to fear lest he (never to see) her again, and he grew very miserable.
“We think it highly advisable that the girl (to be found)”, the king’s advisers
said.” Otherwise the prince (never m^ marry).” c rr ' < • - < •
“And it’s high time he (to do^,” saicfthe king. “I’m growing old, you know.”

They made every girl in the country try on Cinderella’s glass slipper so that
they (may $nd) whom it fitted. ; I ■’> ' ■' '•

The fear that Cinderella (never to be found) proved groundless. She married
the prince and was very happy.
Even her stepmother and stepsisters began to treat her as if they (to love) her
■ i O‘
greatly.
k k k k k

A Husband Who Was To Keep the House

There livpdn man who was always angry because he thought that, his wife
never (to do) ahytning right in the house. One evening he came home grumbling.
“Dear husband, don’t be so angry.” said his wife. “I (to think) of a plan. If
we exchange work, everything will be all right. So tomorrow, if you don’t object, I
shall go to the fields and you will stay at home and mind the house.” The husband
thought that if he (to do) so, it (to be) very good.
Early next morning the woman, went into the fields thinking: “ If my
grumbler (notto do) his work, I (to make) fun of him on returning home”.
The husband wanted at first to chum the butter, but then he thought: “If I (to
• I
go) down into the cellar to take some ale, I (to work) with greater pleasure”. But
just as he had taken the tap out of the barrel he heard that the pig came into the
kitchen. Then he ran out of th^ cellar with the tap in his hand as fast as he could to
look after the pig lest it (J^-overtum) the chum, because he knew that if his wife (to
find) no butter on returning home, she (to scold) him. ■ (

233
 But when he rushed into the kitchen, tap in his hand, he saw that the pig had
already overturned the chum, had eaten the cream and was now looking at him as
if saying: “I (to be) very glad if you (tdJ give me) cream every day.”
It made him so angry that he gave the pig such a kick that it fell down dead.
Then at once he remembered that he had the tap in his hand but when he got
down into the cellar, the last drop of ale had already rumput of the barrel.
“What a fpol/I was”, he thought. “If I (not to fly) into a rage, I (not to kill)
my only pig and I (not to lose) my ale.
Then he found some more cream and began to chum, for if he didn’t make
any butter, his wife would scold him. But then he remembered that he had to bring
water to boil some porridge but he was afraid to leave the room. “If I leaye the
room, the child is sure to overturn the chum” he thought.
So he took the chum on his back and went with it to the well. But as he went
down over the side of the well, all the cream ran out of the chum over his
shoulders. “What a block-head I, am,” he cried in despair. “If I (not to take) the
chum on my back, I (not to lose) the last drop of cream.”
Just then his wife came home, and great was his shame when he found
>• I • C C.C
himself standing before her in such a position., “If only I (to know) how difficult it
i'-OK .-1^ ‘•■jtLcU .

is to keep house, I never (to agree) to take your place.”

“You are an old fool,” replied his wife. “Now listen! If ever again you return
home grumbling, I shall turn you out of the house. If a man tries to find fault with
other people without any reason, it is he who is at fault”. Then she added looking
at his dirty clothes, “Well, if I (to be) you, I (to go) ai)d (to wash)., r
l.oejui tc \ o cu! . oCt-Vn ■

234
 the sentence
ACCORDING TO THE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Declarative Interrogative ative Exclamatory

A declarative sentence A sentence which A sentence which is A sentence which

is a sentence which expresses a used to induce a expresses some kind of
expresses a statement: question is called person to fulfill an emotion or feeling is
He leanedforward and an interrogative action is called an called an exclamatory
stared out of the sentence: imperative sentence:
window. Do you live in the sentence: You can’t do anything
city? Stop talking at the to me!
Who is shouting in lesson. What can he possibly do
the next room? to you!?
Do you like reading Tom, save me!
or writing? What a beautiful
Your father is a landscape it is!
painter, isn ’t he? How beautiful the ‘
landscape is!
How fast the train is
going!

ACCORDING TO THE STRUCTURE

Simple_________ Composite
A sentence which has only one predication is A composite sentence is a sentence
called a simple sentence: which consists of two or more clauses:
Birds fly. The rain stopped and the sun began to
shine again.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

Unextended Extended

A simple unextended sentence A simple extended sentence consists of

consists of only the primary or the subject, the predicate and one or
principal parts: more secondary parts (objects,
She is a doctor. attributes, or adverbial modifiers):
The man reads. The two native women stole furtive
glances at Sarie.

235
 ACCORDING TO THE STRUCTURE

A SIMPLE SENTENCE

A two-member sentence A one-member sentence

A two-member sentence A one-member sentence

has a subject and a predicate: has only one member which is neither the
He had established immediate contact with an subject nor the predicate:
architect. Dusk-ofa summer night.

A TWO-MEMBER SENTENCE

Complete Incomplete

It is complete when it has a subject and a It is incomplete when one of the main parts or
predicate: both of them are missing, but can be easily
The delegation arrived. understood from the context. Such sentences
are called elliptical sentences’.
- What are you reading?
- A book.

PRACTICE ON THE SIMPLE SENTENCE ’

Practice 1. Point out declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.
Distinguish between affirmative and negative constructions.
1. Don’t repeat these accusations without checking them. 2. I’m sorry - there isn’t
time to explain. 3. May I speak to your husband, please? 4. Is not everything under
control? 5. Don’t you dare to ask me such a question another time! 6. Would you
mind repeating the telephone number? 7. Let’s not become personal. 8. Aren’t they
glad to see us in their company? 9. Will she not receive me now? 10. I can hardly
believe his words. II. There can’t be anything wrong with the computer. 12. They
shouldn’t start without consulting the weather-men. 13. I’m not to be talked into
consent. 14. Won’t she marry Jack? 15. Don’t let us break the packets open.
16. Isn’t there anything we can do? 17. Don’t fail to follow the instructions closely.

236
18. Has he never flown passenger planes? 19. Go ahead, I’m ready to put down the
message. 20. Haven’t we been trying to reach you all these days?
Practice 2. Define the types of sentences according to the purpose of the
utterance.
Laura was terribly nervous. Tossing the velvet ribbon over her shoulder, she
said to a woman standing by: ‘Is this Mrs. Scott’s house?’ and the woman smiling
queerly, said: ‘It is, my lass.’ Oh, to be away from this! She actually said: ‘Help
me God!’ as she walked up the tiny path and knocked. To be away from these
staring eyes, or to be covered up in anything, one of those women’s shawls even!
I’ll just leave the basket and go, she decided. I shan’t even wait for it to be
emptied. Then the door opened. A little woman in black showed in the gloom.
Laura said: ‘Are you Mrs. Scott?’ But to her horror the woman answered,
‘Walk in, please, miss,’ and she was shut in the passage. ‘No,’ said Laura, ‘I don’t
want to come in. I only want to leave this basket.’
The little woman in the gloomy passage seemed not to hear her. ‘Step this
way, please, miss,’ she said in an oily voice, and Laura followed her.
Practice 3. Define the type of a question.
1. ‘Who is he?’ I said. And why does he sit always alone, with his back to us too?’
2. ‘Did she have a chill?’ he asked, his eyes upon the floor. 3. You have Mr.
Eden’s address, haven’t you, Mr.Ends? 4. Is literature less human than the
architecture and sculpture of Egypt? 5. We shall be having some sort of celebration
for the bride, shan’t we, Mr.Crawley? 6. ‘Can I see the manager?’ I said, and added
politely, ‘alone.’ 7. When had the carriage been back from taking Miss June to the
station? 8. What is the meaning of that? She is going to live in the house, isn’t she?
9. He couldn’t understand what Irene found wrong with him: it was not as if he
drank. Did he run into debt, or gamble or swear? 10. Were you talking about the
house? I haven’t seen it yet, you know. Shall we all go on Sunday? 11. Don’t you
realize it’s quite against the rules to have him. 12. How will you carry the bill into
effect? Can you commit a whole country to their own prisons?

237
Practice 4. State the types of the questions.
1. Can you fly this aircraft and land it? 2. What does he have to say? 3. Wasn’t it
an adventure? 4. So, they did take part in the reception, after all? 5. Will you do it
alone, or will you have someone to help you? 6. Do we read a book for the book’s
sake? 7. A good deal has been written about the importance of practice, hasn’t it?
8. Has it been a monotonous day, or have you come across some diversions? 9. At
what range will the plane show on the radar? 10. Do you care to comment or don’t
you? 11. Is it ail over, or do we have to go through the ordeal from the start? 12.
Isn’t it a lovely bit ofjewelry?
Practice 5. Make up an alternative question out of each of the given pairs Of
statements.
1. These decisions were based on ignorance. These decisions were based on
competence. 2. This satellite can be seen with a naked eye. This satellite can’t be
seen with a naked eye. 3. The liner will take off in half an hour. This liner will be
taking off in a few moments. 4. She felt quite secure. She felt somewhat insecure.
5. Anybody can say so. Nobody can say so. 6. Those people desire possessions.
Those people desire the well-being of others. 7. The truth is always beautiful. The
truth may sometimes be very ugly. 8. They drove back with the car radio playing.
They drove back with the car radio turned off. 9. The nurse tucked in her blanket
and fetched her hot-water bottle. The nurse passed by without paying attention to
her. 10. The information came from the Colonial Office files. The information
came from the Ministry of Defence.
Practice 6. Ask questions to the italicized words.
1. The show didn’t amuse us very much. 2. The grandmother was mending as
usual. 3. Margaret cannot keep a secret. 4. We went out through a side door into
the dark street. 5. Maria stood in the doorway with a large tray. 6. Anyone would
think I was cruel to them. 7. I watched her fasten green leaves in her hair. 8. There
was something important in the paper. 9. The dinner was quite a substantial affair.
10. The stewardess opened the door to the passenger deck. 11. The captain was

238
pacing the narrow cabin nervously. 12. You should try to relax as much as you
can.
Practice 7. Define the types of sentences according to the purpose of the
utterance.
Later that evening I was sitting on a high stool at the bar and found my eye
repeatedly wandering to the baccarat table. The crowd was there watching intently
a certain Mr. Randle, a rich banker, who was apparently winning a lot of money.
Suddenly, before my eyes I saw Percy Jater quietly but deftly remove Mr. Randle’s
pocket-book, extract seme notes, and return it to its original place - all happened
so quickly that I wanted to rub my eyes for fear they were deceiving me.
Jater’s composure was superb, and he quickly moved away from the scene*
of the theft to another part of the table, where he followed the play in nonchalant
sort of way. Of course, the perpetrator of the whole series of casino thefts became
obvious, and I had to debate what I should do. Should I expose Jater and have him
arrested and probably sentenced to, or...well, or what? What was the alternative? I
obviously couldn’t let it go on - and, even if I did, sooner or later the casino
detective would probably catch him. I anticipated a lively scene when Mr. Randle
would discover his loss and I realized something had to be done, and done fairly
quickly, if events were not to move too fast for me.
Jater, I noticed, had vanished - doubtless to avoid being caught with the
money of him if a search of everyone present were ordered. I left the casino as
unobtrusively as’ possible. I made my way to the pension where Percy was living,
and found him standing at the bottom of the garden, surveying the placid waters of
the Mediterranean. I lost no time in letting him know my errand.
“Percy,” I said, putting a hand gently on his shoulder, “I saw what you did
tonight at the casino...”
“Really, Mr. Robert,” he replied uncertainly, but looking at me intently,
“you saw me do what?”
“I saw you lighten Mr. Randle’s pocket.” I replied tersely.

239
 He sighed and bent his head. “Dear, dear,” he said sadly, “I suppose it could
not last forever. But it has been so lovely here. And now,” he added firmly, “I
suppose you want me to go with you to the police?”
“Not at all,” I replied. “You will catch the Silver Eagle tomorrow morning
at 11 a.m. and get away from San Carolino at once - before the authorities get their
hands on you”.
Practice 8. Point out declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.
Distinguish between affirmative and negative constructions.
I wanted to point out why Mrs. Munsing had come to see the police. “Mrs.
Munsing, why did you come to the police station?”
“Because of her, because of her... something has to be done about her before
she does it again, before she kills someone else.”
“Who, Mrs. Munsing? Who do you suspect of...?”
“Is dinner ready yet, Mrs. Munsing?” Ms. Ryan had entered the kitchen
again. She no longer had the pleasant smile on her face. Her eyes were set hard and
shoulders squared.
“Why do you come asking? You know what time dinner is. It’s always at 6
p.m.” The old woman was defiant.
To me it was obvious why Ms. Ryan had come asking. She must have been
listening at the door. I excused myself and went to find Mr. Fitch.
Mr. Fitch was sitting in the dark in one of the rooms off the dining-room. He
was staring out the window. I approached from behind his chair and followed his
gaze out the window. I saw the same figure with the hat disappeared into the
shadows of the forest.
“Who’s that?”
“What? Oh, Mr. Smith. You gave me a start. I didn’t see anyone come in.”
“What was that in the distance?”
“Where? I don’t see anything.”
“It’s gone now. But when I came this afternoon, I saw a figure with a straw
hat disappear into the forest. And I thought I just saw it again.”

240
 “You must have seen one of the famous Indian ghosts that people are always
talking about. Don’t trust your eyes, Mr. Smith. This mountain light will always
fool you.” He turned on a lamp on the table beside him and motioned for me to
bring a chair next to him.
“Mr. Smith, I’m glad you’ve come. There has been a lot of uneasiness up
here lately. This used to be a very quiet place. No problems, everyone got along
very well. But lately, everyone is full of suspicions. I know what some of the town
rumours are, and I guess you do, too. That’s probably why you were doing that
investigative work in the town newsroom. Surprised I know that, eh? Well, Mr.
Smith, very little happens in this town that I don’t know about. But I can tell you
that I loved all three of my wives; I did not marry them for their money, nor did I
kill them for their money.”
Practice 9. Point out declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.
Distinguish between affirmative and negative constructions.
Ms. Ryan took one step forward to meet me. “Have you been getting a
Iqsson on plants?” The question was an idle one.
. . “Yes. Where did she learn so much about plants?”
“One of the nuns from the convent on our estate comes over regularly to
give lessons to Sonia. I was hired to be her governess fifteen years ago when her
mother died, but I soon discovered that I have no patience with children.
Fortunately, Mr. Fitch needed someone to manage the house and his life. I am very
good at managing things.”
I could not disagree with her. She moved with a manner that implied
directness and precision. She pointed me to a chair at the end of the patio. We both
sat around a table piled with small cakes and sandwiches.
“Mrs. Munsing is very good cook, but I am afraid we will have to let her go.
All this talk cf hers about murders. She gets all those ideas from reading those
mystery stories to Sonia. Poison in the food! What a silly idea. Care for a
sandwich?”

241
 “How long has she been with the farm- '’ I asked taking sandwich but not
eating it.
"Oh, she has been here for... well, she was heic before I came. Mr. Fitch
hired her when his wife Amelia died. I’ve told Mr. Fitch that I thought he should
let her go. but he is a very kind person and hates to send anyone on her way.”
“And when did Darjo begin working here?”
“He was here even before Mr. Fitch came. Actually, he used to work for
Amelia Fitch when her father owned this property. Darjo was a famous pilot in
World War II, but he was shot down and held prisoner. He evidently hasn’t been
the same since. He used to take care of the planes that Amelia flew. She was a
good pilot herself, 1 am told, and had several planes.”
“Amelia’s father had even built a small airport in the valley beyond the
house. The land has been given over to the convent now. Occasionally I hear a
plane, so I think it’s still in use. But I never walk over there, i don’t like the woods;
they arc too dark.”
I looked at the woods which surrounded the house and understood what she
meant. I remembered how uncomfortable I had been when I was in the forest.
“What does Dario do now?”
“Not much. He’s getting too old. He hated the other two wives and he
doesn't like me much either. If there were a murderer, it would probably be him.
He doesn’t like anything to disturb the life he has known. Mr. Fitch once tried to
get some dogs to guard the property. The next morning we found them with their
throats cut. It was horrible. We were sure Darjo had done it, but there was no real
proof. We just know he doesn’t like anything new coming and staying.”
“Why doesn’t Mr. Fitch get rid of him?”
“Out of loyalty to his first wife. It was in her will that Darjo would be taken
care of until he died.” And that he could live here on this land”. She sat forward in
her chair and put a sweater around her shoulders. It’s getting cold out here. Why
don’t you go on down to the kitchen to talk to Mrs. Munsing?” It’s warm down

24 2
there, and after all, she's ihe one who started this investigation. I’m sure she’ll
have much to say."
Practice 10. Point out declarative, interrogath e, and imperative sentences.
Distinguish between affirmative and negative constructions.
Mrs. Hammond was old and blind, but she was determined to do everything
for herself. She even used to go for walks alone from her cottage once a day for
exercise and fresh air, and found her way by touching things with her white stick.
She learnt where everything was, so she never lost her way.
But then one day some men came and cut down some of the familiar pine
trees at the side of onp of the paths which she followed. When she reached that
place that evening, she didn’t feel the trees with her stick, so she was in
difficulties.
She stopped for a minute and listened, but she didn’t hear any other people,
so she went ahead for a kilometer or two, and then she heard water beneath.
“Water?” she said aloud, and paused. “Am I lost? I suppose so. I must be on
the bridge, I suppose, and there must be a river under me. I’ve been told that
there’s a river in this part of the country but I don’t know its exact position. How
am I going to get back to my cottage from here?”
All at once she heard a man’s friendly voice near her. It said, “Excuse me,
can I help you?”
“How kind of you!” Mrs. Hammond answered. “Yes, please, I’m lost. Some
of the trees which I follow when I go for a walk every evening had been removed
today, and if I hadn’t been lucky enough to come across you, I don’t know what
I’d have done. Can you, please, help me to get home?”
“Certainly,” the man answered. “Where do you live?”
Mrs. Hammond told him and they began walking. The man took Mrs.
Hammond to her cottage, and she invited him in and gave him some coffee and a
piece of cake. She told the man how grateful she was that she’d met him.
“Don’t thank me.” he answered, “I want to thank you.”
“Thank me?” Mrs. Hammond said. "Whatever for?"

24 t
 “Well, “the man answered quietly, “I was balanced on the edge of that
bridge for ages in the dark, because I was trying to make up my mind to throw
myself into the river and drown myself. But I’m not going to do now.”
Practice 11. Point out declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.
Distinguish between affirmative and negative constructions.
My father without the slightest doubt was the most marvelous and exciting
father any boy ever had. He was not what you call an educated man and I doubt if
he had read twenty books in his life. But he was a wonderful story-teller. He used
to make up a bedtime story for me every single night, and the best ones were
turned into serials and went on for many nights running.
One of them was about an enormous fellow called The Big Friendly Giant,
or the BFG for a short. The BFG was three times as tall as an ordinary man. He
lived in a cave and only came out into the open air when it was dark. Inside the
cave he had a powder factory where he made more than a hundred different kinds
of magic powder.
My father would sit close to me on the edge of my bunk and speak very
softly:
“The BFG makes his magic powder out of the dreams of that children dream
when they are asleep,” he said.
“How?” I asked, “Tell me how, Dad.”
“Dreams, my love, are mysterious things. They float around in the night air
like little clouds, searching for sleeping people.”
“What happens when he catches the dreams?” I asked.
“He imprisons them in glass bottles and uses them in his powders.”
“What does the BFG do with his powders after he has made them?”
“In the dead of night he goes through the villages searching for houses
where children are asleep. So he opens his suitcase and selects exactly the right
powder and blows it into the room and the child breathes it in.”
“And what then?”

244
 “And then, Danny, the child begins to dream a marvelous and fantastic
drcam, then the magic powder really takes over and suddenly the dream is not a
dream any longer but a real happening... and the child is fully awake and is taking
part in real life. More about that tomorrow. It’s getting late. Good night and go to
sleep.”
“Dad,” I whispered.
“What is it?”
“Have you ever actually seen the BFG?”
“Once, only once. It was a clear moonlit night and I happened to look up and
suddenly I saw this tall person along the crest of the hill. There was a big suitcase
in his hand full of magic powder, I believe.”
“Were you frightened, Dad?”
“No, it was just thrilling to see him. Go to sleep now. Good night.”
Practice 12. Point out two-member sentences (say whether they are complete
or elliptical) and one-member sentences.
Bicycle. We often hear a saying: “Don’t invent a bicycle.” Really the bicycle
is old enough - more than a hundred years old of age. Its first prototype appeared
in 1791 in France. In 1800 a Russian peasant Artamanov made an iron bicycle and
travelled on it from Nizhniy Tagil to Moscow.
First bicycles locked strange: the back wheel was usually smaller. Bicycles
were made of iron and riding them was not comfortable because of shaking. They
were even called “boneshaker”.
New types of bicycles appeared every year but only in 1885 people saw a
model which looked like modem cycles. It had almost equal wheels and a chain
drive to the rear wheel. This shape survived and became basic. The new machine
looked more elegant than the old “spiders” which were soon abandoned. As time
went by, new bicycles were invented - for two, three and even for fifteen riders.
The first bicycle race was held in 1868 in Paris. But the sport became
popular only several decades later because bicycles were expensive and only rich
people could afford them. - By the end of nineteenth century many factories

245
produced thousands of bicycles which became cheap, so many people could
practice cycling and take part in competitions.
Cycling competitions are generally divided into road and track events. Both
kinds are in the Olympic program. Olympic road events include individual and
team races.
Individual races’ distances are different usually up to 200 kilometers. The
winner is the first cyclist who passes the finish line with his front wheel.
Cyclist wear shirts with pockets on the back, tight knee-long woolen shorts,
special shoes, a cap and mitts on their hands.
Practice 13. Point out two-member sentences (say whether they are complete
or elliptical).
Mathew lived in a big city, and his hair was always cut by the same
hairdresser. Mathew went to him once a month. He was allowed one hour for his
lunch every day, and in the mornings when his hair was going to be cut, he made
himself some sandwiches to eat in the hairdresser’s.
The hairdresser had a very small shop near Mathew’s office, and he worked
alone, but he always cut Mathew’s hair exactly as Mathew liked it, and while he
was doing it, the two men talked about football or cricket.
But the hairdresser was an old man, and one day, when Mathew was sitting
in his chair, and his hair was being cut as usual, the old man said to him, “Mathew,
I’m going to be sixty-five years old next month, so I’m going to retire. I’m going
to sell my shop to a young man who wants to be a hairdresser. The shop’s being
paid for by the young man’s father.”
Mathew was very sad to hear this, because he enjoyed talking to the old
man, and he was also worried that his hair would not be cut as well by the new
young man as it had been for so many years by his old friend.
He went to the shop again the next month, and the new man was there. He
cut Mathew’s hair, but he did it very badly. The next month Mathew went into the
shop again. The young man asked him how he would like his hair cut, and Mathew
answered, “Please, cut it very short on the right side, but leave it as it is on the left.

24(>
It must cover my ear. On the top, cut all hair away in the middle, but leave a piece
at the front which can hang down to my chin.”
The young man was very surprised when he heard this. “But, sir,” he said, “I
can’t cut your hair like that!”
“Why not?” Mathew asked. “That’s how you cut it last time.”
Practice 14. Point out two-member sentences (say whether they are complete
or elliptical).
Ms. Ryan led me through the dark hall and down the steps into a large
kitchen that was warm from the oven. “Ms. Munsing, Detective Smith would like
to talk with you before dinner. I hope he won’t be in your way.”
The old man shot a nervous look in my direction and gave a slight nod in the
direction of Ms. Ryan. Ms. Ryan turned to me and said she would see me at dinner
and left. Ms. Munsing made herself busy with preparing the food. I saw on the
table the basket of leaves and herbs that Sonia had collected. The parsley was
spread out on the table. I had never associated death with that innocent plant. But
the more I was in this house, the more everything began to be associated with
death. First appearance can be deceiving.
Mrs. Munsing had still not turned around. I started the conversation by
asking, “What do you think about Ms. Ryan?” It proved to be a good opener.
“Oh, Mr. Smith, sir. She’s an evil woman, that one. Evil! Evil! She acts all
sweet and nice, but she’s hard as nails. Don’t trust her, Mr. Smith. Don’t trust her.”
She grabbed the knife from the table top and began to chop the tops of the carrots.
Pointing with her knife, she continued, “There has been nothing but trouble ever
since she came to this house. He got her to take care of poor little Sonia, but she
began to act as she owned the house. You do think she was the wife or something.
Later when Mr. Fitch married, she acted all sweet to the new wives, but here in the
kitchen she would complain about them getting in the way. And none of them had
anything to do with poor little Sonia. If it hadn’t been for the nun who comes in the
morning to give her lessons, no one would pay any attention to her, except me and
Darjo. Why that little girl would be sitting in here at that table eating and those

247
women would come in here and ignore her. They would think because she was
blind, they didn’t have to notice her.”
Practice 15. Point out two-member sentences (say whether they arc complete
or elliptical).
As soon as George Cleaver made his first million, he and Mrs. Cleaver
moved out of their small suburban villa into an elegant London house. They
acquired a French chef called Monsieur Estragon and an English butler called
Tibbs, both wildly expensive. With the help of these two experts, the Cleavers set
out to climb the social ladder and began to give dinner parties several times a week
*
on a lavish scale.
But these dinners never seemed quite to come off. There was no animation,
no spark to set the conversation alight, no style at all. Yet the service was superb
and the service faultless.
“What the heck’s wrong with our parties, Tibbs? “ Mr. Cleaver said to the
butler. “Why don’t nobody never loosen up and let themselves go?”
Tibbs inclined his head to one side and looked at the ceiling. “I hope, sir,
you will not be offended if I offer a small suggestion.”
“What is it?”
“It’s the wine, sir.”
“What about the wine?”
“Well, sir, Monsieur Estragon serves superb food. Superb food should be
accompanied by superb wine. But you serve them a cheap and very odious Spanish
red.”
“Then why in heaven’s name didn’t you say so before, you twit?” cried Mr.
Cleaver. “I’m not short of money. I’ll give them the best flipping wine in the world
if that’s what they want! What is the best wine in the world?”
“Claret, sir,” the butler replied, “from the greatest chateaux in Bordeaux -
Lafite, Latour, Haut-Brion, Margaux, Mouton-Rothschild and Cheval Blanc. And
from only the very greatest vintage years, which are, in my opinion, 1906, 1914

248
and 1945. Cheval Blanc was also magnificent in 1895 and 1921, and Haut Briton
in 1906.”
“Buy them all!” said Mr. Cleaver. “Fill the flipping cellar from top to
bottom!”
“I can try, sir,” the butler said. “But wines like these are extremely rare and
cost a fortune.”
“I don’t give a hoot what they cost!” said Mr. Cleaver. “Just go out and get
them!”
That was easier said than done. Nowhere in England or in France could
Tibbs find any wine from 1895, 1906, 1914 or 1921. But he did manage to get hold
of some twenty-nine or forty-fives. The bills for these wines were astronomical.

249
 PARTS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

Principal Secondary

THE PRINCIPAL PARTS

The Subject The Predicate

It denotes the doer of the action expressed It denotes an action, state or quality of the
by the predicate-verb: person or thing denoted by the subject:
The baby is sleeping in the room. He steppedforward.
He was asleep.
The man is handsome.

THE SUBJECT

It is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of

the other parts of the sentence and on which the second principal part (the predicate) is
grammatically dependent, i.e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and
person: Marcellus slowly turned his head.
Everyone was silent for a minute.
Who tore this book?
One wants to live forever.
The wounded were taken good care of.
The first and fourth stood beside him in the water.
To live is to work.
Lying doesn 7 go well with me.
On is a preposition.
The needle and thread is lost.

250
 /TAS THE SUBJECT

NOTIONAL FORMAL
Represents a living being or a thing: Denotes no person or thing:
a)Stands for a definite thing or some abstract a) Impersonal:
idea: It often rains here.
The room was painted. It was painted by a It is eight minutes to nine.
young man. b) Introductory or
b) Points out some person or thing expressed by anticipatory:
a predicative noun (or pronoun) or refers to the It was impossible for him to
thought contained in a preceding statement; it return today.
has the demonstrative meaning: c) Emphatic:
It was John. It was my brother who
He came home late; it provoked his mother. solved the problem.

PRACTICE ON THE SUBJECT

Practical. Point out the subject and define by what it is expressed.

1. At that moment the postman, looking like a German army officer, came in with
the mail. 2. The clock struck eight. There was no sign of any of the other guests. 3.
Now, there is something peculiarly intimate in sharing an umbrella. 4. Together we
walked through the mid and slush. 5. Something impersonal and humble in that
action seemed to reassure the Consul. 6. The sight of them, so intent and so quick,
gave Bertha a curious shiver. 7. Eight o’clock in the morning. Miss Ada Moss lay
in a black iron bedstead, staring up at the ceiling. 8. Still, the good of mankind was
worth working for. 9. Sometimes the past injects itself into the present with a

251
peculiar force. 10. Forgetting 'some' thirds is a difficult matter. 11. To cross from
one end to the other was difficult because of the water. 12. “A person doesn’t have
to be rich to be clean,” Charles said. 13. There was an eagerness and excitement in
the faces of the men. 14. Let’s get out quick. It is no good wasting time. 15. “Very
well,” said Soames, “then we know where we are.” 16. Now, to go through a
stormy night and with wet clothes, and, in addition, to be ill nourished and not to
have tasted meat for a week or a month, is about as severe a hardship as a man can
undergo. 17. She didn’t know. The “No” was stronger than her craving to be in
Frisco’s arms and forget this dreary existence. 18. The mining industry might make
wealth and power for a few men and women. 19. This, of course, in her present
mood, was so incredibly beautiful . . . She began to laugh. 20. To live on good
terms with people one must share their work and interests. 21. These three deemed
themselves the queens of the school. 22. Who were these people? What are they?
23. His was the harsh world of reality. No one could walk around his drawing. 24.
The firing increased in volume. 25. High and low all made fun of him. 26. Your
coming home has made me as foolish as a young girl of eighteen. 27. And now his
heir and nephew, Thomas Esmond, began to bid for his uncle’s favour.
Practice 2. Point out the subject and define by what it is expressed.
1. You couldn’t define it more precisely! 2. It never rains, but it pours! 3. Two plus
two is four. 4. There was a lamp-post beside the packing house. 5. What is the
meaning of all this? 6. A few more of these is all that is needed. 7. People don’t
1 •J
easily recognize their faults. 8. Dark blue is not your colour for a costume. 9. Who
will be the second in command? 10. Which of them is the Commander? 11. To be
or not to be, that is the question. 12. Smoking is not allowed. 13. One can’t be too
sure. 14. How much do they offer? 15. They say it’s about ten miles from here.
16. The third may be not taken into account. 17. Your ‘i’ must be dotted. 18. Will
half of the sum be enough? 19. The brave won’t lay down their arms. 20. Never is
a long time. 21. Here is a brighter torch for Jim.

252
Practices. Consider the use of the infinitive and the gerund in the function of
the subject. Point out the constructions with the anticipatory it. Change the
non-anticipatory constructions into the Corresponding anticipatory Onos and
vice versa. , „
Examples:
Growing flowers requires care and devotion. - It requires care and devotion
growing flowers. !;
To go under sail was such a pleasure/ - It was such a pleasure to go under sail!
1. Participating in the preliminary matches gave, the sportsmen the necessary
confidence. 2. It was next to impossible to overcome his stubbornness. 3. Was it so
very important having the script finished by the end of the month? 4. Watching thb
performances of these great actors opened for me new truths of life. 5. It’s a joy to
see you under our roof. 6. It’s no use arguing about the matter. 7. Not seeing Cecil
among the guests surprised me immensely. 8. To apply the rule of permutation
won’t do in this case. 9. Losing the game was a great disappointment. 10. Isn’t it a
great advantage to have so retentive a memory? 11. Pretending being older seems
rather strange. 12. To be an expert in one’s field requires a lifetime of effort.
Practice 4. Distinguish between the subject-substitute and its antecedent.
1. A young man in a cycling suit cleared his way through the ring of bystanders.
He knelt down promptly beside the injured man and called the water. 2. Mr. Brett
would be back this evening. That would liven things up. She would tell him what
they had said about him. That would make laugh. 3. Amelia opened the case, and
giving a little cry of delighted affection, seized the boy and embraced him a
hundred times. It was a miniature of himself, very prettily done ... 4. The fields
were too big. It gave Ossie agoraphobia if he looked at them too long from his
bedroom window. 5. It struck her as curious that she had repulsed him. Was it
because she had moral scruples? Was it at bottom because she did not care for
him? 6. Then, as she turned away she added: “But you let Constance do just as she
likes!” This was her sole bitter comment on the episode ... 7. There was only one
quality in a woman that appealed to him - charm; and the quieter it was, the more

253
he liked it. And this one had charm', shadowy as afternoon sunlight on those Italian
hills and valleys he had loved.
Practice 5. Point out the subject and define by what it is expressed.
1. Things were going on smoothly. 2. You can not eat your cake and have it.
3. Can you give me a light? 4. People generally don’t like being ordered about.
5. It was getting darker and darker. 6. We were too tired to enjoy the show
properly. 7. They don’t like cowards in the mountains. 8. What are we normally
supposed to do in a situation like that? 9. Some don’t like light music, others don’t
like classical music. 10. How can one account for his refusal? 11. There was no
one on the stairs. 12. It was broad daylight when we started. 13. What can I do .for
you? 14. Could one do anything for them at all? 15. Many will support his idea,
while not a few will find no appeal in it. 16. Man changes nature, but together with
nature he changes himself, too. 17.Who can tell the number of scintillating stars
above our heads? 18. You look at the picture of the great master, and you forget
that it is painted with colours on a piece of canvas: every detail of it is life itself.
Practice 6. Point out the subject and define by what it is expressed.
All her life Mrs. Foster had had an almost pathological fear of missing a
train, a plane, a boat or even a theatre curtain. In other' respects,’'she was not a
particularly nervous woman, but the mere thought of being late on occasions like
these would throw her into such a state of nerves that she would begin to twitch. It
Was nothing much - just a tiny muscle in the comer of the left eye, like a secret
wink - but the annoying thing was that it refused to disappear until an hour or so
after the train or plane or whatever it was had been safely caught.
It was really extraordinary how in certain people a simple apprehension
about a thing like catching a train can grow into a serious obsession. At least half
an hour before it was time to leave the house for the station, Mrs. Foster would
step out of the elevator all ready to go, with hat and coat and gloves and then,
being quite unable to sit down, she would flutter and fidget about from room to
room until her husband, who must have been well aware of her state, finally

254
emerged from his privacy and suggested in a cool dry yoice tha|,.perhaps, they had
better get going now, had they not?
Mr. Foster may possibly have had a right to be irritated by this foolishness of
his wife, but he could have had no excuse for increasing her misery by keeping her
waiting unnecessarily. Mind you, it is by no means certain that this is what he did,
yet whenever they were to go somewhere, his timing was so accurate - just a
minute or two late, you understand - his manner so bland that it was hard to
believe he wasn’t purposely indicting a nasty private little torture of his own on the
unhappy lady. And one thing he must have known - that she would never dare to
call out and tell him to hurry. He must also have known that if he was prepared to
wait even beyond the last moment of safety, he could drive her nearly into"
hysterics. On one of two special occasions in the later years of their married life, it
seemed almost as though he had wanted to miss the train simply in order to
intensify poor woman’s suffering.
Practice 7. Point out the subject and define by what it is expressed.
As I went into the casino with the friends at whose villa I was staying at, I
saw Percy again. Actually, he was with friends himself and I didn’t have the
opportunity of doing more than bid him good evening. Indeed, my attention was
quickly diverted by the young and attractive Marquise de Beauvallon, who was
making what appeared to be a scene at No. 3 Roulette table. Eventually, the ever­
tactful Franchois, who runs the casino for the municipality, bore her to one side
and with suave gestures and sympathetic murmurs soothed her down.
A little later, I managed to get Franchois alone and asked him what Mme de
Beauvallon’s trouble was. He shrugged his shoulders: “She says she had 20.000
francs stolen from her bag - the money she had just won when No. 18 turned up. I
was not surprised. This was not the first time. Occasional arguments had been, of
course, there was Mr.Reveiller, the Paris couturier, who had an extremely valuable
gold cigarette case stolen from his waistcoat pocket, and Miss Baba Englemann,
who missed a diamond-studded bracelet when she was at the baccarat table. And,

255
of course, the Moldavian military attache, who had a wad of currency stolen from
his overcoat - currency that he had so carefully smuggled out of his own country.”
Now these incidents, serious though they were in themselves, were fairly
effectively hushed up by the management, and few of the main body of people
frequenting the casino knew that anything was amiss. But Franchois realized
clearly, and I realized too that an extraordinarily clever thief was in our midst. The
local police were therefore brought in to aid the resident casino detective, and
Franchois told me confidently that it was only a matter of time before the culprit
was laid by the heels. For myself, I must say that secretly I began rather to enjoy
the hunt.
Practice 8. State the nature of it.
1 .It was stuffy in the living room and quite hot. 2. The door knocked. It was thin
and handsome John. 3. Where is your bicycle? It is in the garden. 4. Did you watch
it? 5. My sister’s baby is due next month. It will be a girl. 6. When the factory
closes, it will mean 500 people losing their jobs. 7. It is your friend on the phone.
8. Hello, Mike, it is Peter here. 9. Hi, it is me. 10. Does it matter how much it
costs? 11. It is possible to get there in time. 12. It is very boring to stay at home at
this time of the day. 13. It appears that the two leaders are having secret talks. 14.1
find it strange that she doesn’t want to go. 15. It was our anniversary yesterday. 16.
It is two miles to the beach. 17. It is quite hot at the moment. 18. It was snowing in
the morning. 19. If it is convenient I can come tomorrow. 20. It is very enjoyable
to be here. 21. It is good to talk to her. 22. It is me who is the clever one. 23. It is
France that they are going to, not England. 24. It was three weeks later that he
heard the news. 25. Their talk made me unhappy. It was almost unbearable. 26. It
was happiness to be listened to like this. 27. It is very depressing to be given such
information. 28. If this is marriage, it is going to mean unhappiness. 29. I took a
room. It was light and comfortable. 30. It was John who helped me to solve that
problem.

256
Practice 9. State whether it is a notional or formal subject.
Azerbaijan is the biggest of the three countries in the southern Caucasus. It is
located on the southwestern shore of the Caspian Sea. As a small state, it may be
hard to pinpoint. Some maps of Europe include Muslim Azerbaijan; others leave it
out. It has been classified as being in “Europe,” in “Asia,” or in “the Middle East.”
The country borders Russian and Georgia in the north, Armenia and Turkey
in the west, and Iran in the south. The map of Azerbaijan resembles an eagle. It is a
beak pointing to the capital, Baku, on the Caspian peninsula.
The country’s highest peak is Bazarduzu Dagi. It is 14,652 feet (4,466m) tall
in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains and its lowest point is the Caspian Sea. It lies 92
feet (28 m) below sea level.
The oil-rich Caspian Sea is bordered by five states-Russia, Iran,
Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, and Azerbaijan-that have not yet arrived at a joint
conclusion about its status. So far, Azerbaijan, Russia, and Kazakhstan have
reached an agreement on the status of the Caspian. It has been rejected by Iran and
Turkmenistan.
Although Azerbaijan is landlocked, Baku has an international port from
which passenger ferries sail off across the Caspian to Turkmenistan and
Kazakhstan. It also handles significant cargo traffic in petroleum products. Built in
1902, it is the largest Caspian port. Azerbaijan’s two main rivers, the Kura and the
Araz, flow into the Caspian.
The country’s total area of 33,400 sq.miles (86,600sq.km) includes the
autonomous republic of Nakhchivan-the only part of Azerbaijan that shares a short,
5.6 mile (9km) border with Turkey-which is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan
by a narrow strip of Armenia. It also includes a region called Daglig
(Mountainoi ) Garabagh in Azeri, or Nagomo Karabakh in Russian. It has been
occupied by Armenian forces since 1990s, together with the surrounding villages.
Practice 10. Make up s entences paying attention to the use of it.
1. so, was, difficult, to, remember, those, rows, of, figures, it. 2. is, the, pen, that, it,
gave, you, me, to. 3. Tom, me, recognize, don’t, you, speaking, is, it. 4. only,

257
yesterday, it, that, had, I, confirmation, the, the, of, news, was. 5. was, it, too, for,
late, them, continue, to, talk, their. 6. is, it, the, to, operator, is, nodding, you, not,
to, that, he. 7. it, tactful, wasn’t, apologize, you, should. 8. Oh, no, good, it, is, you,
meant, it, not, that. 9. it, joy, you, to, see, again, here, is. 10. since, seems, ages, it,
you, I seen, have.
Practice 11. Use constructions with the emphatic it to answer the questions.
Example:
Who answered the bell, Mary or Floy? - It was Floy that answered the bell, not
Mary.
1. They met her on the bridge, didn’t they? Or was it at the boating station? 2. Did
you yourself speak to the assistant professor, or did Margaret speak to him? 3.
Oliver must have come from New Zealand. Or does he come from Australia? 4.
The liner takes off at nine. 5. The head-master will help us with the fixing of ihe
machine tool. Or shall we apply to the consulting engineer? 6. The second point is
to be revised. Or shall we revise the first point, too? 7. What was the source of the
food poisoning - fish or meat? 8. Can he be entrusted with the task? Or will it be
safer to charge Alex with it? 9. Did Fred win the race? Or was Bobby the winner?
10. Is he upstairs, or is he waiting for us in the car? 11. Will you go there by sea, or
do you prefer a plane? 12. Is she growing azaleas or roses in her garden? 1
Practice 12. Read the jokes and reproduce them. Pay attention to the use of it.
“I don’t like this photo at all”, he said, “z7 is so ugly. It is unbearable to look
at it. I look like an ape.” It was the photographer who was famous for his wit, as
well as for his art. He favored him with a glance of lofty disdain, and then said:
“You should have thought of that before you had them taken”. It made the man
feel ashamed and he left.
★ k * * * *

“Zt was so cold where we were”, said the Arctic explorer, “it was the candle light
that froze before we could blow it out”.

258
“It is nothing”, said his rival. “It was the place where we were as soon as the words
came out of our mouths in pieces of ice and we had to fry them to see what we
were talking about.”
******

“It must be terrible for an opera singer to realize that he can never sing
again.”
“Yes, but it is much more terrible if he doesn’t understand it.”
******

Rich Ladyt It was me who was bom with a silver spoon in my mouth.
Poor Girl: By the size of your mouth it must have been a soup ladle.
****** •

It was Tom Robinson who was very small and timid working in an office.
He worked hard as an office boy for only three pounds a week. He was working
harder and harder day by .day. And it made him to ask for more money.
“You are an honest boy and not a lazy-bones; it is you who work harder
here,” his master said. “How much more do you want?” It was the answer Tom
gave: “Well, I think that two pounds a week is not too much, is z7?” “Why you are
a rather small boy to get five pounds a week. Isn’t it right?” “You see”, Tom
replied, “It is true that I am a small boy for my age, but to tell the truth, since I’ve
worked here I’ve been so busy that I haven’t had time to grow. Don’t you think it
is true?”
Practice 13. Fill in the blanks with it or there to suit corresponding meanings
of the sentences.
1. a) — was too windy. — was no use going to the beach.
b) — was no wind, though — was very cold.
2. a) — was day already.
b) — was a ride in the country to look forward to.
3. a) — wasn’t light enough.
b) — was light coming through the trees. — was hope in it.

259
 4. a) — was a great joy to get the news' of our team’s victory. — was a
celebration ahead.
b) — was joy written all over his face. — was no sham.
5. a) — could be anybody. — was difficult to see through the mist.
b)----- was nobody in the house. — could be no mistake about it.
6. a) — was not much to be added, and — was a relief.
b) — was too much to be said about him, — was felt by everyone
present.
7. a) — is another letter from Polly, isn’t — fine?
b) — was another of his letters, and — was a lot of bitterness expressed
there.
8. a) Is — so serious? Is — really much to be worried about?
b) — is nothing serious about it. — is no cause for anxiety whatsoever.
9. a) — is as — should be. And from now on — will be a steady tendency
for improvement.
b) — should be another alternative still. -— is always preferable to have
more than one possibility to choose from.
10. a) — is about ten already. -— is time to start.
b) — is all the time we need. — is no need to be in a hurry.
Practice 14. a) Memorize the proverbs with it and give their Azerbaijani
equivalents.
It never rains bu t pours.
It takes a thief to catch a thief.
It takes all sorts to make a world.
It takes one to know one.
It takes two to tango.
It's an ill wind that blows no one any good.
It is better to give than to receive.
It's better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.
It is better to light a candle than curse the darkness.

260
It's better to travel hopefully than to arrive. ' ""
It's never too late to learn.
(< •,
It's no use crying over spilt milk.
It's no use locking the stable door after the horse has bolted.
It's the early bird that gets the worm.
It's the empty can that makes the most noise.
It's the squeaky wheel that gets the grease.
b) Make up situations using the proverbs mentioned above.

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 THE PREDICATE
ACCORDING TO THE MEANING

Actional Statal Qualificative Double

A predicate which A predicate which A predicate, which A predicate which
expresses various expresses temporary expresses the quality has double nature:
actions’. state characterizing or distinctive sign The sun struck hot on
He stepped forward. the subject’. characterizing the us.
He was so tired. He subject’.
couldn’t sleep. The boy was clever
and strong.

ACCORDING TO THE STRUCTURE

THE SIMPLE PREDICATE

The simple predicate is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or a compound form:

The delegation arrived late at night.
I've sent a letter to my friend.
There is a special kind of predicate which is expressed by phraseological units like to
get rid, to take care, to pay attention, etc.:
The woman took care of the child.

THE COMPOUND PREDICATE

The compound predicate consists of two parts: a finite verb and some other part of speech
which may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a verbal (a participle, a gerund or an
infinitive).The compound predicate maybe: 1) nominal; 2) verbal.

THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE

It indicates the state or quality of the person or thing expressed by the subject or the class of
persons or things to which this person or thing belongs to:
I am tired.
He is a driver.
It is a dictionary.

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 THE PREDICATIVE

The significant part of the compound nominal predicate is called the predicative.

The Predicative can be expressed

a noun in thecommon cas e, occasionally by He was a well-known painter.

a noun in the genitive case This bag is my mother's.

an adjective The day was beautiful.

different pronouns It was she.
The book is mine.
You are nobody.
She was herself again.
a numeral (cardinal; ordinal) I am almost ninety.
He was the first to break the silence.
a stative adjective 1 am afraid I cannot return in time.
a prepositional phrase My TV set was out of order.
an infinitive, infinitive phrase, infinitive To see is to believe.
construction His first act was to shut the door.
The first thing is for you to move in with
me.
a gerund, gerundial phrase, gerundial My brother’s favourite sport is swimming.
construction The main problem is not having bad
manners or good manners, but having the
same manner for all souls.
The topic of our discussion was our going
on a picnic.
Participle I or Participle II The landscape was fascinating that day.
I was surprised at the sound of my own
voice.
an adverb It was enough to stay at home.

THE COMPOUND VERBAL PREDICATE

The Compound Verbal The Compound Verbal

Modal Predicate Aspect Predicate

A predicate consisting of a modal verb and an infinitive A predicate consisting of a finite verb
is called the compound verbal modal predicate: and an infinitive or a gerund
He can ride a horse. expressing the beginning, repetition,
I was to have met my friend. duration or cessation of the action is
She is going to visit us next week. called the compound verbal aspect
predicate:
She had stopped asking questions.
We often would/used to visit our
granny.

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 MIXED TYPES OF THE PREDICATE

The Compound Modal The Compound The Compound The Compound

Nominal Predicate: Aspect Nominal Modal Aspect Modal Aspect ■
He greatly longed to be Predicate: Predicate: Nominal Predicate:
the next. I continued to be I had to begin living He couldn’t stop
gladfor them. by myself. being angry with
them.

PRACTICE ON THE PREDICATE

: •) s Hu;
Practice l.jPoint out the predicate and define its type. ......
1. Presently she grew tired of that and looked across at her sister. 2. You shalFMVe
as many dances as you like. I shan’t dance with anyone except you and Martin.
3. Well, do you feel any better now? 4. Harry was enjoying,his dinner. 5. Alice
went on, he ought to stop doing nothing and criticizing everybody. 6. Everything is
being taken down and used against you. 7. The story will only get repeated and
exaggerated. 8. But I’ve got to have a word with him. We got to do something
about it. 9. She became bitter and unapproachable. 10. Her marriage was more or
less fixed for the twenty-eight of the month. They were to sail for India on
September the fifth. 11. Leila’s partner gave a little gasping laugh. 12. You are to
go straight to your room. You are to say nothing of this to anyone. 13. He was a
country doctor. He died young. 14. I began to stammer my apologies. 15. To'walk
in this way behind him seemed to Annette already a sufficient marvel. 16. A ship -
the Vestris - is reported to be arriving at Joppa. 17. Led was having a little new
sort of weeping fit daily or every other day. 18. Even now he was able to find a
thin excuse, for that young idiot. 19. Do not delay, there is no time. The teacher
Williams lies dead already. 20. The grey house had ceased to be a home for family
life. 21. Kit had been told to do nothing in particular. 22. Lately he’d made efforts

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to bring the matter up with Brian or Colin. 23. The sky shone pale. 24. These days
are finished. They are blotted out. I must begin living all over again. 25. Next day,
by noon, I was up and dressed, and sat wrapped in a shawl by the nursery hearth.
26. And all the while he felt the presence of Pat and had to keep on resting the
impulse to turn round. 27. But he remained quiet. 28. Morning broke quiet and
hushed, subdued as if holding its breath. 29. There were a number of people out
this afternoon. And the band sounded louder and gayer. 30. This has proved
surprisingly difficult.
Practice 2. Point out the predicate and define its type.
1. Two young girls in red came by. 2. They came alive and pressed a flock of
inquiries. 3. And in many ways along lines you’d do more or less approve, I’m
coming to feel the mill a part of myself. 4. He tried to be both firm and friendly.
I’ve felt dependent on him. 5. He now felt only a confused ache of memory and a
growing desire to be home. 6. No one was there to meet Dick. He felt a twinge of
disappointment. 7. There was a silence but not an uncomfortable one. 8. He was
vaguely aware of his father standing by the kitchen-range with his coat off. '9. The
day of our wedding came. He was to call for me to choose the furniture. 10. A
good reliable husband he’d make. And our Alice is a great one for wanting a place
of her own. 11. That made all the difference. The room came alive at once. 12.
“She sounds serious,” Albertine insisted. “She keeps talking about it.” 13. Not
even her own children had seen Mark break down. She’d keep a proud face
always. 14. My lady keeps a list of the names in a little red book. 15. Charlie kept
quiet. 16. Cedric Thompson stood a good three inches above me. 17. For a moment
I stood aghast, peering after her shadowy figure, and wondering what had taken
her. 18. And then they sat silent for a few moments together. 19. I sat writing
letters on a piece of paper with a pencil. 20. And for some time he lay gasping on a
little flock mattress, rather unequally posed between this word and the next. 21.
Some of the wounded lay unconscious. 22. He seemed glad to see me. 23. At that
moment everything in her life seemed to be a source of desperate anxiety. 24. You
can smile away till you split your cheek, but you still got to do a day’s work to earn

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a day’s wages. Apples don’t grow on monkey-trees. 25. She grew to know the two
elderly men better than any other member of Eden’s family. 26. Yates grew
impatient. 27. She turned once more to Mr. Godfrey. 28. He turned pink and pale
during this speech. 29. Mr. Bruff remained to dinner, and stayed through the
evening. 30.1 gave up the attempt and went upstairs to unpack. 31. His knees went
week. He sat down on his bed. 32. I looked at the photograph above the
mantelpiece and saw my own face for the first time. 33. Giovanni looked crest­
fallen. 34. He was beginning to sound really angry.
Practice 3. Say where the reflexive pronoun is an object or a predicative.
1. On my estate, we pride ourselves on other things besides hay. 2. She paused, her
eyes never leaving my face. “I shall always blame myself for the accident.” 3. She
raised herself suddenly in the tall chair, and looked straight at him. 4. Dick found
himself walking in the direction of his friend Mike’s place. 5. It was a Tuesday.
My lady wasn’t quite herself that afternoon. 6. He felt himself unusually on edge,
unable to maintain the impersonally smug tone of Stephenson. 7. Mrs. Danvers
showed herself at last. 8. She stopped, her eyes were on me. “I always blamed
myself for the accident.” 9. He found himself walking in the direction of his
friend’s house 10. It was a Sunday. My boss was quite himself that morning.
11. He felt himself unusually on edge, unable to maintain the impersonally smug
tone of Charles. 12. They showed themselves at last. 13. He raised himself up on
one elbow. 14. Somehow we managed to raise her to her feet and with this we
enjoyed ourselves. 15. Can you find me my bag yourself? 16. They found him to
be charming himself. 17. She didn’t seem quite herself this morning. 18. She
needed space to be herself. 19. He ought to be ashamed of himself. 20. Did you see
the manager yourself? 21. They seemed to be enjoying themselves. 22. They
themselves have had a similar experience.
Practice 4. Point out the predicative and define by what it is expressed.
1. She was completely dazed. 2. Their highest concept of right conduct, in his case,
was to get a job. 3. I’m five foot eleven in my sock. 4. Sally, herself, was quite
content for a while to enjoy becoming acquainted with her son, washing and

266
feeding him, talking him for walks in the bush, singing him to sleep. 5. He was as
generous and hail-fellow-well-met with them as ever. 6. I am cold. And I always
was such a one for being warm. 7. Your resemblance to your mother is very
striking. 8. He didn’t answer. I was aware again of that feeling of discomfort. 9. I
hated myself. My question had been degrading, shameful. 10. Their interests were
hers as well as the interests of everybody. 11. He’s a good chap. He makes you feel
it’s worth while being alive. 12. Arrived here, his first act was to kneel down on
large stone beside the row of vessels, and to drink a copious draught from one of
them. 13. Either course seemed unthinkable, without any connection with himself.
14. The nightmare of my life has come tine. We are in danger of our lives. 15. The
best thing is for you to move in with me and let the young lady stay with your
mother. 16. But she was herself again, brushing her tears away. 17. The rest of the
time was yours. 18. How do you feel physically? 19. Who are you? 20. I felt very
well myself.
Practice 5. Point out the predicative and define by what it is expressed.
1. She was quite confused. 2. Their burning ambition was to get a better job.
3. How tall is she? She is five foot nine. 4. We are hot. Will you open the window,
please? 5. The resemblance between the two signatures was remarkable. 6. Young
people are very environmentally aware. 7. They suddenly became aware of people
looking at them. 8. It is a shame about Tim, isn’t it? 9. There is a talk on Italian art.
- Are you interested in? 10. She sounded genuinely interested. 11. I was not
allowed to vote. 12. My sister is very interested in history. 13. The idea is well
worth considering. 14. The new house really wasn’t worth all the expense
involved. 15. They seem to know what they are doing. 16. It seems only reasonable
to ask students to buy a dictionary. 17. It is true that she is leaving. 18. The music
is dull and uninspiring, and the same is true of the acting. 19. The best thing is for
you to leave this house and move to another place. 20. You’ll feel better after a
good night’s sleep. 21. It feels like rain. 22. The water feels warm..23. The .first
and strongest impulse is to make the best of a bad situation. 24. The best thing is
for you to let him go. 25. She is a great beauty. 26. He wants to be a doctor when

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he grows up. 27. Three and three is six. 28. It was really hot in the sauna. 29. Is
your jacket real leather? 30. A thousand dollars is nothing to somebody as rich as
he is. 31. You’ll soon get used to the climate here. 32. It soon became apparent that
no one was going to come. 33. She was becoming confused. 34. He is nobody to be
here. 35. My favorite hobby is cooking. 36. The things were outside her
experience. 37. It was enough the way she said it. 38. I’ll attempt to answer all the
questions. 39.1 will endeavour to do my best for my country.
Practice 6. Point out the predicate and define its type.
1. He excused himself and went outside. 2. There came a surprise. 3. He wondered
what she was thinking. 4. No questions were asked about his absence. 5. On steam
tables the day’s dinner menu dishes were being portioned and served for delivery
to dining-rooms. 6. I shouldn’t have allowed that to happen, believe me, my dear
Eliot, if I had been there. 7. At dawn fighting broke out with renewed violence.
8. But I must be going now. 8. “Why shouldn’t we go down to dessert twice a
day?” said Venice. 9. You will have to do as you were told. 10. Most of our senior
officers will have arrived by then. 11. Your mother must have gone through a good
deal of suffering. 12. They may have telephone communication. 13. Who could
have done such a thing? 14. Jack ought to have stayed for tea with them. 15. The
man grinned from ear to ear and began to play a lively tune. 16. I kept walking,
busy with my thoughts. 17. Rosa continued to work quietly as the other two talked.
18. He burst out laughing. 19. They ceased to speak seeing the newcomer
suspiciously. 20. He would go there every afternoon just for pleasure. 21. You
remind me of someone I used to know from Africa. 22. She stopped to talk to
them. 23. The tanks began moving towards the bridge. 24. Let the medical officer
know, with my compliments, that I wish to see him. 25.1 longed to go where there
was life and movement. 26. The party director replied patiently, “I’d still prefer to
come to your house.” 27. We decided to telephone the office at once. 28. She had
utterly refused to do what they had asked her to. 29. Why did they refuse to come?
30. The roof of the cottage was high and pointed. 31. The argument grew hot.
32. You men, you’re all alike! 33. The plan is original but very difficult to be

268
realized. 34. They remained silent for a while. 35. Why have you become so
absent-minded, my dear fellow? 36. It is getting dark, will you turn on the light?
37. Her voice sounded very strange. 38. Something has gone wrong with the
starter. 39. Mary’s cakes taste always delicious. 40. They waited until the
conversation died. 41. For a full three minutes Daisy’s mouth continued to laugh.
42. They were trying to calm her. 43. Her parents had naturally desired to see her
once at least before he carried her off to a distant settlement. 44. He couldn’t go on
living there alone. 45.1 beg your pardon, but Mr Gatsby would like to speak to you
alone. 46. She kept eyeing Henry with interest. 47. Aunt Juley tried to say
something pleasant. 48. “Oh, by the way, I’m leaving for Europe tonight,” he
informed her. 49. I dared not to utter a word. 50. She didn’t really want to wake
them. 51. The plane is to take off in a matter of minutes.
Practice 7. Point out the predicative and define its type.
1. He looked young, erect, and well. 2. “The young man,” said the general,
“seemed a decent fellow, I thought.” 3. It was he who persuaded them to meet us at
the station. 4. The chief was a friend of Christie’s and knew that she was one'of his
favourites. 5. His first instinct was to pass on without a word, but Lawson did not
give him the opportunity. 6. The best thing is doing it at once. 7. Pearson sounded
relieved. 8. My greatest wish in the world is that you should be happy. 9. He
couldn’t believe the child was only six, for his voice had the power of an eleven­
year-old’s. 10. Suddenly he felt afraid.
Practice 8. Point out the predicate and define its type.
1. They are bound to be changes when the new system is introduced. 2. The dogs
bounded ahead. 3. I am bound to say I disagree with you on this point. 4. We
watched to see what would happen next. 5. The last thing I wanted was to upset
you. 6. The party wants her as leader.7.1 want it to be done as soon as possible. 8.1
can do whatever I want. 9. That is the beauty of it. 10. He was described as ‘tall,
dark, and handsome’. 11. There are only five cookies left. 12. We can not write his
handwriting. 13. We moved to England when I was five. 14. You must be able to
speak Japanese for this job. 15. I didn’t feel able to disagree with him. 16. The

269
passengers grew angry about the delay. 17. Her behavior really made me angry. 18.
Some senators reacted angrily. 19. lam anxious for her to do as little as possible.
20. Residents are anxiously awaiting a decision. 21. There were a few moments in
the baseball game. 22. She happened to be out when we called. 23. You don’t
happen to know his name, do you? 24.1 have to admit, the idea of marriage scares
me. 25. You don’t have to knock - just walk in.
Practice 9. Point out the predicate and define its type.
1. “It is no use,” she said quietly. “I am bound to him.” 2. Her feet were never
bound as the Chinese then bound the feet of their girls. 3. “I don’t want to tell
you,” said he. “But you are bound to have it.” 4. “You are not bound to answer that
question,” he said to Rachel. 5. One of them was later sent to board in a missionary
school and she was compelled to lose the foot bandages. 6. When she was sixteen
she was a beauty. As the result she was compelled to idleness. I had to listen to her
long monologues on the Japanese. 8. My mother was plainly fading. I was
increasingly anxious about her. 9. We were anxious to co-operate. 10. My father
gave it to my mother. It is the only possession I was able to save.
Practice 10. Distinguish between the auxiliary, linking and full notional status
of the finite verbs.
l.You are absolutely wrong. 2. They are in the library now. 3. When the famous
actress appeared on the stage she was met with a tumultuous applause. 4. The man
appeared outwardly calm. 5. She is getting restless. 6. Very soon he will be getting
promotion. 7. The remark sounded rude. 8. The doctor sounded the patient
carefully. 9. The old sailor grew red in the face. 10. The vegetables grow very well
on this rich soil. 11. All this will turn up trumps in the end. 12. The car turned the
comer and stopped.
Practice 11. Consider the double predicate.
l.The day broke grey and dull. 2. The dust lay thick on the country road. 3. The
door slammed shut behind the newcomers. 4. The morning of the Handicap
dawned clear and bright. 5. The moon rose red over the silent valley. 6. But Alex,
when he was alone, sat silent, thoughtful. 7. If by any chance one of the servant

270
heard her she could say that she had awakened hungry and had gone down to see if
she could find something to eat. 8. He was lying flat on his back looking up into
the eternal blue of the sky. 9. That night, Martha lay awake with her mind in
turmoil. 10. He came home pale and puzzled and called his wife into his study.
Practice 12. Distinguish between simple and compound predicates (nominal or
verbal).
I looked at the room briefly and turned to ask her if most visitors usually
spent the night, but she had disappeared. Maybe they were right. Maybe she was
just a crazy old woman. I walked to the balcony and looked out over the garden.
Darjo had left the porch and was moving back into woods. I wondered if it had
been he that I had seen in the woods. The sun was beginning to set. It was just as
well that I was staying the night. I don’t think I would have found a bus back to
town at this late hour. The sky was clear, and in the distance I heard the sound of a
small plane. How could a murder happen in this tranquil setting? Mrs. Munsing
must have a very active imagination.
My balcony looked directly into the garden, and I saw a young woman I
hadn’t seen before on the porch. She was tending the plants carefully and slowly
touching each one. That must be the daughter, I thought; at the same time, I made
my decision to start my investigation with her.
The house was quiet as I passed through the halls and found the door that
opened onto the garden. As I approached the garden, the girl looked up quickly and
said in a frightened voice, “Who’s there? Who’s there?”
“My name is Dwight. Dwight Smith. I’m a guest of your father.”
“You must be from the police”, she said. “My father said someone was
coming to investigate.” She turned back to her plants. “I didn’t recognize your step
and you frightened me. But now I will know it, and you won’t be able to surprise
me anymore. Nothing surprises me here on the hill. Nothing changes here without
my sensing it immediately.” She said this directly at me, like challenge, then she
moved to another plant and began feeling the soil at the base of the plant. “You
may ask me questions if you want. I know all about police investigations. I have

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listened to a lot of stories about famous detectives. Dwight Smith is such a
common name though. It won’t sound very romantic in the newspapers when they
write about all the famous words that you solve.”
I laughed and said I didn’t expect to find many crimes in Flagstaff.
“Then why are you here? You don’t believe that these women whom my
father married really died an accidental death, do you?” She didn’t wait for answer.
I think she had already lost any faith she had in me.
“Nothing on earth is an accidental. My blindness is not an accident. These
plants are not an accident. Those women my father married were not part of this
hill. They were not part of the scheme of things; it was obvious they had to be
taken away, like weeds in a garden.”
Practice 13. Underline and define the types of the predicate.
Muriel closed the front door of the Rectory softly behind her. The intensely
cold air invaded her head, and she sneezed. She still had that confounded cold. The
fog, like a hushed lifted finger, imposed quietness. With her nose deep in her
handkerchief she began to walk along the pavement and immediately the Rectory
was a lost to sight and she was walking on a roadway through the middle of
emptiness. She could see the frozen earth, whipped up into little crests, for a short
way on her own side of the road. The other side of the road was invisible. The
sound of a fog horn resounded in the thick air and seemed to move round her in a
circle. She moved silently in the middle of a dying echo of sound.
After a while she stopped walking and listened. Nothing. The close thick
dome of fog shut in her little ball of shadowy visibility and the hazy air stroked her
cheek with a cold damp touch. The woolen scarf which she had drawn over her
head was already quite wet. She pushed her handkerchief back into her pocket and
breathed vigorously, pushing little streamers of vapour out in front of her face. She
stood there wide-eyed, listening, waiting. The fog excited her. She moved on
slowly, her feet, sticking to the damp frosty pavement, making a very slight sound.
Then suddenly she stopped again.

272
 Upon the waste land to her left, and now quite near to her, just emerging
from the wall of fog, there was^something upright. It was so still that she thought it
must be a post. And yet it had the look of a human being. Only now did she realize
how odd it was that there was absolutely nobody about. Next moment it seemed
even odder, and frightening, that there was a person standing there in the fog
before her, standing perfectly still, standing as she herself had stood, waiting
perhaps, and listening. It was certainly a person, a man, and he was facing towards
her. Muriel hesitated and moved cautiously on another step. Then she saw that the
man was Leo Peshkov. It was as impossible for them not to greet each other as if
they had met in the deepest jungle. “Hello,” said Muriel. "Hello. Isn’t the fog
wonderful?”
Practice 14. Underline and define the types of the predicate.
Jim lived with his parents until he was twenty-one years old, and then he got
a job in the office of a big factory in another town, so he left home. He found a
comfortable little flat which had two rooms, a small kitchen and a bathroom. He
lived there on his own.
At first he cleaned it himself, but he did not want to have to go on doing this,
so he determined to find someone else to do it instead of him. He asked a lot of his
fellow workers at the factory what they did about this, and at last one of the men
said, “Oh, Mrs. Roper comes and cleans my flat regularly. She washes the dishes,
irons my shirts and keeps the place neat and so on. I’ll introduce her to you if you
like. She’s a charming old lady. She does her best, but she hasn’t got much
energy.”
“Well, you’d better ask her to come and see me, please,” Jim answered. So
the next evening Mrs. Roper came to see him, and she agreed with pleasure to
come to his flat every morning for an hour.
After she had been working for Jim for two weeks, he looked at the mirror in
his bedroom and thought, “That mirror looks very dusty. Mrs. Roper’s forgotten to
clean it. I can write on it with my finger.” He wrote a message in the dust: “I’m
coughing whenever I breathe because everything in this room is very dusty.”

273
 He came home at 7 o’clock that evening, and when he had eaten his supper,
he went into his bedroom and looked at the mirror. “That silly woman still hasn’t
cleaned it!” he said to himself. “All it needs is a cloth!”
But then he bent down and saw a bottle in front of the mirror. “I didn’t put
that bottle there,” he thought. “Mrs. Roper must have left it.” He picked the bottle
up and looked at it carefully.
“She’s written some words on it,” he said to himself. He read the words.
They were: “Cough medicine.”
Practice 15. Point out the predicate and define its type.
The person I liked best was the old shepherd. Yani, a tall, slouching man
with a great hooked nose like an eagle, and incredible moustaches. I first met him
one hot afternoon when Roger and I had spent an exhausting hour trying to dig a
large green lizard out of its hole in a stone wall. At length, unsuccessful, sweaty,
and tired, we had flung ourselves down beneath five little cypress-trees that cast a
neat square of shadow on the sun-bleached grass. Lying there, I heard the gentle,
drowsy tinkling of a goat-bell, and the herds wandered past us, pausing to stare
with vacant yellow eyes, bleat sneeringly, and then move on. The soft sound of the
bells, and of their mouths ripping and tearing at the undergrowth, had a soothing
effect on me, and by the time they had drifted slowly past and the shepherd
appeared I was nearly asleep. He stopped and looked at me, leaning heavily on his
brown olive-wood stick, his black eyes fierce under his shaggy brows, his big
boots planted firmly in the heather. “Good afternoon,” he greeted me gruffly, “you
are the foreigner ... the little English lord?”
By then I was used to the curious peasant idea that all English people were
lords, and I admitted that that’s who I was. He turned. “I will tell you something,
little lord,” he said, “it’s dangerous for you to lie here, beneath the trees.”
I glanced up at the cypresses, but they seemed safe enough to me and so I
asked why he thought they were dangerous.

274
 “Ah, you may sit under them, yes. They cast a good shadow, cold as well­
water; but that’s trouble, they tempt you to sleep. And you must never, for any
reason, sleep beneath a cypress.”
He paused, stroked his moustache, waited for me to ask why, and then went on.
“Why? Why? Because if you did, you would be changed when you woke.
Yes, the black cypresses, they are dangerous. While you sleep, their roots grow
into brains and steal them, and when you wake up you are mad, head as empty as a
whistle.”
Practice 16. Point out the predicate and define its type.
Saunders had half fallen asleep. A voice at his side woke him. “The fog’s
getting thick, sir.”
It was already dense, with the first light touching it with dusty yellow. He
said, “Pass the word round to move in.”
“Are we going to rush, the place, sir?”
“No, there’s the girl there. We can’t have any shooting. Wait till he comes out.”
But the policeman hadn’t left his side when noticed, “The door’s opening.” -
Saunders put his whistle in his mouth and lowered his safety catch. The light
was bad and the fog deceptive, but he recognized the dark coat of a man they were
after as it slipped quickly to the right into the shelter of coal trucks. He blew his
whistle and was after it. The black coat had half a minute’s start and was moving
quickly into the fog. It was impossible to see all at more than twenty feet ahead.
But Saunders kept doggedly just in sight, blowing his whistle continuously.
As he hoped, a whistle blew in front. It confused the fugitive, he hesitated
for a moment, and Saunders gained on him. They had him cornered, and this
Saunders knew was dangerous moment. He blew his whistle urgently three times
into the fog to bring the police round in a complete circle, and the whistle was
taken up in the yellow obscurity, passing in a wide invisible circle. But he had lost
pace, the fugitive spurted forward and was lost. Saunders blew two blasts.
“Advance slowly and keep in touch.”

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 To the right and in front a single whistle announced that the man had been
seen, and the police converged on the sound. Each kept in touch with a policeman
on either hand. It was impossible, as long the circle was kept closed, for the man to
escape. But the circle drew in, and there was no sight of him. The short, single,
explanatory blasts sounded petulant and lost.
At last Saunders, gazing ahead saw the faint form of a policeman come out
of the fog a dozen yards away. He helped them all with a whistled signal, the
<
fugitive must be somewhere just ahead in the tangle of trucks in the centre.
Revolver in hand, Saunders advanced, and a policeman took his place and closed
the circle.
Practice 17. Comment on the singular/plural use of the predicate.
l.The family were still at table, but they had finished breakfast. 2. There was a
crowd of soldiers along the fence in the infield. 3. The band was stopped, the
crowd were partially quieted, and Horatio Fizkin, Esquire, was permitted to
proceed. 4. Down by the Embankment a band of unemployed were trailing
dismally with money-boxes. 5. The multitude have something else to do than to
read hearts and interpret dark sayings. 6. The newly married pair, on their arrival in
Harley Street, Cavendish Square, London were received by the chief butler. 7.
There was a dreaminess, a preoccupation, an exaltation, in the maternal look the
girl could not understand. 8. The company are cool and calm. 9. As of old,
nineteen hours of labour a day was all too little to suit him. 10. There were still two
hours of. daylight before them. 11. At last they came into a maze of dust, where a
quantity of people were tumbling over one another. 12. Tom’s whole class were of
a pattern-restless, noisy and troublesome. 13. A group of men were standing
guarded by carabinieri. 14. The loving couple were no longer happy.
Practice 18. Use the adjective or adverb given in brackets and define the type
of the predicate.
1. She could turn head (slow, slowly). 2. The air smelled (sweet, sweetly), larks
sang. 3. Alex’s eyes flashed (angry, angrily). 4. Nicola looked (quick, quickly) at
Lawrie, to her relieved surprise was looking (high, highly) entertained.

276
5. Somehow she felt (hopeful, hopefully). 7. She sounded so (furious, furiously)
that Rowan looked quite startled. 8. His face fell, and in bitter disappointment he
sank (heavy, heavily) into a chair. 9. He looked (happy, happily) at the line of fires,
with people grouped about them, and the colour of the flames against the night.
10. The phrase sounded (strange, strangely), I was mystified. 11. He walked round
(slow, slowly). He felt (hot, hotly), and the rain did him good. 12. Tom Lewis
appeared (quiet, quietly) beside Alan. 13. She turned the handle, and the door came
(open, openly). 14. Conversation did not go very (easy, easily) for she did not seem
to have much to say. 15. Alex went (cold, coldly). 16. The clouds hung (heavy,
heavily), and there was a rawness in the air that suggested now.
Practice 19. Use the adjective or adverb given in brackets and define the type
of the predicate.
1. She smiled at me very — (happy, happily). 2. He felt very — himself (good,
well). 3. I felt — when we started (terrible, terribly). 4. He sounded — and —
(brisk, briskly; cheerful, cheerfully). 5. It will sound — (strange, strangely). 6. The
hay smelled — (good, well). 7. I write English -— (bad, badly). 8. I looked'at her
— (attentive, attentively). 9. But don’t look —, my little girl. It breaks my heart
(sad, sadly). 10. He was looking at me — and -— (grave, gravely; intent, intently).
11. The wine tasted very — after the cheese and apple (good, well). 12. The
brandy did not taste — (good, well). 13. The pistol felt — on the belt (heavy,
heavily). 14. Silas received the message — (mute, mutely). 15. I thought he
looked -— (suspicious, suspiciously).
Practice 20. Point out the subject and the predicate.
1. On her going to his house to thank him, he happened to see her through a
window. 2. To describe one’s character is difficult and not necessarily
illuminating. 3. The three on the sofa rise and chat with Hawkins. 4. Nothing
seemed to matter. 5. To be wanted is always good. 6. Seeing you there will open
up a new world. 7. Thereafter I read everything on the subject. I came to know
many Negroes, men and women. 8. Elaine, this ill-advised behaviour of yours is
beginning to have results. 9. Presently all was silent. They must have gone through

277
the service doors into the kitchen quarters. 10. The citizens of occupied countries
were to be subjugated individually. 11. It was all wrong with this situation. It ought
not to be happening at all. 12. My way is not theirs, it is no use trying to run away
from them. 13. No one got the better of her, never, never. 14. He stopped dead at
the comer, staring in blank astonishment after these two figures. 15. We and all the
people have been waiting patient for many an hour. 16. One can not help admiring
the fellow. 17. Tom gave a low distinct whistle. It was answered from under the
bluff. 18. Aileen was really beautiful and much above the average intelligence and
force. 19. This religion did give promise of creating a new society. There all men
could be equally valuable as human beings. 20. We must begin to prove ourselves.
Practice 21. Point out the subject and the predicate. Translate the passage into
Azerbaijani.
When I walked into the chiefs office, I saw from the look on his face that he
was not going to give me good news.
“You like working here?” he asked without expecting answer. “Well? You
got to learn the rules. We all have rules and maybe here we have more rules than
you did in New York. Rules keep us honest, you know what I mean?”
I said: “I didn’t.”
“Don’t get smart with me. You know what I mean. Our rules keep us from
getting in one another’s way. You know what I mean.”
I still didn’t understand his point, but I nodded my head.
“That’s good. Now, Rule Number One is we don’t bother with the Fitch
family.” He looked straight into my eyes and I stared back into his. I didn’t
understand how the rule of avoiding someone would keep us honest. He slowed
down his speech and raised his voice to make sure I would understand. “The Fitch
family has been good to this town. They built this building we are sitting in and
they built the courthouse. They built the school we all send our children to and
they have given almost all of the police officers loans to buy homes. So we don’t
like to bother them unnecessarily. You know what I mean?”

278
 I was beginning to understand. “Of course, Chief. There’s no need to bother
any citizen unnecessarily.”
“Then why in heaven’s name were you reading old newspapers about the
accidental death of the Fitch women?” He stressed accidental to make sure that I
knew that there was no doubt about the cause of the deaths. I wondered about how
he knew I had been reading the old clippings. He answered my unvoiced question.
“My brother told me you have been twice asking for stories on the Fitches.
You want to tell me why?”
I replied that a new person in town must be familiar with all the major
happening of the town that formed the town’s history.
“I’ll tell you all you need to know. And what you need to know is that if the
deaths were accidental or not. The first Mrs. Fitch was flying her own small plane
which got lost and never found again. The second woman died of food poisoning.”
“What kind of food poisoning?”
“Food! Food! Food poisoning. What more do you need to know?”
Nothing. I knew the third and last Mrs. Fitch had fallen off a cliff while
walking with her stepdaughter. There didn’t seem to be any pattern to the deaths
except that they all happened to wives of Mr. Fitch.
“Now, if I hear you’re messing around in the Fitches’ business again, you’ll
be on the first bus back to that city you came from.”

279
 AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE
WITH THE SUBJECT

The following rules of agreement of the predicate with the subject should be
observed:
1. The predicate is used in the plural when Her father and mother were obviously haunted
there are two or more homogeneous subjects and harassed.
connected by the conjunction and or
asyndetically.
If two or more homogeneous subjects are To work and to rest in time is necessary for
expressed by infinitives, the predicate is in the everybody.
singular.
2. When the predicate precedes a number of And here was a man, was experience and
subjects, it is often in the singular, especially if culture. .. z
d-Wn*-
the sentence begins with here or there. The wind drove down the rain and everywhere
there was standing water and mud.

If the subjects are of different number, the There was much traffic at night and many
predicate agrees with the subject that stands mules on the roads with boxes of ammunition
first. on each of their pack saddles.

3. When two homogeneous subjects in the There was neither heroic swift defeat nor

singular are connected by not only . . . but heroic swift victory.

(also), neither. . . nor, either... or, or, nor,

thp nrpdirQtR ic iiciudlv in thf* cincrnlar

If the subjects are of different person or Neither I nor my sister is to blame.

number, the predicate agrees with the one next Neither your sister nor you are to blame.

to it.

4. When two subjects in the singular are The mountain as well as the valley was very

connected by the conjunction as well as, the picturesque.

predicate is in the singular.

If the subjects are of different person or The teacher as weli as the students was present

number, the predicate agrees with the subject at the meeting.

280
that stands first. The students as well as the teacher were
present at the meeting.

5. If a subject expressed by a noun is modified The complete and beautiful quiet was almost

by two or more attributes connected by and, the quiet from beyond the grave.

the predicate is in the singular when one

person, thing, or idea is meant.

If two or more persons, things, or ideas are The red and the white rose are both beautiful.

meant, the predicate is in the plural. Classical and light music have both their
admirers.

6. If the subject is expressed by a defining, Nobody was at home. Everybody has already

indefinite, or negative pronoun {each, either, left.

everybody, everyone, everything, somebody, Everybody was glad to see Martin back.

someone, something, nobody, no one, nothing, There was nothing to attract attention or excite

neither, etc.), the predicate is in the singular. alarm in this.

7. If the subject is expressed by an Who is going to answer this question?

interrogative pronoun {who, what), the

predicate is usually in the singular.

If the question refers to more than one person, Who are absent?

the predicate may be used in the plural.

8. If the subject is expressed by a relative Mrs. Gowan, who was engaged in needlework,

pronoun {who, which, that), the predicate put her work aside in a covered basket, and

agrees with its antecedent. rose a little hurriedly.

Near them were the old people who were
watching the dancing.

9. If the subject is expressed by the emphatic Foreigners say that it is only English girls who

it, the predicate is in the singular no matter can thus be trusted to travel alone.

what follows.

10. If the subject is expressed by a noun in the "Glory Days ” describes high school

plural which is the title of a book, or the name experiences.

of a newspaper or magazine, the predicate is

usually in the singular.

11. If the subject is expressed by a noun in the Four hundred miles was a huge distance when

281
7
 plural denoting time, measure, or distance, the a man was no longer young and had no means.
predicate is in the singular when the noun Three dollars is the sum laid aside for all other
represents the amount or mass as a whole. purposes and pleasures.
Twenty-one years is a long time.

12. If the subject is expressed by a collective He consoled himself with the idea that perhaps

noun denoting a group or collection of similar humanity was better than he thought.

individuals taken as a whole (mankind, Mankind is all of us.

humanity, etc.), the predicate is in the singular.

If the subject is expressed by a noun of The weather was warm, and the people were

multitude, i.e. a collective noun denoting the sitting at their doors.

individuals of the group taken separately The police are all over the place.

(people, infantry, cavalry, gentry, clergy, The clergy do not marry in the church.

police, cattle, poultry, jury, etc.), the predicate

is, as a rule, in the plural.

With collective nouns (family, committee, The Board was again full.

crew, army, board, chorus, government, party, The board were sitting around the table.

team, company, band, etc.) as subject, the The party was complete.

predicate is either in the singular or in the The meal over, the party were free to run and

plural; this depends on what is uppermost in play in the meadows.

the mind, the idea of singularity or plurality. The band was beginning to play a selection
from the music of Grieg.
When we came to the house, we found that the
band had arrived and were standing about in
the hall.

13. The predicate agrees in number with the

subject expressed by a syntactic word-group,

consisting of two nouns connected by the
conjunction and.
1. (a) If the word-group consists of two nouns Anna and I were alone.

denoting different persons, things, or notions, I knew that matter and spirit were one.

the predicate is in the plural.

(b) The predicate is in the singular when the The wife and mother was asked with
■
affectionate deference before the plan was
_________________________ ____________
282
subject is expressed by several nouns which made.
represent one person or thing, or two persons The needle and thread is on the table.
or things forming a close unit often
corresponding to one notion.
2. If the subject is expressed by a word-group A woman with on the third floor is screaming
consisting of two nouns connected by the and waving her free hand frantically.
preposition with, or the expression together
with, the predicate is in the singular.
3. If the subject is expressed by a syntactic A number of cars were parked on the lot before
word-group the first element of which denotes a two-storey building.
an indefinite number or amount such as a The vast majority of men and woman were not
number of. ... a variety of... , the majority of essentially above slavery even when they had
..., a lot of..., plenty of...,a mass of. . . all the guarantees of a constitution formulated
etc., the predicate may be in the singular or in to prevent it.
the plural. In most cases the form of the There is a lot of truth in what he has just said.
predicate depends on the form and meaning of A lot ofpeople are coming here.
the second element, which from a semantic
point of view is the dominant element of the
word-group.
4. If the subject is expressed by the word-group Many an artist often comes here.
many a . . . . the predicate is in the singular. There is many a slip between the cup and the
lip.

5. If the subject is expressed by a group of 1 ivo and two is tour.

words denoting arithmetic calculations Six minus four is two.
(addition, subtraction, division), the predicate Twenty divided by five equals four.
is usually singular; multiplication presents an Twice two is (are) four.
exception as the verb may be in the singular or
in the plural.

283
Some basic rules of Agreement
Singular Verb Plural Verb
The furniture is new.
Measles is a dangerous disease.
The news was shocking.
The number of car owners is increasing A number ofpeople object to the plan .
steadily.
Half of the money is missing. Half of the books are missing.
60 % of the population lives in the city. 60 % of the students are talented.
The team consists of 11 players. The team are resting now.
Neither the students nor the teacher is happy Neither the teacher nor the students are happy
with the residts. with the results.
Not only Jane but also her mother is at home. Not only Jane but also her parents are at
home.
Both Mother and Father are engineers .
10 miles is a long distance.
The Prime minister as well as(/along with /
together with / in addition to) some cabinet
ministers is attending the meeting.
The vast majority of people (minority) are in
favor of economic reforms.
every, each, either, no one, nobody, nothing, They each (both/alf) were tired.
anyone, anybody, anything, something,
someone, somebody, everyone, everybody,
everything, neither
No one is aware of the danger.
Neither of the books is available at the
bookstore.

The rich (the poor, the weak, the sick, the

wounded ..., etc.) are helpful.
a pair of... + verb singular
This pair ofscissors is very blunt.
The policeman {woman) is wounded. The police are coming.
Mathematics is my favourite subject. His mathematics are excellent.
Billiards is mv favourite game.
There is a deer in the Zoo. There are many deer in the forest.
All is clear. All are here.
Here / there
Here is the book. Here are your books.
There is some milk in the fridge. There are many trees in the park.
Fish and chips is not a healthy food. Fish and chips were served.
Bread and butter is my favourite meal. The bread and the butter are on the table.
My colleague and friend James was present in My colleague and my friend James were
the meeting. present at the dinner.
AU or Vali is responsible for the failure. AU and Vali are responsible for the failure.

284
Note: The last ten minutes of the game were / was very hard.
All I wanted was / were books.
The public is / are getting tired of the demonstration.
REMEMBER
a) My friend lives in Boston. b) My friends live in Boston. verb + -s/-es = third person
singular in the simple present
tense
noun + -s/-es = plural
c) That book on the political d) The ideas in that book are A prepositional phrase that
parties is interesting. interesting. comes between a subject and a
verb does not affect the verb.
e) My brother and sister live Two (or more) subjects
in Boston. connected by and take a plural
verb.
f) Every man, woman, and EXCEPTION:
child needs love. Every and each are always
g) Each book and magazine is followed immediately by
listed in the card catalog. singular nouns. In this case,
even when there are two (or
more) nouns connected by
and, the verb is singular.
h) Growing flowers is her A gerund used as the subject
hobby. of a sentence takes a singular
verb.

PRACTICE ON THE SUBJECT-PREDICATE AGREEMENT

Practice 1. Use the appropriate form of the verb.
1. There — many a true word spoken in jest (is, are). 2. Each of us — afraid of
the sound of his name (was, were). 3. On such meetings five minutes — (was,
were) the time allotted to each speaker. 4. Neither his father nor his mother — like
other people (was, were). 5. It was dark and quiet. Neither moon nor stars —
visible (was, were). 6. Plenty of girls —- taken to me like daughters and cried at
leaving me (has, have). 7. He and I —- nothing in common (has, have). 8. But I
wonder no wealthy nobleman or gentleman — taken a fancy to her: Mr.Rochester,
for instance (has, have). 9. To be the busy wife of a busy man, to be the mother of
many children - to his thinking, the highest lot of woman (was, were). 10. Her
family — of a delicate constitution (was, were). 11. Hers — a large family (was,
were). 12. “Well,” says my lady, “— the police coming? (is, are)” 13. Nobody —I
am here (knows, know). 14. Plain United States — good enough for me (is, are).
15. He half started as he became aware that someone near at hand — gazing at

285
him (was, were). 16. Fatting cattle —- from 5 to 10 gallons of water a head daily
(consume, consumes). 17. She is supposed to have all the misfortunes and all the
virtues to which humanity —- subject (is, are). 18. It was a market-day, and the
country people — all assembled with their baskets of poultry, eggs and such
things (was, were). 19. The precept as well as the practice of the church —-
distinctly against matrimony (was, were). 20. Twelve years -— a long time (is,
are). 21. There — a great many ink bottles (was, were). 22. May and I — just
friends (is, are). 23. The bread and butter — for them (is, are). 24.1 am afraid it is
quite clear, Cecily, that neither of us — engaged to be married to anyone (is, are).
25. It — they that should honour you (is, are). 26. Great Expectations by Dickens
— published in 1860 (is, are). 27. The family party — seated round the table in
the dark wainscoted parlour (was, were). 28. Everybody — clever nowadays (is,
are). 29. There — a number of things, Martin, that you don’t understand (is, are).
30. The number of scientific research institutes in our country — very large (is,
are). 31. Her hair, which — fine and of medium brown shade, — brushed
smoothly across the top of her head and then curled a little at each side (was, were;
was, were). 32. After some apologies, which — perhaps too soft and sweet, the
great man thus opened the case (was, were). 33. It was as if the regiment -— half
in khaki, half in scarlet and bearskins (was, were). 34. Youth and Age — a weekly,
and it had published two-thirds of his twenty-one-thousand-word serial when it
went out of business (was, were). 35. There — a number of men present (was,
were). 36. His hard pantings — his only reply (was, were).
Practice 2. Choose the proper verb form.
1. The family (was, were) still at table, but they had finished breakfast. 2. There
(was, were) a crowd of soldiers along the fence in the infield. 3. The band (wa's,
were) stopped, the crowd (was, were) partially quieted, and Horatio was permitted
to proceed. 4. A band of unemployed (was, were) trailing dismally with money­
boxes. 5. The multitude (have, has) something else to do than to read hearts and
interpret dark sayings. 6. The newly married pair, on their arrival in Harley Street,
Cavendish Square, London (was,were) received by the chief butler. 7. There (was,

286
were) a dreaminess, a preoccupation, an exaltation, in the maternal look which the
girl could not understand. 8. The company (is, are) cool and calm. 9. As of old,
nineteen hours of labour a day (was, were) all too little to suit him. 10. There (was,
were) still two hours of daylight before them. 11. At last they came into a maze of
dust, where a quantity of people (was, were) tumbling over one another. 12. Tom’s
whole class (was, were) of a pattern-restless, noisy and troublesome. 13. A group
of men (was, were) standing guarded by carabinieri. 14. The loving couple (was,
were) no longer happy.
Practice 3. Choose the proper verb form.
l.The barges on the canal (transport, transports) wheat. 2. The headlights of the
oncoming cars (dazzle, dazzles) a driver at night. 3. The vase of flowers (make,
makes) a lovely display. 4. The thunder (sound, sounds) like fireworks. 5. Either
the Andersons’ children or their dog (has, have) dug this hole. 6. The orchestra (is,
are) tuning their instruments. 7. Politics (is, are) one of my dad’s greatest interests.
8. Many a senator (has, have) introduced legislation. 9. Every student in this
classroom (is, are) important. 10. Each of the children (receives, receive) a balloon.
11. Five dollars (is, are) the price of this picture frame. 12. Half of the melon (is,
are) yours. 13. Seventy-five percent of my classmates (agrees, agree). 14. Twenty-
five millimeters (equals, equal) one inch. 15. Linda’s “Sequoias” (is, are) her best
work so far. 16. Honduras (is, are) a country in Central America. 17. The colors in
this photo (is, are) surprisingly lifelike. 18. Pain, in addition to tiredness, (causes,
cause) many accidents. 19. Lions and tigers (is, are) cats. 20. Across the grasslands
(sound, sounds) the roars of lions. 21. Of all the students in Carlson High, few
(goes, go) to the opera. 22. Several of my friends (likes, like) broccoli. 23. Every
child (has, have) his or her own unique qualities. 24. Here (is, are) the boxes for
your project. 25. (Does, Do) Mandy enjoy country music?
Practice 4. Correct the mistakes if there are any.
1. The snow in the Pyrenees often become alarmingly deep. 2. Snowstorms as well
as strong winds often keeps people away from the mountain passes. 3. In North
America, snow, together with ice and wind, causes problems in the upper Midwest.

287
4. The birds, as well as the frogs and the crickets, lulls me to sleep tonight. 5. The
silt in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers made Mesopotamia one of the most fertile
areas of the ancient world. 6. The most dangerous weather feature of the eastern
United Sates are hurricanes. 7. Hurricanes, as well as tropical storms, batter the
area from Florida to Massachusetts. 8. Cool water, accompanied by cool winds,
probably sound like bliss to those in hot desert areas. 9. My hunger, as well as the
time of day, suggest a question. 10. Hard rain, in addition to strong winds, hampers
the game in Three Rivers Stadium tonight.
Practice 5. Write the correct verb from the choices in parentheses.
1. The Iliad and the Odyssey (was composed, were composed) between 800 and
700 B.C. 2. Both Athena and Poseidon (has played, have played) important parts in
these great epics. 3. Writers and literature students often (prefers, prefer) the works
of authors closer to their own time. 4. The Old Man and the Sea and The Secret
Sharer (is, are) favorites of Leslie and Grace^ Both politics and the weather (has

influenced, have influenced) the writers of many novels. 6. Neither George nor the
twins (appreciates, appreciate) ancient literature. 7.Good books and bad tempers
(is, are) qualities of many literary characters today. 8. Either Mr. Echevarria or Ms.
Olivero (is teaching, are teaching) a course in Spanish literature next year. 9.
(Does, Do) the juniors or the seniors read The Return of the Native? 10. Debra
Johnson or Lillian and Tom Nash (is scheduled, are scheduled) to read aloud in
class today.
Practice 6. Choose the correct verb form.
1. The football team (is having, are having) their physicals. 2. Our local teamsters’
union (was deciding, were deciding) which of its two offers to accept. 3. Physics
(is, are) an intriguing subject. 4. The hedge clippers (seems, seem) to work now.
5. Family genetics (was, were) an important consideration in choosing Jerol’s
therapy. 6. Many a town in the Wild West (was abandoned, were abandoned) when
gold or silver mines were depleted. 7. Several dollars per barrel (was, were) often
spent for clean water in the mining camps. 8. On the frontier, fifty percent of the

288
workers’ food (was, were) made from flour^9/Five thousand six hundred eighty
feet (equals, equal) one mile. 10. Seychelles (is, are) African country.
Practice 7. Choose the correct verb form.
1. Everyone (seems, seem) to be flying kites these days.2. Someone (has, have) a
kite with a giant flower on it. 3. Many kites are flying, but few (is, are) so
decorative. 4. (Has, Have) anyone seen Romana today? 5. A good-sized piece of
watermelon is left, but (is, are) there enough for four people? 6. I have some
pencils, but there (is, are) not enough for all of you. 7. Tranh found five books,
some of them (is, are) on our reading list. 8. Either of the Andersons’ twins (is, are)
available for tutoring. 9. Accidents happen, but nobody ever (seems, seem) to
know anything about them. 10. Where are all the prizes? Most (has, have) already
been won.
Practice 8. Correct the mistakes if there are any.
1. Do spring begin in March or April? 2. Across the meadow speeds the doe and
her fawn. 3. Here are the missing papers. 4. Over the fence springs the rabbits.
5. With whom will Janice attends the spring dance? 6. There is the famous Mount
Saint Helens. 7. Why does Toshiro like biology so much? 8. Under the arch and
through the gate marches the preschoolers. 9. Here is Bill and his cousin Gene.
10. Do anyone prefer chocolate to strawberry?
Practice 9. Choose the proper verb form.
1. Today Paul’s family (is packing, are packing) for their trip to Orlando. 2. The
business news (is, are) not very good today. 3. These barber shears (is becoming,
are becoming) dull. 4. Fifteen dollars (was, were) the price I paid for this scarf.
5. Three- fourths of the marchers (is, are) band members. 6. Doesn’t anyone
(know, knows) the password? 7. Some of my baseball cards (is, are) missing!
8. Under the canopy (stands, stand) Eric, unwilling to get his new jacket wet.
9. Oh, no! There (goes, go) my bus! 10. (Do, Does) the ninth-grade teachers meet
in the gym?

2X9
Practice 10. Choose the proper verb form.
1. The last act in the show (was, were) the singers from Rome. 2. The competitive
dancers (was, were) the first act on the program. 3. Five acrobatic skiers (is, are)
our entertainment on the slopes today. 4. These gems (is, are) the property of Ms.
Jenny Swanson. 5. The city’s volunteers (is, are) the center of attention today.
6. On Monday, fresh peaches and cookies (was, were) our dessert. 7. Andy’s
favorite exhibit (was, were) the Van Gogh paintings. 8. Minerva’s least favorite
food (is, are) brussels sprouts. 9. Banjo players (was, were) the featured act at the
carnival. 10. My mom’s favorite television show (is, are) Friends.
Practice 11. Choose the proper verb form.
1. What a great friend you (is, are)! 2. The spices in this curry (is, are) very hot!
3. Rain, along with heavy wind, (is, are) not good for travelling. 4. Neither Ed nor
the Estevez brothers (goes, go) to Highland High School. 5. The freshman class (is,
are) having their lunches early today. 6. “Politics (is, are) no career for the faint of
heart,” exclaimed Mr. Tucker. 7. Tuberculosis (is, are) making an unwelcome
comeback today. 8. “Sixteen Tons” (is, are) an old song about the hardships of a
coal miner’s life. 9. The Philippines (is, are) an island country in the South Pacific
Ocean. 10. Seventy percent of the Earth’s surface (is covered, are covered) by
water. 11. One thousand seven hundred sixty yards (equals, equal) one mile.
12. Eliza looked at the soup; enough (was, were) left for her to have one bowl.
13. Some students vote for Kit; others (is choosing, are choosing) Megan.
14. Across the wide ocean (sails, sail) the liner. 15. Jaime, here (comes, come)
your bus! 16. (Has, Have) the teachers computed their students’ grades? 17. Two
classes of sophomore English (was, were) the responsibility of Mrs. Sanapaw.
18. One of the first games in the tournament (is, are) checkers. 19. Cream cheese
and olives on sourdough bread (is, are) one of my favorite sandwiches. 20. Either
the student council or the library aides (handles, handle) the crowds on Career Day.
21. The Committee for Creative Engineering (is, are) holding its annual meeting in
Austin. Texas. 22. Snow and ice (covers, cover) most of the northeast at this time
of year. 23. Many a family home (was, were) lost during the Depression.

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24. “Trees” (are, is) a poem by Joyce Kilmer. 25. Hives (is caused, are caused) by
a virus.
Practice 12. Use the proper form of the verb in brackets paying attention to its
grammatical agreement with the subject.
a) 1. Nobody (to pick) his parents. 2. There (to be) something in his eye that (to
be) unusual. 3. If there (to be) anything you need, give me a call. 4. Each
and every one of you (to be) good. 5. There (to be) a lot of children about
and a good many babies in the park. 6. At the top of the stairs he hesitated
between four doors. Which of them (to be) Timothy’s? 7. “(to be) you crazy,
or (to be) I?” - “Neither of us (to be), I trust.” 8. Presently all (to be) quiet
again. 9. I warned Vai that neither of them (to be) to be spoken to about old
matters.
b) 1. Neither of the examples (to be) good. 2. Either you or John (to have)
broken this cup. 3. It (to be) I who (to be) on duty today. 4.1 (to be) afraid it
(to be) you, Tom, who (to be) in the way. 5. Three and a half dollars a day
(to be) not a lot of money. 6. Either of the books (to be) interesting. 7.' There
(to be) lots of history and biography. 8. There (to be) a lot in what you say.
9. There (to be) a lot of good books in our library. 10. There (to be) plenty
we can do. 11. There (to be) a dozen people there. 12. A group of men (to
be) standing on the sidewalk.
c) 1. The police, of course, (to be) helpless. 2. It (to be) a pity, Freemantle
thought, that the remainder of the crowd, who (to be) waiting downstairs,
could not have heard him up here. 3. The government (to have) got their eye
on him. His audience (to be) getting impatient. 5. The Berksfeld family (to
be) perpetually short of money. 6. Most of the senior Barford staff (to be)
already there. 7. In a quite bystreet a German band of five players in faded
uniforms and with battered brass instruments (to be) playing to an audience
of street arabs and leisurely messenger boys. 8. Their party (to be) divided
into several groups, each accompanied by two men.

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 d) 1. His eyes (to be) large and blue, but the blue (to be) very pale, and they
looked rather tired already. 2. The French (to see) these things differently
from us. 3. How foolish the old (to be), thinking they could tell what the
young felt. 4. Some of the wounded (to be) noisy, but most (to be) quiet. 5.
Everybody (to know) that the poor (to be) splendid to one another. 6. Now
and again, the quiet (to be) broken by the crack-cracking of musket in the
last line defences. 7. Every elector thinks his own good (to be) the good of
the country.
Practice 13. Correct the mistakes if there are any.
1. Sleet, in addition to snow, are a driver’s nightmare. 2. Paula, along with her
friends, go to the mall. 3. The snow in the Pyrenees often become alarming deep.
4. Snowstorms as well as strong winds often keeps people away from the mountain
passes. 5. In North America, snow, together with ice and wind, causes problems in
the upper Midwest. 6. The birds, as well as the frogs and the crickets, lulls me to
sleep tonight. 7. Cool water, accompanied by cool winds, probably sound like bliss
to those in hot desert areas. 8. My hunger, as well as the time of day, suggest a
question. 9. Hard rain, in addition to strong winds, hampers the game in River
Stadium tonight.
Practice 14. Choose the proper verb form.
1. Three dollars (is, are) not too much. 2. Three dollars (is, are) on the table.
3. One-fourth of the cookie dough (is, are) in the bowl. 4. One-fourth of the
cookies (is, are) in this box. 5. “Glory Days” (describe, describes) high school
experiences. 6. Few (have, has) the patience she has. 7. Either of the twins (is, are)
available for tutoring. 8. Where are all the prizes? Most (has, have) already been
won. 9. I have some pencils, but there (is, are) not enough for all of you. 10. She
found five books, and some of them (is, are) on the table.

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 SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

THE OBJECT THE ATTRIBUTE THE

It completes or restricts the meaning It qualifies a noun or any ADVERBIAL
of a verb or sometimes of an adjective other part ofspeech that has MODIFIER
hr of a noun. a nominal character. It modifies a verb,
an adjective or an
adverb.

THE OBJECT
The Direct Object The Indirect Object The Cognate Object The Object
is used after a transitive denotes a living being to has the following Complement
verb to complete its whom the action distinguishing answers the
meaning: expressed by the verb is properties: question what?
Carlos served dinner. directed: a) It is used with after a direct
Maria admires him deeply. He sent me a letter. intransitive verbs; object, that is, it
John saved Rosa and b) It is expressed by a completes the
Manuel seats. noun which is either of meaning of the
There are two types of the same root as the verb direct object by
indirect object: or is similar to it in identifying or
1. The indirect object meaning; describing it.
which expresses the c) It is regularly attendee An object
addressee of the action: by an attribute with complement
I gave him an interesting which it forms a usually follows
book to read. combination that is close a direct object.
2. The indirect object in meaning to an It may be an
which doesn’t express the adverbial modifier: adjective, a
addressee of the action. The soldiers fought a noun, or a
This type can be called the terriblefight that day. pronoun:
prepositional indirect TT, - uryur
irie . __ 4.---------
nutate wurriart i\e^taeru^ firm
object: laughed a bitter laugh. the park
An idea had occurred to She sighed deeply and peaceful.
Thomas. smiled a sad smile. (adjective)
I want to thank you for Maya
your kindness. appointed me
I am uneasy about it spokesperson
and treasurer.
(nouns)
My
grandmother
considers the
property hers.
(pronoun)

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PRACTICE ON THE OBJECT
Practice 1. Point out the type of object and define by what it is expressed.
Translate the sentences into Azerbaijani.
1. What do you have in your bag? 2. She pretended not to understand. 3. Tom
found the luggage packed and strapped for the journey. 4. I know all about it, my
son. 5. I have to show Dr. French his room. 6. I never heard you express that
opinion before, sir. 7. Halting he waited for the Roman to speak first. 8. He was
with you at the banquet. 9. They don’t want anything from us - not even our
respect. 10. I beg your pardon for calling you by your name. 11. I found myself
pitying the Baron. 12. I’ve got it framed up with Gilly to drive him anywhere. 13.
He smiled upon the young men a smile at once personal and presidential. 14.
Gallio didn’t know how to talk with Marcellus about it. 15. Laura helped her
mother with the good-byes. 16. Why did you not want him to come back and see
me today? 17. Mr. Jinks, not exactly knowing what to do, smiled a dependant’s
smile. 18. He found it impossible to utter the next word. 19. Marcellus issued crisp
orders and insisted upon absolute obedience. 20. He’s going to live his own life
and stop letting his mother boss him around like a baby. 21.1 will suffer no priest
to interfere in my business. 22. Papa will never consent to my being absolutely
dependent on you. 23. Do you know anything more about this dreadful place? 24.
She hated Frisco and hated herself for having yielded to his kisses. 25. They had
been very hard to please. Harry would demand the impossible. 26. His part in the
conversation consisted chiefly of yeses and noes. 27. Michelangelo could not
remember having seen a painting or sculpture of the simplest nature in their house.
Practice 2. Point out the complex object and define by what it is expressed.
1. He could see the man and the woman talking together. 2. He had lied about the
scullery door being open on the night of the disappearance of the bank-notes. 3.
Each woman thought herself triumphant and the other altogether vanquished. 4.
Thus these two waited with impatience for the three years to be over. 5. Sammy
watched Mr.Cheviot slowly take the receiver from the girl. 6. He hated her to work
in the boarding house. 7. The Consul felt her legs give away. 8. Mother objected to

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Mary being taken away from her game with the boys. 9. They had never heard him
speak with such urgency, his eyes glowing like amber coals in the fading light.
Practice 3. Consider different types of objects (direct, indirect, and
prepositional). Comment on the general semantic relations they express.
Translate the sentences into Azerbaijani.
1. A red salvage truck engaged gear and roared away. 2. The door-way was
occupied by a bulky man with a brown leather case. 3. His mother held out his
jacket for him. 4. Why are you afraid of diving? 5. We must keep the telephone
line open to the office. 6. Spencer put out a hand to steady himself. 7. He had been
thankful for the chance to sleep. 8. The clerk nodded approval. 9. Remind the
newspaper office to cover the possible evacuation. 10. He couldn’t think of a thing
to say. 11. We shall depend only on you in this matter, shall we? 12. No worry, sir,
the doctor will be attending to her presently. 13. The inspector allowed himself a
smile. 14. Do you want to have the printed records at once? 15. I’m sorry to have
disturbed you. 16. Clearly she hasn’t thought of the possibility. 17. To go such a
long way on foot - impossible! 18. The family were busy packing for the trip.
19. We may offer to you three more of the same. 20. He shook himself out another
cigarette. 21. The slender girl will make an excellent teacher.
Practice 4. Paraphrase the sentences.
Example:
I promised: a new bike, Jimmy. - I promised Jimmy a new bike. - I promised a
new bike to Jimmy. -1 promised it to him.
1. The shift master has explained: the worker, the procedure. 2. We offered: all the
necessary assistance, the delegation. 3. The consulting specialist suggested: the
management, a different approach to the problem. 4. This time I’ll excuse: little
Pete, his misbehaviour. 5. The capitalist employers deny: the elementary rights, the
workers. 6. Can we do: what else, Mr. and Mrs. Smith? 7. He himself will tell: the
whole story, the Chief Justice. 8. The collision caused: a fatal leak, the tanker. 9. I
want to ask: another question, the office representative. 10. She meant to do: a
favour, the newly married couple. 11. James hurried to fetch: a bottle of sherry, the

295
company. 12. The advice has saved: the publishers, much spending. 13. The aids
will make: the Commander-in-Chief, a summary report.
Practice 5. Consider constructions with cognate objects. Translate the
sentences into Azerbaijani. Replace the cognate object combinations with
single verbs, making other changes if necessary.
1. The old couple have lived a long and happy life. 2. King Alfred the Great fought
many battles with the invaders before giving himself up to literature and education.
3. Let’s play a game of chess; we’ve got still time before the session. 4. The
hostess smiled a welcoming smile to the entering guest. 5. What fine tales the
grandmother is telling to her grandchildren! 6. You must sleep a sound sleep, and
your headache will cease without taking medicine. 7. If you’ve got a question, ask
it! 8. Will Jenny sing a song? 9. The commander fired three shots in the air.
10. See, she will dance now some folk dances; it will be an excellent performance.
11. The writer was fond of going lonely walks in the fields. 12. You may laugh
your laugh, only don’t do it so loudly, mind the sleeping children! 13. I dreamed
such a strange dream last night! It was like living through it, not just seeing a
vision. 14. Micky is at his usual occupation: running a race with Jerry round the
big flower-bed.
Practice 6. Consider constructions with the pronoun it as an absolute and
anticipatory formal object introducing infinitive and gerundial object­
phrases. Translate the sentences into Azerbaijani.
1. Do you find it easy arguing with them? 2. I consider it impossible to change the
plan now that the work is underway. 3. Let’s walk it a little; we may take a bus
farther on. 4. I don’t think it advisable to turn the task over to another working
team. 5. Are they going to rough it all night through in the mountains? 6. They
made it very difficult exchanging ideas on the matter as we understand it. 7. Fancy
him running it the whole way to the station to catch the last train to town! 8. Let’s
leave it to the qualification commission to decide which of them is eligible. 9. So,
Tracy is bossing it here again! 10. We’ll be hiking it together a whole week --
nothing could be finer, really! 11. The doctor thinks it highly desirable to hold a

296
consultation on the case. 12. You’ll find it dream-like to admire the sight of the
setting sun from the hill.
Practice 7. Consider the nouns, gerunds and infinitives used as objects to
adjectives.
1. We were aware of strange activity going around us. 2. The new method is
worthy of the closest consideration. 3. The letter had no signature, and the
handwriting was quite strange to Nellie. 4. She was invariably patient with her
pupils, even with the most backward of them. 5. Why is he afraid to take the
responsibility upon himself? 6. Persuading is always preferable to compelling.
7. The young inspector was proud of having resolved the mystery upon so little
evidence. 8. A sleeping pill would be very useful to her now. 9. His pictures are
not only true to life, their chief merit lies in their concentration on the typical.
10. The chief is much pleased with your report, only he doesn’t want to show it.
11. Aren’t they tired of listening to his endless complaints? 12. I am so glad to be
of service to you! 13. She is certainly fond of art in all its manifestations. 14. At
last the river is free from ice, so we may get the motor boat ready for launching.
Practice 8. Point out the type of object and define by what it is expressed.
I was glad to get back to Mrs. Johnson’s house that night. I wondered if she
would be glad to have me, knowing that I was a low man on the totem pole at the
station. I sat on the porch and watched the traffic in the street. It was a side street,
so only a few cars would pass. More people walked here than drove. One of the
pedestrians was the woman I had seen in the police station that afternoon. She was
carrying a huge sack of groceries.
“Hello!” I yelled to her from the porch.
She dropped her sack and looked around. She saw me and nervously bent to pick
up the groceries that had fallen all over the sidewalk. I raced to her side to help her.
“I’m so clumsy”, she offered as an excuse.
“I’m sorry I frightened you.”
“Oh, my nerves have been on edge ever since Mrs. Fitch was killed. I mean,
ever since she had the accident.”

297
I stopped picking up oranges at her. She met my eyes.
“I shouldn’t have said that. I have no right to say that. Excuse me. I must be
going.”
She had not remembered me from the police station that afternoon; she was
too concerned about her job and the possibility of being seen talking to a total
stranger. She gathered her bags and hurried down the street. I returned to the porch
and began thinking about the newspaper article that my sister had shown me before
I left New York: Arizona heiress killed in fall.
My thoughts were interrupted by my landlady’s coming onto the porch. “I
saw you talking to that Mrs. Munsing; she’s really crazy. The whole town knows
it. She lost her sons in the war and her daughter was struck by lightning and killed.
Sad, isn’t it? But the whole thing let her a bit crazy. She drinks, you know. They
say when she gets up in the morning; she hits the bottle right away. And it lasts
until she goes to the bed at night. But she’s an excellent cook. I was up there for
dinner one night. On Christmas Eve, it was. The invitations were for seven o’clock,
but we had a surprise snow storm that closed the mountain roads, and we had to
walk the last five miles to the main house. What a night! I was frozen. I would
have turned around and gone back to my own bed, but I wanted to take a good look
inside the house. I hadn’t been there since the first Mrs. Fitch passed away. It was
dangerous on those trails. They’re very narrow, I’ll let you know. It’s no wonder
that the third Mrs. Fitch fell off the road. And leaving that poor girl all by herself.
Lucky, she didn’t fall herself.”
I didn’t understand what she was talking about. What a poor girl! I was very
confused. I wished I had read the newspaper article on the death.
Practice 9. Point out the type of object and define by what it is expressed.
My chief was very old-fashioned. He dressed in a uniform rather than in
plain clothes as we did during our training. But at least he let me wear what I
wanted to wear. He was very conservative and didn’t like the officers on his force
to have opinions that differed from his.

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 As I was waiting to meet him for the first time, I could hear the voice of a
hysterical woman coming through the thin walls:
“But, Chief Hutch, I know it was no accident, none of them were, sir.”
“Well, we have no proof, Mrs. Munsing, and don’t work here on
suppositions and guesses, you know. We have to have facts in order to act."
“Yes, I know, sir, but I think that if you would just ask some questions...”
“Thank you, Mrs. Munsing, we’ll get someone on it for you. Thank you very
much for coming here today and sharing your concerns with us.’’ He showed her to
the door and as he passed me, he stopped and looked at my white shirt and tie. A
smile crossed his face. “We’re in Flagstaff, Detective Smith, not on Fifth Avenue.
You’re going to get pretty hot with that neck chocker.”
“Yes, sir.”
“Now, Mrs. Munsing, you just go on back to Mr. Fitch’s house, and my
advice to you is not to mention that you came down here to see me.”
“Oh, I wouldn’t, sir. I wouldn’t. And I don’t want you to tell anyone that I
came here. I might lose my job.”
After she left, he stared at the door for a few minutes before turning to me.
“Crazy old woman”, he murmured under his breath. “Come with me.”
He led me down a long corridor that had pictures of criminals pasted on
walls. We passed the office and finally emerged in a long room without windows
that had five desks. One of the desks was empty. He pointed at it. “That’s yours.”
He then turned and walked out of the room.

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 THE ATTRIBUTE
The attribute may be expressed:
1. by an adjective: 1 received an important letter yesterday.
2. by a pronoun: (a) possessive, (b) defining, Every man must be honest.
(c) demonstrative, (d) interrogative: Our country is developing rapidly.
These books are mine.
Which book do you prefer to read?
3. by a numeral: (a) cardinal, (b) ordinal: The room has four windows and two doors.
He published his first book last year.
4. by a noun: (a) in the common case, (b) in My mother was a town doctor.
the genitive case: Tom ’$ uncle died some years ago.
5. by a prepositional phrase: The telegram from my sister made me feel
unhappy.
6. by an adverb: (a) in pre-position, (b) in The then professor was our neighbor.
post-position: The room above was light enough.
7. by Participles: (a) Participle I, (b) The crying child is very ugly.
Participle II: The broken vase is on the table.
8. by an infinitive or an infinitive phrase: The computer was the first to be repaired.

An apposition is a special kind of attribute which is expressed by a noun that

characterizes or explains the word modified by giving additional information
about the person or thing, a) the close apposition; b) the loose or detached
apposition.

The Close Apposition stands in close The Loose or Detached Apposition is not so
connection with the word modified and is not closely connected with the noun it refers to:
separated by a comma: This is Lord Henry Watton, an oldfriend of
Professor Brown; Captain Tom; Doctor mine.
Fox; etc.

PRACTICE ON THE ATTRIBUTE

Practice 1. Point out the attribute and define by what it is expressed.
1. The first day’s journey from Gaza to Ascalon was intolerably tedious. 2. What
do you say to a stroll through the garden, Mr. Cockane? 3. It was such a cruel thing
to have happened to that gentle, helpless creature. 4. He was always the first to
enter the dining-room and the last to leave. 5. Sally hated the idea of borrowing
and living on credit. 6. The two men faced each other silently. 7. It was an easy go-
as-you-please existence. 8. I am not in the habit of reading other people’s letters.

300
9. He thrust his hands deep into his overcoat pockets. 10. It was not a matter to be
discussed even with a guide, philosopher and friend so near and trusted as the
Professor. 11. Ethel, the youngest, married a good-for-nothing little waiter. 12. He
pointed to a house on a near-by shady knoll. 13. It was just one little sheet of glass
between her and the great wet world outside. 14. She had a pair of immense bare
arms to match, and a quantity of mottled hair arranged in a sort of bow. 15. Dicky
heard right enough. A clear, ringing little laugh was his only reply. 16. To think
that a man of his abilities would stoop to such a horrible trick as that. 17. There
was a blackbird perched on the cherry-tree, sleek and glistening. 18. A middle-
aged man carrying a sheaf of cards walked into the room. 19. Daniel Quilp began
to comprehend the possibility of there being somebody at the door. 20. Still, Pett’s
happiness or unhappiness is quite a life and death question with us.
Practice 2. Change the sentences into the corresponding noun-phrases with
attributes.
Examples: 1 .The answer was prepared. - A prepared answer.
2. The water is for drinking. - Drinking water.
3. The room had a low ceiling. - A room with a low ceiling.
1. The day was rainy. 2. The remark is very clever. 3. Her heart was kind. 4.
The bowl is for sugar. 5. The mountains were covered with snow. 6. The noises
were muffled. 7. The catch is abundant. 8. The desk is for writing. 9. The room
is for reception. 10. The train was approaching. 11. The coat was made of wool.
12. The country house is in good taste. 13. The place is for hiding. 14. The girl
was like a butterfly. 15. His nose resembled a button. 16. The problem had a
difficulty? 17. The man was in trouble. 18. The school is for flying. 19. The
machine is for calculating. 20. The planning is efficient. 21. The Pedagogical
Institute is in Moscow. 22. The novel is of adventure. 23. The story is gripping.
24. The birds are singing. 25. The trees rustled. 26. The woman smiled. 27. The
waves were thundering. 28. The snow was falling. 29. The doctoi arrived.

30. The scholar has a famous name.

^01
Practice 3. Point out the attributes and appositions, state their types, explain
the semantic relations expressed by them. Translate the sentences into
Azerbaijani.
1. On the third day there was sudden excitement down at the bend. 2. The
landscape class, with stools and easels and sketch-boxes, tramped off twice a week
to some vantage point to indulge in plein-air painting. 3. Those were golden days
in my life; it was more than twenty years ago. 4. The evening beauty of the river
with a soft mist rising from its glassy surface stirred her out of her state of
suspended animation. 5. Their next season’s crop was threatened too, for the
pumping plant could not operate. 6. Beyond the half-drawn curtains at the French
windows the summer sun beat down upon the green lawn. 7. A gaunt woman in a
black dress, long apron and sun-bonnet came out, and rather grudgingly filled her
can with three-penn’orth of milk. 8. Oh, that never-to-be-forgotten summer in the
Golden Valley! 9. The only piece of furniture worthy of note was a large
grandfather chair standing in front of the fire place. 10. We have many questions to
discuss before we part, my friends. 11. A few more objections of the same sort
were raised, but all of them were overruled as irrelevant. 12. All the people present
were deeply shocked by the nature of the crime the defendant was charged with.
13. Everything imaginable had been done for the capture of the fugitives, but with
no avail. 14. Samuel Chealy, the then President of the firm, was definitely against
the dubious deal. 15. Is there any purpose in trying to by-pass these problems?
16. The final decision, in accord with the unshakable law of the family, rested with
Aunt Agatha. 17. I doubt whether Major Bell will approve of the plan, so casually
outlined. 18. The letter from the Carstaire Publishers lay unsealed on the desk.
19. The second plane, a huge Boeing, was about to touch the concrete runway
brightly lit by spotlights. 20. I'm afraid there is nothing to safely rely on in his
account of the case.
Practice 4. Explain the semantic relations expressed by the appositions.
1. Colonel Pollard. 2. Inspector Craddock, of Scotland Yard. 3. William the
Conqueror. 4. Edward the Confessor. 5. Peter the Great. 6. John the Baptist. 7. The

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River Mississippi. 8. The Black Sea. 9. The hotel “Majestic”. 10. The City of
London. 11. The village of Otradnoye. 12. Gorky Street. 13. Piccadilly Circus.
14. The newspaper “Morning Star”. 15. The ship “Queen Mary”. 16. Byron, the
great English poet. 17. The Rocky Mountains. 18. Mount,Elbrus. 19. Miss Tilda,
the Head Waitress. 20. Stewardess Jane. 21. Lake Ontario. 22. Regent Street.
23. The Anderson brothers. 24. Mr Smith, Editor-in- Chief, “Journal of Forestry”.
25. Ronald F. Carster, a mining engineer. 26. The Araz River.
Practice 5. Change the prepositional and clause attributes into the
corresponding non-prepositional attributes.
Example:
1. The region of acute earthquake. - An acute earthquake region.
2. The limit imposed on time. - A time limit.
1. The cutting machine-tool of high precision. 2. The missile of long range. 3. The
flight with eight cylinders. 4. The building having twenty-eight storeys. 5. The car
with two seats. 6. The lorry carrying a load of twenty-four tons. 7. The warship
with sixty cannons. 8. The plane for low flights. 9. The car capable of moving with
a high speed. 10. The turbine of high power. 11. The airliner having four engines.
12. The fire effected by rockets. 13. The attack made by cavalry. 14. The lipstick
having a soft colour. 15. The clothes that are worn in summer. 16. The battery of
liquid crystals. 17. The games which are played out of doors. 18. The characters of
the film.
Practice 6. Point out the apposition and define whether it is close or loose.
1. Sonia, the mother, had not taken off her shawl. 2. One of our members, a round­
faced, curly-haired, little man of about forty, glared at him aggressively. 3. There
are plenty of dogs in the town of Oxford. 4. You look all right, Uncle Tom.
5. James, a slow and thorough eater, stopped the process of mastication. 6. He felt
lost, alone there in the room with that pale spirit of a woman. 7. They, the
professors, were right in their literary judgment. 8. In consequence neither Oscar
nor his sister Martha had any too much education or decent social experience of

303
any kind. 9. But now he had seen that world, possible and real, with a flower of a
woman. 10. It was a soft spring night, warm and starlit.
Practice 7. Consider the pairs of noun-phrases with attributes. Make up
sentences using any of the phrases.
1. A dancing girl - a dancing hall. 2. A catching tune - a catching net. 3. Boiling
water - a boiling kettle. 4. A flying bird - flying weather. 5. A calculating mind - a
calculating machine. 6. A waiting patient - a waiting room. 7. A climbing plant - a
climbing rocket. 8. A boxing match - a boxing glove. 9. Racing sportsmen - racing
tracks. 10. A mixing device - mixing substances. 11. A drinking horse - drinking
water. 12. A smoking chimney - a smoking carriage. 13. A swimming dolphin - a
swimming pool. 14. A walking man - a walking stick. 15. A bathing girl - a
bathing suit. 16. An examining look - an examining machine. 17. Skating children
- skating shoes. 18. Skiing sportsmen - skiing sticks. 19. A working man - a
working day. 20. A painting artist - painting mastery. 21. A running dog - running
water. 22. A sleeping child - a sleeping powder.
Practice 8. Point out the type of attribute and define by what it is expressed.
It was very late when I arrived in Flagstaff. The dust was sick around your
ankles, and the sun was blinding. I got off the bus and stood in the middle of the
street trying to decide which way to go. A taxi driver stuck his head out of his
window and asked, “Where to, Mister?”
I had no answer for him, so he offered to take me to Mrs. Johnson’s, a small
house in the old part of the city. Mrs. Johnson’s husband had died in the war and
her children had moved off to other cities. She rented rooms to single men and was
very particular about whom she let stay in her house. Being a graduate of the
Police Academy and a new academy and a new employee on the police force in
Flagstaff, I had no trouble getting a room. Mrs. Johnson was pleased to have me
“protecting her from them”, as she said. She seemed to define ‘them’ as any
unsavoury element with designs on her property or life. Termites fell into this
category, and I would spend the first weekend spraying under the house with
insecticide.

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 Luck was with me: I had been in town only an afternoon, and I had already
found a place to live. When I went to work the next morning, I knew my luck had
changed. The other officers were all suspicious of the outsider from New York.
They thought that their own honour was at stake. They thought I was going to
come in and show them how to run a police station. They had to make sure that I
understood that they already knew how to run a police station. I had no argument
with that. I was new, very new, to the profession. I had everything to learn.
Practice 9. Point out the type of attribute and define by what it is expressed.
In the kitchen she threw her arms around me and gave me a sisterly squeeze.
“I’m going to miss you. Who’s going to come and look after Jeannie when you go
away?” She kissed me and then slipped an envelope into my pocket. I felt the
outline of the envelope and knew she had put money in it. I was embarrassed and
happy at the same time. It had taken a lot of money to study at the Police
Academy, and I knew I would need a lot more to start in Flagstaff.
“Well, is that how you want Dwight to remember his family when he’s off
on the other side of the world?” Holding me by arm she brought me over'to the
kitchen table where my mother and other sister sat starting into their coffee cups.
“Let’s have a little laughter. Our boy is going off to be a famous detective. “She
turned to me suddenly and looked at me as if she were trying to figure something
out. She went over to her handbag and pulled out a newspaper with the headline
Arizona heiress killed in fall." “This will probably be your first case, Dwight.”
“Death from falls is all routine police work; it’s not work for a detective, and
besides it will be all over by the time I arrive.”
“When do you leave?”
“What time is it? 5:15?! I’m going to miss my bus. It leaves at 6:00.”
My mother started to cry and held me tightly by the hand. Promising again
to call when I arrived in Flagstaff, I heard out the door and down the stairs. I ran to
the subway but still had to wait for the train. The man on the platform next to me
was reading the paper. I looked over his shoulder and read the headline Arizona

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heiress killed in fall. The train came before I could read more. But my curiosity
was aroused.

Practice 10. Point out the type of attribute and define by what it is expressed.
I have always been well taken care of. Since my father died of a heart attack,
my two elder sisters and my mother have been taken care of me, their little boy.
When my sister got married and moved out of the apartment, it was just Mama and
I sitting alone at night listening to the neighbours fight next door. When I finished
college and went to the Police Academy, Mama was really proud. She thought that
I would get a job in the city and be able to stay near her. But when recruiters came
from Arizona, I was offered a job in Flagstaff.
“Where is that girl?” Eleanor was looking out the window for Sara. “She
ought to have been here by now.”
“Give her time. You’re always after your sister. Let her stay alone.” Mama
got up her chair and moved over to the sink and began putting away the dishes she
had washed earlier. “She’ll come when she can. She has that new baby at home,
you know. You can’t just up and leave a new baby, you know.”
“She can get a babysitter.” My sister walked over to my mother to help the
dishes in the cabinet. “They make enough money to get babysitter.”
“You can’t trust just anyone to stay with your children. You’ll find that out.”
Mama returned to her chair and began rearranging the things on the table. She
avoided looking at me.
“Dwight, come here and help me. Your mother’s getting lazy in her old
age.” “Nothing lazy about me. There’s just no need to put those dishes away now.
I’ll have plenty of time when I’m alone.”
My mother’s lack of humours was matched by her capability to produce
guilt. I was sad to see an independent woman like my mother with a dependent
image of herself.
“Mama how can you say you’re going to be all alone? Why, every child on
this street is in and out of your apartment all day long looking for treats from your
cookie jar. And in the evening you play card and bingo with the ladies on the

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street. How can you say you’re going to be all alone? You should be happy that
you don’t have to pick up after this boy here.”
“Who are you calling ‘boy’?”
“You think just because you’re going off to be a police detective in Arizona
that you aren’t our little boy. Just don’t you forget who looked after you...”
“Stop your picking on him; let him have a little peace his last few minutes
here.”
The teasing was interrupted by Sara’s coming into the room with her little
daughter Jeannie asleep in her arms. The entrance of the grandchild shifted the
focus from me to her, and my mother immediately took charge of the child’s
welfare. “Sara, what do you mean by dressing that child in that light outfit? Why
she’ll catch a draft and get sick in that...”
“Mama, she’s all right. I’ll just put her in the bedroom where she can sleep.”
The child shifted in her mother’s arms, but did not wake up.
I followed Sara into the bedroom and watched her lay my niece in the
middle of the old bed. I knew that the next time I saw my niece she would be
walking and talking. My sister put a lightweight sheet over her and holding her
fingers to her lips, she motioned for me to follow her back into the kitchen.
Practice 11. Point out the type of attribute and define by what it is expressed.
I looked around the apartment where I had spent most of my life. The
window was open and sounds from the street mixed with the talk show from the
radio that my mother always kept on. It seemed that she had even turned the
volume up to get her mind off the fact that I was leaving. She sat in her favourite
chair, the one I had to fix at least twice a year for as long as I remembered. Who
would fix it now? I wondered absently.
The doorbell rang and my sister entered without waiting for someone to let
her in.
“Of course, you picked a good day for going south,” she yelled over her
shoulder at me as she put the sack of groceries she was carrying on the table.
“Arizona couldn’t be any hotter than New York today.”

307
 Nobody replied. The heat and the occasion had made us quiet. Eleanor
continued her monologue. “Where’s Sara? When is she coming? She should be
here by now. Did she talk to you this morning, Mama?”
The direct question forced Mama to look at my sister. At the first she just
nodded her head, but then added, “She said she’d be here about now.”
“Well, I hope she comes soon. We needed some life in this place. You two
are carrying on as if it were the end of the world. Look at both of you sitting in
your chairs waiting for doomsday.” She reached out and put her hand on Mama’s
shoulder. “Come on now, Mama. He’s only going to Flagstaff. That’s not far away.
You can still talk to him on the phone. And he’ll come back here and visit, won’t
you, Dwight?”
She threw a quick sharp look in my direction. I got up from my chair and
came over and sat next to Mama. “Of course I will. You’ll be seeing me every
holiday.”
“And weekends he’ll call you when the rates go down.” She put her hand on
my elbow and gave it a squeeze.
“Mama, I’ll call you even if the rates are up.”
“Now don’t go wasting your money like that. You’ve got to learn to save.”
The idea of encouraging me aroused my mother from her sad state. She had a
purpose again: looking after me.

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 THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
It is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb.
1. The adverbial modifier of time:
We shall go on a picnic tomorrow.
While reading the report I noticed some mistakes.
2. The adverbial modifier of place:
The children were playing in the garden.
I lookedfor her everywhere.
.3. The adverbial modifier of frequency:
It very often rains here in April.
The island is seldom, if ever, visited.
4. The adverbial modifier of manner:
Having got the news, they left the room rapidly.
The baby was sleeping soundly.
5. The adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances:
She listened, open-eyed and wondering.
The wounded soldier was lying with closed eyes.
6. The adverbial modifier of degree and measure:
The city has greatly changed.
She was completely happy.
7. The adverbial modifier of cause:
I was late for the meeting because of the traffic jam.
He lost interest in everything due to his old age.
8. The adverbial modifier of result:
They were too exhausted to continue their journey.
I was very tired even to eat.
9. The adverbial modifier of condition:
In case of snow we 'll postpone our trip.
They will come earlier if necessary.
10. The adverbial modifier of comparison:
Like his father, he got interested in politics.
She plays the guitar better than her younger sister.
11. The adverbial modifier of concession:
It was a fine day, though cold.
In spite of being tired, we went on working.
12. The adverbial modifier of purpose:
I went to Paris to study.
We cleaned the land for planting.

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PRACTICE ON THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
Practice 1. Point out the type of adverbial modifier and define by what it is
expressed.
1. He slowly nodded his head. 2. He’s coming on Saturday at one o’clock. 3. Lucia
stopped them in their tracks with a stem command. 4. Sally was sitting on the front
seat of the buggy, dumb and unhappy at being ignored. 5. I feel my own
deficiencies too keenly to presume so far. 6. A few miners hung on, hoping the
mines would reopen. 7.The first bar of gold raised hopes sky high. 8. She had to
talk because of her desire to laugh. 9. He pushed back his huge chair and rose to
his full height as preparing to deliver an address. 10. He takes a glass and holds it
to Essie to be filled. 11. Tom was walking too quickly for Sally to keep up with
him. 12. The poor woman was annoyed with Tom for dumping his wife on her.
13. It was quite a long narrative. 14. Of course Laura and Jose were far too grown­
up to really care about such things. 15. Now and then Gavin would stop to point
out silently some rarity. 16. And for all her quiet manner, and her quiet smile, she
was full of trouble. 17. The young school-teacher’s spirits rose to a decided height.
18. Evil report, with time and chance to help it, travels patiently, and travels far.
Practice 2. Point out the type of adverbial modifier and define by what it is
expressed.
l.At the top of the stairs she paused to wave to him. 2. He accepted this
information without betraying his amazement. 3. Having knocked on his door, she
firmly entered Grandpa’s room. 4. After waiting for a few minutes, he marched up
the steps, closely followed by Demetrius. 5. Why do you always look at things
with such dreadfully practical eyes? 6. David appeared in the open door, one hand
clutching a sheaf of bills, under his other arm an account book. 7. That night I
could scarcely sleep for thinking of it. 8. She did feel silly holding Moon’s hand
like that. 9. Then he cleared his throat, and faced his son with troubled eyes.
10. We have some exceptionally fine roses this year. 11. Jonathan shook his head
slowly, without looking up, his tongue bulging his cheek. 12. But it was of no use.
Tom’s melancholy was too heavy to be lifted. 13. She never would have been able

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to make a success of the dining-room but for the kindness and assistance of the
men. 14. On being informed of the old man’s flight, his fury was unbounded.
15. To be a complete artist it is not enough to be a painter, sculptor or architect.
16. Sally was furious with herself for having fainted. 17. With all her faults, she
was candor herself. 18. The receiving overseer, Roger Kendall, though thin and
clerical, was a rather capable man.
Practice 3. Point out adverbial modifiers and state their types.
l.A secretary came running with a frightened expression. 2. Mary descended the
slope very easily. 3. The people in the bus remained silent till the end of the ride.
4. In spite of their lively talk each of them had something in reserve. 5. Alfred
returned presently with quite a creditable assortment of tools. 6. They were just
passing in through a side door. 7. The lady lived in a large gloomy house in one of
London’s higher class squares. 8. The fire that was merrily burning in the grate
attracted the newcomers as a magnet. 9. Bill was much too exhausted from his
night vigil to be of any further help. 10. The room was empty save for a small boy
playing with his toys in a comer. 11. But for sheer coincidence, you would hardly
be likely to run across him in this busy place. 12. Caroline, not knowing what to
say, looked questioningly at her companion. 13. The village is large enough to
organize a drama society for the young folk. 14. Despite his easy smile, the man
was woefully difficult to deal with. 15. The woman cried out in spite of herself.
16. Whatever the circumstances, you must be confident of your just cause, my
friends. 17. The motorcycle rushed past like a lightning leaving a cloud of smoke and
a few stunned passers-by behind. 18. In case of any emergency, press the knob on
your right.
Practice 4. Expand the following simple sentences by choosing adverbial
modifiers from the given lists. Supply as many versions of expansion for each
sentence as you can. Think of your own adverbial expansions for the
sentences.
Place: through the forest, by the open window, all over the world, high up in
the sky, in the mountains, over there, down the hill, along the quay, up and down
the lane, under the poplars.

Til
 Time: until the end of the performance, on that memorable day, after the
wedding party, in a moment, on arrival, from that time on, while in town, before
long, last month, next year, in the past, in the future, only then.
Manner and comparison: in a different way, laughing heartily, as if asking
for permission, with a happy smile, in a friendly manner, unlike herself, as never
before, as if in passing, unequivocally, as cautiously as possible, not so
comfortable as expected, as though, as frightened by something, as clumsily as
could be imagined, relying on one’s own resources, abruptly, thoroughly.
Attendant circumstances: unexpectedly, with a loud laugh, smoking a
pipe, with an outstretched hand, without a greeting, chatting uninterruptedly,
without noticing him, in desperate conditions, without any outside help, with all
that noise going on around them, with his face turned to the east.
Condition: in case of his refusal, if prepared beforehand, in the event of
failure, if driven by circumstances, but for your help, in case of missing the train,
given the necessary knowledge, without their permission, but for Captain Brown,
but for the stormy sea, in case of emergency.
Concession: in spite of their objections, for all his remonstrances, whatever
the decision, even if so, even in case of their disagreement, no matter how late,
notwithstanding the differences of opinion, through temporarily, if but
superficially, however clumsily, if not quite distinctly.
Cause: with your excellent knowledge of people, for want of competent
advice, because of her wish to get there, just because of that, in default of the
document, remembering the note, submitting to her insistence, for that reason,
having spent a sleepless night.
Purpose: in order to demonstrate its use, to be freed from the obligation, so
as not to show one’s disappointment, in order to help them with their training, so
as to give him a good example, to get there ahead of the others, in order to defend
themselves, not to be mocked by the mob.
Result: too tiresome to be entertaining, strong enough to be his rival, clever
enough to understand their predicament, sufficient to make one cry, not

312
comfortable enough to give us pleasure, too rude to be funny, not as lucky as to
catch the morning train, too abstract to be convincing, too quarrelsome to inspire

sympathy.
1. Tell them the whole story. 2. I would join in the conversation. 3. They
will be back by the week-end. 4. I’ll be with you. 5. You may do it. 6. She must
consult an eye specialist. 7. The idea may seem original. 8. Mr Stone changed the
subject. 9. There will be much fun. 10. We would have been drowned. 11. The
picture was fixed on the wall. 12. The plane will take off. 13. The street is entirely
reconstructed. 14. Ned will return, too. 15. She will be allowed to stay. 16. The
answer was in the negative. 17. They would have accepted the invitation. 18. It
makes no difference. 19. The teacher will be talking to us. 20. I’ll need your
advice. 21. The scene is set. 22. We heard voices. 23. Let him check the engine.
24. The letter was not sent. 25. Jacob told me so. 26. This style will become her.
27. Do as I ask you. 28. The lecture notes will be left unfinished. 29. John wouldn’t
know what to answer. 30. They strolled along the lane.
Practice 5. Expand the following noun-phrases by adverbs of degree listed
below.
very, perfectly, quite, fairly, astonishingly, awfully, rather, more or less
surprisingly, entirely, completely, greatly, hardly, intolerably, considerably,
comparatively, sufficiently, absolutely
1. an easy excuse, 2. a lively talk, 3. a devoted friend, 4. shabby clothes, 5. a
friendly smile, 6. a masterly stroke, 7. a tall poplar, 8. vast fields, 9. a plump
woman, 10. an unperturbed expression, 11. a beaming face, 12. wise words,
13. good advice, 14. a strange behaviour, 15. a far-fetched excuse, 16. a mad idea,
17. an accurate calculation, 18. a catchy tune, 19. encouraging news, 20. powerful
engines, 21. a lame explanation, 22. expert cooking, 23. abundant crops, 24. worn-
out trousers, 25. a dull face, 26. an overcast sky, 27. stormy weather, 28. her neat
handwriting, 29. our past pleasures, 30. an innocent smile, 31. an enthusiastic
approval, 32. a voluntary act, 33. profound satisfaction, 34. an unruly child, 35. a
fine fellow.

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Practice 6. Point out the type of adverbial modifier and define by what it is
expressed.
The sound of a small plane above my head interrupted my thoughts. The
plane was very close to the earth over the airstrip in the valley. I took my
binoculars from their case and focused on the plane below. It rolled to a stop next
to one of the buildings near the convent. To my surprise a woman got out dressed
in a long black dress with a straw hat on her head.
She tied the plane down and headed into the convent. I decided to pay a visit
to the convent.
As I approached the convent, I found a young nun working in the garden in
front of the main house. She looked at me with suspicion. I greeted her and
explained I was a guest of Mrs. Fitch. Her manner changed, and, without speaking,
she invited me into the house.
There was a group of nuns sitting around a table waiting for someone or
something. It looked very strange: five nuns sitting around a table with nothing on
it but a record player.
They looked up, and the young nun gestured toward the Fitch home to
explain without words where I had come from. The nuns nodded but no one spoke.
The young nun took a seat at the table. There was one empty chair, but no one
invited me to sit in it. I stood in awkward silence and they sat in thoughtful calm.
I noted some records on a shelf; all were religious songs, but one had no
label. I picked it up out of curiosity. The second I picked it up, every nun lifted her
finger to her lips to warn me to be silent. I imitated the gesture and put the record
on the table. Now, I was really curious to know what the record was.
I wondered if this was a group of nuns that never spoke. If that was so, how
did they teach Sonia? How could the mute teach the blind? In the distance a bell
began to ring; all the nuns rose from their chairs and left the room and me. No one
made a motion for me to follow them so I stayed by the table.
The record player in the middle of the table in this room with no other
furnishings seemed out of place. I picked up the record without a label again. I

314
placed it on the machine and started it. I heard the familiar sounds of the Adagio
that I had heard in the Fitch home coming from Sonia’s record player. Someone
else heard it too. A door quickly opened and a woman walked directly to the record
player; she lifted the record from the machine. She turned to me and said, “This is
the quiet hour,” and then left the room. The woman in the black dress with the
straw hat had spoken.
Practice 7. Point out the type of adverbial modifier and define by what it is
expressed.
I did not sleep well that night. I listened to every sound. And there were lots
of them.
I decided I would not spend another night in that house. I planned to finish
my investigation and leave that morning. I would let the chief figure out who killed
the wives. But I knew he didn’t really want to know. Nobody wanted to know. And
maybe they weren’t murdered. It all could have been accidental: a missing plane,
food poisoning, a fall. But what if someone fixed the motor in the plane so it would
malfunction at a certain point: what if someone put some poisonous leaves' in the
food: what if the third wife was pushed from the cliff rather than fell? Did the same
person kill all three? Or was the first an accident and the second two murders?
Were the last two wives killed by one person or by two different people?
I tried to summarize what I knew.
Darjo: He hated change. He hated the fact that these other two women were
taking the attention away from the memory of Amelia Fitch. Maybe he had another
motive, though, for getting rid of Amelia Fitch. Maybe she knew something about
the past that she planned to reveal and he would lose the security of his job. That
doesn’t seem likely considering they were both flyers. But yet maybe he was
jealous of her since she could fly and he no longer could. I will have to find out
more about him, even though he doesn’t like talking to people... especially to me.
Sonia Fitch: Who would suspect a lovely fifteen-year old capable of murder,
especially a lovely, blind girl? She does know an incredible amount about
poisonous substance in the second Mrs. Fitch’s food. And she was one walking

35 5
with the third Mrs. Fitch when she fell to her death. Her motive was like Darjo’s:
She didn’t like changes especially when change meant a mother. It could be the
typical difficulties between stepmother and stepdaughter carried to an extreme.
Ms. Ryan: Here again competition is the motive. She is a very powerful
woman, very determined in her manner. She effectively controls the house, the
business, and Mrs. Fitch. She obviously wasn’t pleased at the prospect of sharing
her power with another woman. She could have easily arranged for some
poisonous substance to be put in the food of Mrs. Fitch, Number Two, and could as
easily have pushed Number Three over the cliff. Yet, Sonia would have been there
to hear the struggle, the scream, and the extra footsteps. Unless she wanted to
protect the murderer. But why would she want to protect Ms. Ryan? The fight
between them last night seemed a continuation of a long struggle.
Mrs. Fitch: Yes, finally Mr. Fitch. The man who has the most to profit from
the death of three rich wives. Of course he would give lots of money to the town. It
helps to have friends at city hall if you plan to murder your wives and do not want
an investigation. But why would he call up the police chief and ask that an
investigation be carried out? Did he think that people would listen to the crazy
Mrs. Munsing? She is probably not crazy, but overcome by fear. Docs she think
she will be the next one on the list? or Will it be me? Why was the parsley by my
bed last night? Did he call me here to get rid of a curious police detective that he
has no financial control over? Did he suspect that the police chief would not do any
investigation into the mysterious death of the young detective from New York? In
that he would probably be right.
 INVERTED ORDER OF WORDS
or
INVERSION

Full: The whole predicate is placed before the Partial: Only part of the predicate is placed
subject: before the subject:
Is he at home? Where did they find her?

INVERSION OCCURS:________________________________________________________ _________

1. In interrogative sentences:
Where did they find her?
Can I show you my brother?
The whole predicate is placed before the subject when it is expressed by the verb to be
or to have'.
Is he at home?
Have you many friends?
Note: No inversion is used when the interrogative word is the subject of the sentence or
an attribute to the subject:
Who is in the room?
Who speaks English here?
What photos are lying on the table?___________________________ ____ _____ * ______
2. In sentences introduced by there:
There is nothing marvelous in what Jam is going to relate.
Into the lane where he sat there opened three or four garden gates.
3. In a compound sentence where its second part begins with so or neither:
Their parents, Mr. and Mrs. R., escaped unhurt, so did three of their sons.
Simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish:
Be it so!
_______ May your eyes never shed such stormy, heart-wrung tears as poured from mine._______
4. When an adverbial modifier opens the sentence:__________________ ______
a) Adverbial modifiers expressed by a phrase or phrases open the sentence, and the
subject often has a lengthy modifier:
In an open barouche, the horses of which had been taken out, stood a stout old gentleman
in a blue coat and bright buttons._________ .______________________________
b) An adverbial modifier with a negative meaning opens the sentence: in vain, never,
little, etc.
Note: In this case the auxiliary do must be used if the predicate does not contain either
an auxiliary or a modal verb:
In vain did the eager Luffey and the enthusiastic strugglers do all that skill and experience
could suggest.
Little had I dreamed, when I pressed my face longingly against Miss Poly's apron.
Never before and never since, have I known such peace, such a sense of tranquil happiness.

c) Adverbial modifiers expressed by such adverbs: so, thus, now, then, etc. placed at
the head of the sentence, if the subject is expressed by a noun:
So wore the day away.
 Thus spoke Mr.Pickwick edging himself as near as possible to the portmanteau.
If the subject is a pronoun inversion does not take place:
Thus he thought and crumpled up and sat down upon the wet earth.____________
d) Adverbial modifiers of manner expressed by adverbs placed at the head of the
sentence may or may not cause inversion. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be
used if the predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb:
Silently and patiently did the doctor bear all this.
Dimly and darkly had the somber shadows of a summer's night fallen upon all around,
when they again reached there.
But:
And suddenly the moon appeared, young and tender, floating up on her backfrom behind a
tree.
Speedily that worthy gentleman appeared._____________________________________
f) An adverbial modifier preceded by so is placed at the head of the sentence:
So beautifully did she sing that the audience burst into applause._________________
5. When the emphatic particle only, the adverbs hardly, scarcely (correlated with the
conjunction when), the adverb no sooner (correlated with the conjunction than), or the
conjunction nor open the sentence. If there is inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the
predicate does not contain cither an auxiliary or a modal verb:
Only once did he meet his match in tennis.
I do not care to speak first. Nor do I desire to make trouble for another.
No sooner had Aunt Julie received this emblem of departure than a change came over her.
Scarcely was one long task completed when a guard unlocked our door._________________
6. When the subject begins with the word here which is not an adverbial modifier of
place but has some demonstrative force:
‘Here is my cards replied Mr. Pickwick.
Here comes my brother John.
If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun the order of words is direct:
Here he is! ’ said Sam.
‘Here we are! ’ exclaimed that gentleman.

7. When postpositions denoting direction open the sentence and the subject is
expressed by a noun: in, out, down, away, up, etc.:
Out went Mr. Pickwick’s head away.
Suddenly in bounced the landlady: “There's a letterfor you, Miss Moss. ’’
But if the subject is a pronoun there is no inversion:
Down he fell.
Her skirtflies up above her waist; she tries to beat it down, but it is no use - up it flies.
8. When an object or an adverbial modifier expressed by a word-group with not a...,
or many a ... opens the sentence. In case of inversion the auxiliary do must be used if the
predicate does not contain either an auxiliary or a modal verb:
Not a hansom did I meet with in all my drive.
Not a hint, however, did she drop about sending me to school.
Many a time had he watched him digging graves in the yard.
I hated that man, many and many a time had my fingers longed to tear him.______________
9. When a predicative expressed by an adjective or by a noun modified by an adjective
or by the pronoun such opens the sentence (in case the subject is a noun or an indefinite
pronoun):
Violent was his indignation as he was borne along.
Such is life, and we are but as grass that is cut down, and put into the oven and baked.
Sweet was that night.
10. In clauses of concession where the predicative is followed by the conjunction as:

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 Great as was its influence upon individual souls, it did not seriously affect the main current
of the life either of the church or of the nation.
However, when the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the link verb follows
the subject:
Bright eyes they were.
A strange place it was.
Starved and tired enough he was.

11. In conditional clauses introduced without any conjunction when the predicate is
expressed by was, were, had, could or should:
Even were they absolutely hers, it would be a passing means to enrich herself

PRACTICE ON THE INVERSION

Practice 1. Change the inverted order into uninverted.
1.Alone was I since you went away. 2. Lonely was Sam when he first moved to
New York. 3. Alone I’ve told you before - leave my things. 4. The only were we
people there. 5. He knows lucky is he to be alive. 6. Not only were they there, but
also they helped us to solve the problem. 7. Scarcely had they left the house when
it began to rain. 8. In the center of the street was a tall oak tree. 9. In vain did they
try to persuade her to go. 10. Little did I understand of what he said, 11. Never
before and never since, did I tell anyone my password. 12. Such was his first day in
Azerbaijan. 13. Thus did Sona tell Mrs. Brown resting herself in an armchair.
14. Thus did Sam stand and left the room. 15. So beautifully did the bird sing that
we couldn’t help but listen to it. 16. Only once did he see his uncle last year.
17. Silently and patiently did the soldier bear all of these. 18. I didn’t want to join
the conversation. Nor did I wish to interrupt them. 19. Here comes my brother
Anar. 20. Out spoke Thomas in his defence. 21. He opened the box and out jumped
a frog. 22. Many a time had I seen him cross the street alone. 23. Away faded the
music. 24. Violent was Mr. Brown’s curiosity as he asked the shameful question.
Practice 2. Construct a sentence out of the words given below. Pay attention to
the rules of word order.
l.the, two, us, of, alone, finally, were, together. 2. alone, not, Tom, in, Rick,
finding, with, hard, to, is, work. 3. night, at, his, job, about, worrying, lies, awake,
he. 4. hostilities, fears, old, and, awake, his, is, bound, speech, to. 5. aware, very,
arc, people, young, environmentally. 6. awarded, the, judges, points, equal, both,
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to, finalists. 7. to, know, he, ached, what, asking, him, and, horse, tried, the, to,
him, followed, Koichi. 8. you, know, where, do, go, we, after, Yokohama, he,
whispered. 9. Koichi, sky, the, see, could, scarcely, pine, and, cedar, thick, with,
so, forest, through, on, and, on, they, walked. 10. grandmother, that, insisted, she,
would, do, never, do, such, a, barbaric, thing, long, as, as, lived, she. 11. are, they,
eggs, the, silkworm, bringing, not, are, they. 12. it, what, mean, all, did.
Practice 3. Use inverted word order.
l.He walked round so slowly that it was clear he was seriously ill. 2. He answered
so quickly that nobody could guess what he wanted to say. 3. The music was
turned on so loudly that we could hear well. 4. I spoke to him so warmly that he
felt happy. 5. He plays so badly and he looks so wretched. 6. He was so irritated
that I decided not to speak to him. 7. The woman felt so tired that she had to put
the case on the ground. 8. Her voice was so sad that he felt sorry for her. 9. My
father was so furious that we decided to leave him alone. 10. As she looked soft,
there must be strength in her somewhere. 11. As Scarlett was weak, she was going
home to Tara. 12. The wounded moaned faintly. Though he didn’t sleep last night,
he couldn’t relax. 13. Mr. Brown was handsome and slim and serious. 14. They
looked very happy. 15. Every girl in the party looked so bright. 16. The child felt
extraordinarily helpless. 17. The girl looked different and smoother, thought Nicola
instantly. 18. She seemed happy, almost breathless. 19. His hair was thin and grey
on the top of his head. 20. She felt indignant at the suggestion that she needed a
nurse. 21. Her look was so indulgent and severe. 22. It had never occured to her
before that she needed him. 23. He had never felt his presence without the sense of
being laughed at. 24. Fleur had never been so ‘fine’, Holly so watchful, Vai so
stable-secretive, Jon so silent and disturbed. 25. She would glance up not once at
the small hill where his house looked over the ocean. 26. He met June at the
Smiths’ not once. 27. She didn’t speak until that was done. 28. He didn’t discover
that he had only eighteen pence till he reached Piccadilly. 29. I couldn’t find a
pattern that indicated his course of action anywhere in any of the information.
30. She could be sure of herself only here, alone on the hill. 31. Well, I wouldn’t

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tell them anything if I were you. 32. Even if I had known the incident, it wouldn’t
have occured to me as important to mention. 33. She would have been retired if it
had not been for her children. 34. If she should take him seriously, she would be
forced to quarrel with him. 35. I had scarcely left home when it began to snow
heavily. 36. I had no sooner read a few pages then she called me again. 37. I had
hardly entered the room when the phone rang. 38. If I saw Jack much oftener I
could help him. 39. If Carlos wanted us to see him he would send a telegram.
Practice 4. Put the words from the table in the proper places.
never neither shall do at what time
so did should is did
would should would had here
were was would was should
were so were may so
were away so alone did
had only there up not
1. I -— saw him so depressed. — — we. 2. I shall see him tomorrow and the
next day and always. — — we. 3. There — a murmur in the room. 4.----- I you,
I — be very careful about the people I get to know. 5. — you come earlier, you —
- have found him at home. 6. — you meet her there, give her this message,
please. 7. What -— I have done without you? 8.----- I ask you a question now?
9. What----- they giving at the opera tonight? 10.------ -—you dine? 11. Why —
you speak to me like that? 12. Not until then -— he remember the hat he still had
in his hand. 13. For many a time — I sit on the banks of the blue and green lake.
14. How far away they---- ! 15. How beautiful and sad that — ! 16. How
beautiful the words — ! 17. — — another plate for the children. 18. “—
comes coffee!” exclaimed Rosa. 19. — went my mother. 20. On no account —
he have pulled to help him. 21.----- tired were the hunters that they decided to
spend the night on the bank of the stream. 22. -— once, however, did the old lady
complain of pain. 23. — odd sounded his words to me that I could not believe

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him. 24. — worried she looked that I couldn’t leave her 25. — I quite made
up my mind, I — — have spoken to you.
Practice 5. Put the adverbs from the table in the proper places.
in in
then now
down off
down away
out up
off there
there up

l.He came —. 2. A number of pears fell —. 3. The kittens jumped —. 4. He

batted the balloon. It flew----- purple and extravagant. 5. She said good night and
walked quickly —. 6. The rocket flew . 7. They went . 8. She went — into
peals of laughter. 9. A shattering peal of thunder blundered overhead; and the rain
came —, slashing and sluicing. 10. They came — , laughing and shouting.
11. Her own house was —, at the top of the hill. 12. She goes---- . 13. The
morning of his news came —. 14. Our bus comes —.
Practice 6. Make the appropriate statements.
Example:
Henry’s father arrived last night. — So did we.
I told her that he was not alone. — Nor was she.
1.She’s really been wonderful. 2. He used to come to his mother’s every day.
3. She was so gay and so natural. 4. I haven’t seen him yet. 5. We met him on the
stairs. 6. I shall do anything in the world for you. 7. I never saw such a lot of
people. 8. Luke was a man of action. 9. I have still had no word from them. 10. I
shall be all right when I’ve had something to eat. 11. She’s only been here two
days. 12. She doesn’t remember anything about it.

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Practice 7. Make the appropriate statements.
Example:
I’m sure you want to help us to get at the truth. — So I do.
I have no right to ask you anything. — No more you have.
1.1 thought he was a very nice dentist. 2. You never thought of meeting him again.
3. You don’t want to play with me. 4. My father always used to say he was the
ablest man in the party. 5. I hope you had a pleasant journey down from London.
6. I think he might have done that. 7. You’ll be leaving us soon, I suppose. 8. I
think he is a very' serious person. 9. You don’t care what he thinks. 10. You might
have said that before. 11. You must do exactly what you think fit. 12. I’m afraid
you didn’t eat a thing.
Practice 8. Comment on the word order and explain the cases of inversion.
1. But never, never could he have anticipated that evening, some months after the
birth of their child. 2. However, not for the world would he be different from the
others. 3. Not often did he unbend to his servants, but as the butler tucked the rug
round his knees he spoke to him. 4. Jose did not answer. Fretfully the Consul
shifted his position. 5. So immersed was the little boy that he did not hear the car.
6. No sooner had they disappeared than Nicholas heard the sound of clattering
footsteps. 7. Not for an instant did he believe that Nicholas spoke the truth. 8. On
they went. Once Alvin let out a sharp exclamation. 9. Outside, waiting at the back
entrance, was a tall, well-proportioned youth of 19 years old. 10. Up the stairs he
went, falling down, picking himself up again, feeling no hurt. 11. Yet not for the
world would he have revealed the strange inexplicable bitterness which rankled
within his breast. 12. So positive was his belief that he would never see his son
alive that the shock almost deprived him of his reason. 13. Tall and graceful she
was, in a well-made dress of dark blue silk, almost the colour of her eyes. 14. Were
I less attached to you, I might pretend to gloss it over. Had I a slighter regard for
your intelligence, I should perhaps withhold from you. 15. So it is you that have
disgraced the family. 16. At the sides of the house were bushes of lilac entirely
hiding the farm building behind. 17. A fresh wrong did these words inflict. 18. He

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did not speak: nor did I. 18. Happy she never seemed, but quick, sharp, absorbed,
full of imagination and changeability. 19. At this period came the young
Skrebensky. 20. Only once did he go to the master of the studio for help. 21. Many
a tear did I shed at night. 22. Little did my poor aunt imagine what a gush of
devout thankfulness thrilled through me. 23. A snow white silk blouse, falling well
open, showed off her long neck. 24. Directly in front of her window was a stone
parapet. 25. Never, indeed, would he forgive her that episode.

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 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

Consists of two or more clauses

________ _______ ______________________ A CLAUSE__________________________

A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.

CLAUSES MAY BE CONNECTED

Syndetically - Asyndetically - without a conjunction or

1. Coordinating conjunctions: and, or, else, conjunctive adverb:
but, etc. The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.
2. Coordinating adverbs: otherwise,
however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore,
etc.'.
The darkness was thinning, but the street was
still dimly lighted.
He knew there were excuses for his father, yet
he felt sick at heart.

TYPES OF COORDINATION

Copulative Disjunctive Adversative C aus ative-consecutive

Copulative coordination: and, nor, neither... nor, not only ... but also, etc.: It was a nice
place and they were rather proud of it.
Disjunctive coordination: or, else, or else, either... or, etc. and the conjunctive adverb
otherwise, etc,: Don't come near me with that look else I’ll knock you down.________________
Adversative coordination - conjunctions: but, while, whereas, etc. and conjunctive adverbs:
nevertheless, still, yet, etc.: The room was dark, but the street was lighter because of its lamps.
Causative-consecutive- conjunctions: for, so, etc. and the conjunctive adverbs therefore,
accordingly, consequently, hence, etc.: There was something amiss with him, for he was
strangely grave and looked ill.

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PRACTICE ON THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
Practice 1. State how the clauses of the following sentences are coordinated.
l.The curtain of rain lifted, and the sun came out. 2. In the morning Henry cooked
the breakfast, but Bill was still sleeping. 3. The wind blew, the clouds gathered, the
rain fell. 4. Darkness stretched before their eyes; the rain came down in torrents.
5. Sam sometimes walked with us to show us the boats and ships; and once or
twice he took us for a row. 6. I looked in all directions, but I could find no house.
7. Take a lantern, otherwise we shall not be able to find our way. 8. Open the third
drawer from the top, but don’t pull it too far. 9. The sea was very heavy, each wave
was like a big mountain. 10. It was late evening and the sun had just set. 11. Be
careful, or you may slip and fall into the river. 12. All was very silent; only some
sea birds were flying about. 13. It is getting dark, therefore I will go home. 14. It
was bitterly cold, so we didn’t go out. 15. In the meantime the clouds came lower
and it began to hail and snow. 16. The horses were harnessed, the bells attached to
the yoke tinkled and the driver had already reported twice that the carriage was
waiting, but still there was no sign of my companion. 17.1 walked to the ledge and
looked down, my head swam. 18. The lark sprang up in front of his feet, the air
was full of butterflies, a sweet fragrance rose from the wild grasses.

Practice 2. Point out all the compound sentences and state how they are
connected.
It was in the neighborhood of Berkeley Square and I had come out of a
drawing-room, warm, scented and full of “portable property”. The hall door was
closed behind me, the East wind caught me in the face, and I walked into a child.
She may have been five years old. With a scanty red petticoat widespread over her
humped-up knees, she was sitting on the pavement and beating it with a bit of
withered branch decorated with three or four brown leaves. In time to the beating
she chimed a song. Blackish-brown curls hung all about her round, smutty face; the
remains of a hat rested beside her on the pavement; and two reckless, little black
devils looked out of her eyes.

326
 She was so delightful a contrast to the “portable property” that it was
impossible not to stare at her. So I went down the street crabwise. She knew I was
going crabwise, she knew the position of the “bobby” at the comer, she knew
everything all round her. And when she saw me she began to flirt with me. She put
her head on one side like a terrier asking for cake, and looked up through the tangle
of curls. She smiled. I smiled, and went round the comer. There was a little patter
of hobnails and she came round the comer. If she was queer on the ground, she
was queerer on her feet; she had clapped her hat - the last bit of a large girl’s hat -
on the back of her head; her short, red petticoat gaped, her brown legs were thrust
into a woman’s boots. She shuffled along behind, beating the railings with her
branch. Sometimes she banged up alongside, shot a shy glance at my top-hat, and
fell back again. People passed and stared at her, but she paid no attention. In
Oxford Street we stopped and held a conversation. It began and ended thus:
“Would you like some sweets?” I left her sucking a sixpence, staring after me with
her great black eyes, and beating a shop window with her branch. But when I
looked round again she was dancing to a barrel-organ with some other children,
her petticoat little red teetotum in the crowded street.
Practice 3. Join the sentences by means of coordinating conjunctions and state
the types of coordination (copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causative-
consecutive).
l.The sky was blue and clear. The winds were silent. 2.The swallow’s friends had
gone away to Egypt. He had stayed behind. 3.It was raining hard. The wind was
cold and piercing. 4.He didn’t know I could read French. He never asked me to
help him. 5.Please, hurry, we shall be late. 6.Salim split the wood. His sister piled
it. 7.The boys played games, mother sewed. Father read aloud. 8.The fence was
already white-washed. Tom could play with the boys. lO.We called on him. He
was not at home. 11.1 could not make a report; I had not read the book.

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 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

A principal clause One or more subordinate clauses

CLAUSES MAY BE LINKED

Syndetically - subordinating conjunctions or Asyndetically - without a conjunction or

connectives: More and more, she became connective: I wish you had come earlier.
convinced that some misfortune had overtaken
him.// All that he had sought for and achieved
seemed suddenly to have no meaning.

THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

The compound-complex sentence consists of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at
least has one or more subordinate clauses:
There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Subject clause: conjunctions that, if, whether', conjunctive pronouns who, which, ivhat, whoever,
whatever; conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, how:
What I want to do is to save us both.
It was possible that they might encounter some one.
It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her.__________________________________ __
Predicative clause: conjunctions that, if, lest, whether, as if, as though; conjunctive pronouns who,
which, what,; conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, how:
That was why you were not one bitfrightened.
Another thing,,. was they had nurse Andrews staying on with them that week.__________________
Object clause: conjunctions that, if, whether, lest; conjunctive pronouns who, which, what,
whoever, whatever, whichever; conjunctive adverbs where, when, why, how:
I'll do just what Isay. //He wondered why he should look back.
He said there was nothing much the matter with me.
I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean.

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 ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE

Relative: Appositive:
The facts those men were so eager to know The fortunate fact that the rector ’s letter did
had been visible, tangible, open to the not require an immediate answer would give
senses. him time to consider.

ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

Restrictive: Non-restrictive:
You could not but feel sympathy for a man who Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got
took so much delight in simple things. off his stool.
I think my father is the best man I have ever He went in alone to the dining room where the
known. table was laidfor one.
He had emotion, fire, longings, that were
concealed behind a wall of reserve.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

1, The adverbial clauses of time- when, while, whenever, as, till, until, as soon as, as
long as, since, after, before, now that:
My father died when I was nineteen years old.
2. The adverbial clauses of place - where, wherever.
1 am quite happy where I am.
3. The adverbial clauses of cause - as, because, since, for fear (that)’.
As he had a linking for the spot, he seldom let a week pass without paying it a visit.
4. The adverbial clauses of purpose- that, in order that, so that, lest:
She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour.
5. The adverbial clauses of condition - if, unless, suppose, in case, on condition that,
provided: ' y
If .. ic nnt
it ----- --------------- hit tlio onrl
lioro ------------------- j nf
...~ ---- woolr
tlio J chntl
„---------------- crn nftor him
.......
6. The adverbial clauses of concession - though, although, as, no matter how,
however, whoever, whatever, whichever:
Although the young man’s eyes remained upon him, he didn’t speak.
7. The adverbial clauses of result - so... that, such.. .that, that:
The room was so dark that the man coiddn't see anything.
8. The adverbial clauses of manner - as, the way:
He left the house as he had entered it.
She talked the way my uncle did usually.
9. The adverbial clauses of comparison - than, as, as... as, not so... as, as if, as
though’.
He was white and tired, as if he hadn ’t slept for many nights.

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PRACTICE ON THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
Practice 1. Analyze the connectives used to join the subject clauses.
l.I t is probably that you will very shortly hear from us again. 2.Where he was
going was home, and yet, he would have to learn the ways of home. 3.It was a pity
Celia couldn’t understand because he did want her to. 4.0ne day after her first
week’s rehearsal what she expected came openly to the surface. 5.It’s funny how
anxious these women are to get on the stage. 6.It’s doubtful whether they had even
realized that Ann was bound to come. 7.It’s a grand thing when you see the
working class in action. 8.It is the face of a woman with dark hair and eyes and
certainly a pale face but whether she is pretty or ugly as sin is more than I can say.
9.It seemed to me I stood by the iron gate leading to the drive. 10.Whatever she has
told you is true, sir.

Practice 2. Complete the sentences adding subject clauses.

1. It is evident why....................................................................................................

2. It was doubtful whether.........................................................................................

3. It is a most important question if..........................................................................

4. It was of no importance........................................................................................

5. It is not decided yet who........................................................................................

6. It has been arranged that.......................................................................................

7. When will it be announced where.......................................................................

8. It was very lucky that............................................................................................

9. It is a matter of doubt how...................................................................................

10. It is not known what................................................................... .......................

1 l.It is of no consequence whatever.........................................................................

12.It has been proved that..........................................................................................

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 1

Practice 3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate connectives to join the
predicative clauses.
l.He says Jewell that during the twenty minutes she was there. That is................ she
was so upset by JavinuaL 2. The result is................it is very difficult to induce the
English public to buy and read plays. 3. The fundamental trouble is................. men
and women are different creatures, with different minds and different paths in life.
4. That is ........... makes Englishmen unpopular on the continent. 5. It was
............... we had been unconsciously driving towards danger instead of away from
it. 6. His arms felt....... they would come out of their sockets. 7. All she wanted to
know was................he wrote letters to his wife. 8. All I can say is............ Marko’s
brain seems to be crammed full of knowledge. 9. The reason he wanted to be alone
was........... he was very popular. 10. It’s exactly............ I felt an hour before Crafts
made his revelations. 11. And I think it’s ........... this generation is just wise
enough to know that it is sick.
Practice 4. Complete the sentences adding predicative clauses.
1. The difficulty is that........................................................................................ '..........
2. The matter was that....................................................................................................
3. The problem was that................................................................................................
4. The question was that................................................................................................
5. The question was why...............................................................................................
6. The problem was how...............................................................................................
7. The reason was that...................................................................................................
8. The result was that....................................................................................................
9. The trouble was how.................................................................................................
10. What worried her most was...................................................................................
11. The fact is.................................................................................................................
12. The fact of the matter is...........................................................................................
13. The government’s demand was that.......................................................................
14. Her fear was..............................................................................................................
15. The original motion in the white paper was that.................................................

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Practice 5. Define the types of subordinate clauses {subject, object and
predicative clauses).
l.Miss Casement stopped what she was doing and stared at Rainsborough. 2. What
you saw tonight was an ending. 3. About what was to come she reflected not at all.
4. It’s odd how it hurts at these times not to be part of your proper family. 5. The
trouble with you, Martin, is that you are always looking for a master. 6.1 want you
to sit here beside me and listen to what I have to say. 7. Who and what he was,
Martin never learned. 8. What he would do next he did not know. 9. It was only
then that I realized that she was travelling too. 10. What I want is to be paid for
what I do. 11. I cannot help thinking there is something about that closet. 12. And
what is puzzling me is why they want me now. 13. That was what I came to find
out. 14. What I want to know is when you’re going to get married. 15. What was
certain was that I could not now sleep again. 16. After several weeks what he had
been waiting for happened. 17. I understand all that, but what I want to know is
whether or not you have lost faith in me? 18. He had taken no part in the war, and
he felt sure that he could only rejoice in its conclusion - not as a patriot, but as a
financier. 19. He felt as if the ocean separated him from his past care, and
welcomed the new era of life which was dawning for him. 20. That I had no
business with two women on my hands already, to go falling in love with a third
troubled me comparatively little. 21.1 only write down what seems to me to be the
truth. 22. Believe me, believe us, it is what is best for you.
Practice 6. Define the types of attributive clauses.
1 .Rachel had become aware of the fact that she was talking loudly. 2. He took after
his blond father, who had been a painter. Rosa took after her dark-haired mother,
who had been a Fabian. 3. What we are interested in, as author and reader, is the
fact that publishing in England is now an integral part of big business. 4. The
invalid, whose strength was now sufficiently restored, threw off his coat, and
rushed towards the sea, with the intention of plunging in, and dragging the
drowning man ashore. 5. He was suddenly reminded of the crumpled money he
had snatched from the table and burned in the sink. 6. He would speak for hours

332
about them to Harry Esmond; and, indeed, he could have chosen few subjects more
likely to interest the unhappy young man, whose heart was now as always devoted
to these ladies; and who was thankful to all who loved them, or praised them, or
wished them well. 7. I hardly know why I came to the conclusion that you don’t
consider it an altogether fortunate attachment. 8. He walked to the window and
stood there looking at the winter night that had finally come upon them. 9. What
terrified her most was that she found deep in her heart a strong wish that Misha
might indeed want to reopen the negotiations. 10. Directly in front of the window
was a wide terrace with a stone parapet which swept round to what she took to be
the front of the house, which faced the sea more squarely. 11.1 went upstairs to lie
down and fell into the most profound and peaceful sleep that I had experienced for
a long time. 12.She looked to him much the same child as he had met six years
ago. 13. Maybe the reason you don’t want to go to a specialist is because you don’t
want to change - you want to stay as you are. 14. Such light as there was from the
little lamp fell now on his face, which looked horrible - for it was all covered with
blood. 15.That is all I can tell you. 16. He was under the impression that an attempt
was going to be made to convict him. 17. What happened was the last thing that
any of them expected to happen. 18. There were times when I wanted to stop the
car and tell him to get out. 19. The bar was crowded with men which she had
expected it to be and at first she was not able to find a place to sit down.
Practice 7. State whether the subordinate clauses are subject, predicative,
object or attributive clauses.
1. I know that you speak the truth. 2.The truth is that he was a selfish man. 3. I
don’t know how long I shall stay. 4. The measure of your physical strength is what
you can lift. 5. What we have been talking about is very interesting. 6. I do not
know why you have told me this. 7. It was lucky that you had found your watch.
8. The reason why I cannot go is well known. 9. We all know that the art of
medicine depends on the discoveries of science. 10. Experiments in chemical and
biological laboratories teach us how the organs of the body perform their work and
how they are affected by various conditions. 11. He asked them where they had

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come from and how long they had been on the road. 12. They set off early fearing
that the driven snow might delay them. 12. What he does he does well. 13. You
may depend on it that he will not repeat his mistake. 14. The delay was caused by
the fact that he was late. 15. Everything points to the fact that we shall have an
early winter. 16. What he would have done in other circumstances, who can tell?
17. I should like to know which of these poets you admire most ? 18. I wish you
would tell me what I have to do next? 19. Just think what a splendid thing that
would be! 20. Whether it will please them is not easy to say. 21. Surely no artist in
the past anywhere in the world ever experienced such complete moral satisfaction
as Azerbaijani artists derive from the knowledge that their art serves the people
together with whom they are fighting for the triumph of the finest ideals of
mankind.
Practice 8. Read the statements. If the statement is true, write T, if the
statement is false, write F and then rewrite the statement to make it true.
1 .If you mix yellow and red, you get green. 2.If you are on the equator, the sun
rises and sets at the same time every day. 3.If you don’t get enough sleep, you
never get sick. 4.1f a tadpole grows up, it becomes a butterfly. 5.If you scuba-dive
underwater, you need an oxygen tank. 6.If there are 366 days in a year, it is a leap
year. 7.If you eat too many fatty foods, you lose weight. 8.If your skin is exposed
to too much sun, you get a sunburn. 9.If plants don’t have sunlight, they grow
faster. 10.If it is winter, ducks migrate. 11 .If a surface is smooth, it has less friction
than a rough surface.
Practice 9. Tell what you do habitually in the following situations. You may
use when, whenever or if.
1. When I want to be alone..............................................................................................
2. When I need a quiet place to study.............................................................................
3. When I want to be with people...................................................................................
4. When I am caught in a heavy rain..............................................................................
5. When I have too much stress in my life....................................................................
6. When I don’t have enough money to buy what I want.............................................

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7. When I don’t feel like cooking dinner......................................................................
8. When I have a bad day..............................................................................................
9. When I get a good grade on a test...........................................................................
Practice 10. Think about when you were a teenager. How did your parents
treat you in the following situations? Complete the statements.
Example:
If I came home late,...
If I came home late, my parents didn ’t allow me to go out again all month.
1. If I got good grades in school,...................................................................................
2. If I wanted new clothes,...........................................................................................
3. If I didn’t clean my room,.........................................................................................
4. If I needed some money,..........................................................................................
5. If I wanted to go on a date,........................................................................................
Practice 11. Edit the following passage. Use relative pronouns whenever
possible to avoid repeating words, as in the example. After you have finished
editing the passage, compare your suggestions with a classmate’s.
1. It’s interesting talking with women. These women (who) have had experiences.
Their experiences (which) are similar to mine. There are a lot of things to talk
about. 2. For example, balance is a topic. Most of my women friends are interested
in this topic. 3. Achieving balance is a challenge for many women. Many women
have jobs and family responsibilities. 4. Some women don’t have jobs outside their
homes. These women sometimes feel criticized. They feel criticized by other
people. 5. These people think that women should have some women never have
careers. This is an attitude. More and more people share this attitude. 6. Some
women work at jobs and have young children. These women also feel criticized.
They feel criticized by other people. 7. Other people think that all women should
stay at home with their children. They should never be sent to a day care center.
Day care is a business, not a loving home. This is a belief. This belief makes some
women feel a lack of balance in their lives. 8. Some women never have children.
These women may feel pressure from their own parents. Their own parents worry

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that their children won’t provide them with grandchildren. 9. These are examples.
These examples show how it can be difficult for women to feel sure they are doing
the right thing for themselves and for the children.
Practice 12. The following words are used to describe people. Unscramble the
words and write complete sentences to finish the description.
Example:
an, in, is, extremist, some, someone, way, who, is
A fanatic is someone who is an extremist in some way.
1. A, about, is, likes, other, people, talk, who, to, person
A gossip...............................................................................................................
2. Ages, and, are, are, between, nineteen, of, people, the, thirteen, who, young
Teenagers.........................................................................................................
3. Are, from, money, or, pocket, purse, steal, who, thieves, your
Pickpockets.......................................................................................................
4. Are, better, else, everyone, people, than, who, they’re, think
Snobs.................................................................................................................
5. Alcohol, doesn’t, someone, drink, is, who
A teetotaler.............................................................................................................
6. Everything, is, knows, he/she, someone, who, thinks
A know-it-all..........................................................................................................
7. A, army, has, in, is lowest, rank, soldier, who, the, the
A private..............................................................................................................
8. A, an, individual, is, lot, of, spends, time, TV, watching, who
A potato coach......................................................................................................
9. Are, are, elderly, people, who
Senior citizens.................................................................................................
10. A, a, lazy good-for-nothing, is guy, who’s
A bum.................................................................................................................

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Practice 13. Underline the relative clause and circle the antecedent.
My friend Charlie has fallen madly in love. He told me he has finally met the
woman that he has been looking for all his life. He has always been attracted to
women that are intelligent and independent and that have a good sense of humor
and a love of adventure. The women that he has fallen in love with have all those
things and more, according to Charlie. Even though physical appearance isn’t the
most important characteristic that Charlie is looking for, he is quite happy his new
friend is attractive and athletic. She not only runs and skis, but also goes scuba­
diving, and has several other interests that Charlie also shares.
Charlie was never completely happy with the women that he used to go out with.
There was always something that he wasn’t satisfied with. I used to tell him he was
too choosy. The “perfect woman” that he was looking for didn’t exist. No real
person can equal the picture that someone has in his or her imagination. But I’m
glad he has found someone that he thinks is perfect. I’ve never seen him happier.
Practice 14. Underline the relative clauses.
Sociologists at Mills College have released a new study that may interest
many people, especially men. They reported the results of a survey that they
conducted with several thousand American women all around the country. They
wanted to examine common attitudes that these women have about men, so that
they could identify important characteristics that women think are necessary in a
good husband or boyfriend. The study found a number of interesting results, which
will probably not surprise most women, but may surprise some men.
The women in the survey generally seem to prefer men who can express
their feelings. Most women prefer husbands who they can talk to easily and that
they can share their problems with.
There were also several other things that women consider important in a
partner. A man’s character or personality is more important to many women than
the job that he does for a living or the salary that he brings home. Not surprisingly,
most women want a husband that will take on an equal share of housekeeping and
child raising duties.

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 But the most important characteristic is this: Women want boyfriends who they
can trust and husbands that they can depend on. Unfortunately, more than 70 % of
the women who answered the questionnaires said they had husbands or boyfriends
who lacked one or more of these important characteristics.
Practice 15. Combine the pairs of sentences by using a relative clause with
that, who, whom, which.
Example:
/finally met the woman. Charlie has fallen in love with the woman.
Ifinally met the woman that Charlie has fallen in love with.
1. Last month Charlie fell in love with a young woman. He had been introduced to
the woman by some friends. 2. She had a number of positive characteristics.
Charlie found these characteristics quite attractive. 3. She has a responsible
position in a company. The company produces computer programs. 4. That’s a
fast-growing field. Charlie is also interested in that field. 5. Hobbies involve
athletics and being outdoors. Both of them like these hobbies. 6. Charlie introduced
the woman to his parents. He had been dating the woman for several weeks. 7. She
has a wonderful sense of humor. This makes their times together relaxing and
enjoyable. 8. From the first time they met, Charlie felt there was a “special
understanding” between them. He was unable to explain this understanding.
Practice 16. Answer the questions using a relative clause (“/ like people who
...”, “People who I like ...”). Compare your answers with a classmate’s.
1. What kind of people do you like?
2. What kind of people like you?
3. What kind of food do you like?
4. What kind of leisure activities interest you?
5. What kind of person do you want to marry?
6. What kind of person will want to marry you?
7. What kind of practice is useful in learning languages?
8. What kind of government is the best?

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Practice 17. Underline the relative clauses. Make sure that you also include
the ones that have deleted relative pronouns.
When World War I, which was fought in Europe from 1914 to 1917, was
finally over, it was called “the war to end all wars.” It was the most destructive war
the world had ever fought until then. Over ten million young men sent to battle
from both sides were killed or permanently disabled.
The war introduced powerful new weapons the world had never before seen. The
use of the airplane enabled armies on both sides to drop bombs with an
effectiveness and precision that had been previously impossible. Heavy casualties
were also caused by the wide-scale use of a poison gas, called mustard gas, which
permanently damaged the lungs of soldiers caught without gas masks.
There were more than 8.5 million deaths. Many people fighting this terrible
war were killed in battles. But many others died from intestinal diseases caused by
the unsanitary conditions on the battlefield, or by infections which developed in
lungs damaged by mustard gas, which was used by both sides.
The peace established by “the war to end all wars” lasted less than a
generation. The most destructive war the world had ever known, like most wars,
didn’t solve the political and economic problems facing European governments at
that time. Less than twenty-five years after the conflict everyone hoped would
bring world peace, Europe was again at war.
Practice 18. Delete the relative pronouns and make other necessary changes.
Example:
The kind of people (that) I like are usually people who have a good sense of
humor.
1. I like people who think about other people’s feelings. 2. I like people who are
working to make the world a place that we can all share. 3.1 like people who don’t
take the work that they do too seriously. 4. I don’t like people who have no sense
of humor. 5. I like people who don’t worry about things that other people say
about them. 6. I dislike people who try to hurt other people’s feelings. 7. I dislike
people who are very concerned with power and position. 8. I like people who

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question the things that they have been taught and the teachers who have taught
them. 9. I like people who are like me. 10. I like people who like me.
Practice 19. Combine the sentences using whose.
1. Samira met a man. His twin brother is a well-known geneticist. 2. Jeff and Matt
are roommates. Matt’s nickname is Akbar. 3. People may have similar
personalities. Their genetic make-ups are similar. 4. Nicole took a class from a
teacher. She knew his wife in college. 5. Mary Rae would like to go to the lecture
by the mountain climber. She read about his latest climb in Adventure Magazine.
6. My friend has a dog. Its eyes are different colors. 7. I keep getting phone calls
for some stranger. His last name is apparently the same as mine. 8. Hans finally
succeeded in meeting the artist. He had been admiring her work for years.
Practice 20. Combine the pairs of sentences using relative pronouns.
(1) Charlie wants to make some changes in his life. These changes involve both his
lifestyle and his social activities. (2) Charlie wants to find a new place to live. The
place has to have enough room for a dog. (3) He’s looking at a new apartment. The
apartment has a balcony, so he can grow some flowers. (4) Charlie also wants to
get married to someone. Her political beliefs are similar to his own. (5) He hasn’t
found anyone yet. On one seems to share his interest in politics and sports. (6) He’s
thinking of putting a personal ad in a paper. A lot of people advertise in that paper
in order to meet others with similar interests and backgrounds.
Practice 21. Answer the questions using relative clauses. Compare your
answers with a classmate’s.
Example:
What kind of food do you like?
I like food that is not too spicy.
1. What kind of person do you want to marry?
2. What kind of person should be the leader of a country?
3. What kind of person makes the best teacher?
4. What kind of television programs do you like to watch?
5. What kind of place is the best for a vacation?

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 6. What kind of house or apartment would you like to live in?
7. What kind of books do you enjoy reading?
8. What kind of students get the best grades?
Practice 22. Underline the relative clause and circle its antecedent.
Michelle has finally realized one of her lifelong dreams. She has always wanted
to attend the cooking school that her mentor, Chef Troisgros, attended. The school,
which is in Paris, accepts only 80 students every year. The students who are
accepted generally have at least three years of cooking experience. Michelle has
five years of paid cooking experience.
The project that attracted the attention of Chef Troisgros, however, was a
cake that Michelle made for a wedding. Chef had never tasted a cake that was as
light and creamy as the one that Michelle made. He gave Michelle his card and
invited her to cook pastries at his restaurant beginning the next month. It was this
invitation that began her career baking for a large restaurant. Right now she is
waiting for the plane that will fly her to Paris. There she will begin the three-month
course that Chef Troisgros attended.
Practice 23. Circle the antecedent of the relative pronoun that, who, whom,
which.
1. Michelle is attending the cooking course that she had dreamed about. 2. The
man whom she is cooking with is an experienced cook. 3. Michelle wants to learn
baking techniques that she can use back in the United States. 4. She met the man
who is co-owner of the cooking school. 5. The school which has received three
blue ribbons, has been open since 1926. 6. Michelle was only recently introduced
to the family whom she is now living with. 7. She bought the cookbook that was
written by her teacher. 8. Every day the students eat the food that they have
prepared.
Practice 24. Combine the pairs of sentences using a relative clause with that,
who, whom or which.
Example:
Michelle started the pastry class. The cooking school recommended the class.

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 Michelle started the pastry class that the cooking school recommended.
1. Patrick took a course. The course is no longer offered at our school.

2. Kate bought a dress. The dress was on sale........................................................

3. Lawrence introduced a new friend to me. He had been jogging with this
friend for two months.......................................................................................
4. Michelle has a friend. Her friend owns a restaurant just outside of Paris.

5. I want to visit the beach. The beach was featured on a TV show.

6. The dog was in my backyard. The dog belongs to my neighbors down the
street.

Practice 25. Some of the following sentences are incorrect. Identify the
mistakes and correct them.
1. This is the person which David gave flowers....................................................
2. My brother, that runs for two miles each morning, is in good physical shape.

3. The woman with whom he spoke had a heavy French accent.

4. The book that I read it was interesting................................................................

5. The army troop that I mentioned earlier was ready to march after only two
weeks of training..............................................................................................
6. The friend to whom I sent the gift was so pleased that she called me last
night...................................................................................................................
Practice 26. Delete the relative pronouns where possible and make the other
necessary changes.
Example:

The kind of food that Michelle likes to make is simple and low in fat.

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 I like people who like to laugh and who tell jokes.

1. Michelle tried to practice her baking with the student who sits near the window.
2. She examined the menus that the chef had planned. 3. She wants to return home
with a diploma that was signed by Chef Lyon. 4. The student whom she had dinner
with last night is from Italy. 5. She is not sure which recipe to make next.
6. Michelle prefers to make friends with people who are studying at her school.
7. Chef Lyon tasted each cake that was baked by his students. 8. The prize that is
awarded to the best student is a white chef s hat. 9. Have you seen the cake that
made Chef Lyon so happy? 10. Students who are near the bottom of the class may
need to repeat the class in order to get a diploma.
Practice 27. Combine the pairs of sentences using whose.
Example:
The Samos own a house. The exterior of the house is frequently seen in
movies.
The Sarnos own a house whose exterior is frequently seen in movies.
1. I own a cat. The cat has long fur.

2. Jackie bought a car from a salesman. She met his sister in the gym.

3. Mark often gets phone calls for a doctor. The doctor’s phone number is
similar to his.

4. I spoke to the neighbor. My son had broken his window.

5. The professor spoke to the student. The student’s grade was lower than
expected.

6. People may vote alike. Their thinking styles are similar.

Practice 28. Define the types of adverbial clauses.

1. He too had moved and was now standing where she had been a moment before.
2. He watched until the final wisp of smoke had disappeared. 3. And he followed

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her out of the door, whatever his feelings might be. 4. I came away the first
moment I could. 5. A cat with a mouse between her paws who feigns boredom is
ready to jump the second the mouse makes a dash for freedom. 6. I could work
faster if your irons were only hotter. 7. Had the great man said but a word of
kindness to the small one, no doubt Esmond would have fought for him with pen
and sword to the utmost of his might. 8. Howard puffed his cigarette thoughtfully
before speaking as if he was still uncertain about what he should say. 9. How she
would reach the villa, and what she would find there when she arrived, she had not
even dared to imagine. 10. I paused while she took off her coat. 11. I don’t know
what would have concluded the scene, had there not been one person at hand rather
more rational than myself, and more benevolent than my entertainer. 12. When he
left the car, he strode along the sidewalk as a wrathful man with stride, and he rang
the Morse bell with such viciousness that it roused him to consciousness of his
condition, so that he entered in good nature, smiling with amusement at himself. 13.
As I had no taste for this particular discussion, and also wanted to get off the
subject of my dear brother, I said, “What will you be doing on Christmas Day?”
14. No matter how brilliant a physician is, a thing like that will ruin his career.
15. Dased as he was, he realized that there was just a chance of escape. 16. At least
it was good to be on one’s legs again, and though the night was hideous, the
situation seemed less precarious than it did when one was sitting in there, playing
fantastic tricks with mechanisms.
Practice 29. Define the types of clauses introduced by that.
1. His smile was so easy, so friendly, that Laura recovered. 2. It was just luck that
he didn’t catch the boat. 3. It infuriated him to think that there were still people in
the state who believed in a loving and merciful God. 4. The impression he gathered
was that he would be able to make his own terms. 5. In the front hall, under a large
picture of fat, cherry old monks fishing by the riverside, there was a thick, dark
horse-whip that had belonged to Mr. Spear’s father. 6. At first she used to read to
me, but it was such a dismal performance that I could not bear to hear her. 7. I
remember the landscape was buried deep in snow, and that we had very little fuel.

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8. I believe that all we claim is that we try to say what appears to be the truth, and
that we are not afraid either to contradict ourselves or to retract an error. 9. The
box that the fur came out of was on the bed. 10. “I sit alone that I may eat more,”
said the Baron, peering into the dusk.
Practice 30. Define the types of clauses introduced by as.
1. Even as she talked she was here and there about the room, commenting on this,
that, and other episodes with which both she and Miss Redmond seemed familiar.
2. I was in real distress, as I can tell you. 3. He kissed her quickly and ran towards
the wicket as fast as he could. 4. He was, as I saw him now, too fanciful and too
erratic. 5. His wife, as I have said, was small, talkative, cricket-like, and bounced
here and there in a jumpy way. 6. Such trees as there were stood out ragged and
lorn against a wealth of sky. 7. As I didn’t reply, she sighed and turned away to
pull the curtains across the darkened windows. 8. Sally gave him a smile. It was as
sweet and innocent as it had ever been. 9. Another day, at tea-time, as he sat alone
at table, there came a knock at the front door. 10. “How are you and Alexander?”
“We’re as well as can be expected,” said Rosemary. 11. And, young as you were -
yes, and weak and alone - there was evil, I knew there was evil in keeping you.
12. As I turned to look at her she seemed transfigured. 13. He stretched himself on
his bed as a dog stretches himself. 14.1 shall only try now to describe him as I saw
him at the start, before I knew certain crucial facts about him.
Practice 31. Define the types of clauses introduced by since and while.
1. Ever since you appeared on the scene, you have, for reasons which remain
obscure to me, behaved towards me with hostility, and in two instances you have
deliberately done me harm. 2. I wondered if Palmer and Antonia were indeed here,
since we were much earlier than the time I had predicted. 3. They complained that
he was conceited, and since he excelled only in matters which to them were
unimportant, they asked satirically what he had to be conceited about. 4. Zillah is
constantly gadding off to Gimmerton since papa went. 5. They went into the grill­
room for dinner, since none of them were dressed. 6. Then she lifted her hair on to
the top of her head and balanced it there like a bundle while she tied it securely

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about with a handkerchief. 7. I felt in no mood for confronting Rosemary. She had
never quite got on with Antonia and would on the one hand be delighted at what
had happened, while on the other she would maintain a conventional air of distress.
8. While he was speaking, Joseph returned bearing a basin of milk-porridge, and
placed it before Linton. 9. While he elbowed his way on, his eyes which he usually
kept fixed on the ground before his feet, were attached upwards by the dome of St.
Paul’s. 10. He had a glass eye, which remained stationary while the other eye
looked at Reinhardt. 11.1 had not communicated with Georgia since the day of the
revelation, and since the thing was not yet common knowledge, she was still
presumably ignorant of the change in my situation. 12. While he was standing
there, a telegram was brought him. 13. There was a moment’s pause while he
introduced her, and they were off.
Practice 32. Define the types of subordinate clauses.
1. All I say is that only lies and evil come from letting people off. 2. The only thing
which could be said against Miss Casement’s report was that, it would damage a
great many existing interests. 3. Directly I began to cross the common I realized I
had the wrong umbrella, for it sprang a leak and the rain ran down under my
mackintosh collar, and then it was I saw Henry. 4.1 had left them early, declining a
pressing invitation to dinner, and then had stayed up half the night drinking
whisky, and I still felt, as I prepared to leave the office, rather sick and giddy. 5.
All three incidents had resulted from the fact, of which he himself was well aware
but which he was unable to overcome, that he was unstable and unreliable and a
misfit in his profession. 6. But July arriving and his plan still indefinite, the first
thing that occurred to him was that they might go off to some inexpensive resort
somewhere. 7. One day, however, very shortly after he had connected himself with
the Green-Davidson, he had come in rather earlier than usual in the afternoon and
found his mother bending over a letter which evidently had just arrived and which
appeared to interest her greatly. 8. So often throughout his youth in different cities
in which his parents had conducted a mission or spoken on the streets if had been
obvious that people looked down upon him and his brother and sister for being the

346
children of such parents. 9. This visit had been planned to produce in Annette and
her mother a due sense of his possession, so that they should be ready to receive
will respect any overture he might later be disposed to make. 10. When he was
bom, Winifred, in the heyday of spirits, and the craving for distinction, had
determined that her children should have names such as no others had ever had.
11.1 attached little importance to Palmer’s statement that what I had seen would be
without a sequel. 12. The only person who appears to have seen the young man is
the captain of that little steam boat that runs from Three Mile Bay to Sharon.
13. On seeing him, she stopped reading at once, and, flustered and apparently
nervous, arose and put the letter away without commenting in any way upon what
she had been reading. 14. All she had to do after seeing him was to buy her ticket
to Utica and get in one coach, and he would buy his separately and get in another.
15. That I could love such a person was a revelation and education to me and
something of a triumph; it involved a rediscovery of myself. 16. After swallowing
a cup of coffee at one of the small restaurants near the post-office and walking the
length of Central Avenue toward the mill, and pausing at a cigar store to see if
Roberta should by any chance come along alone, he was rewarded by the sight of
her with Grace Marr again. 17. He had a feeling in his heart that he was not as
guilty as they all seemed to think. 18. Her voice sounded to her as if she had
shouted, but the man to whom she had been speaking, evidently not hearing a word
she had said, continued staring thoughtfully into his beer. 19. He decided later that
if she did not want him to know what she was doing. 20. She had no idea how long
she stood there in the gradually failing light, and the next thing she remembered
doing was running to the telephone. 21. If I lived here I should have to get to know
what you do in a big forest, if you should be lost.
Practice 33. Underline the subordinate clauses and define their types.
1. The sun was still low when we went to the beach. 2. The apple-trees were so
heavy with fruit that their branches rested on the earth. 3. If the river were not so
deep, we could cross it. 4. The boy wore a man’s coat, which reached to his heels.
5. Don’t give a definite answer till you get a letter from me. 6. As it is rather chilly,

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I shall put on my warm coat. 7. It is high time he gave a definite answer. 8. The
sun, which had been hidden all day, now came out in all its splendour. 9. It took us
much more time than we had expected. 10. All who heard his song enjoyed it very
much. 11. We ran down the hill as quickly as we could. 12. Although it was cold,
they did not make a fire. 13. The night was so dark that he lost his way. 14. It is not
so easy as you think. 15. Although we could see nothing, we distinctly heard the
sound of falling water. 16. Tell me the exact address that I may make no mistake.
17. Since you insist on it, I shall go there to-day. 18. How we are to use the
machine is another matter. 19. He said that I was the very man he was seeking.
20. As there were no rooms for travelers at this post-house, we were given
lodgings in a little hut. 21. The fog was so thick that I could not distinguish
anything around me. 22. Some sections of the narrow road were covered with
snow, which here and there gave way underfoot; others had been turned to ice
under the action of the sun’s rays and night frosts, so that we made headway with
difficulty. 23. We had almost reached the river, though we could not see it through
the thick brushwood. 24. At first glance I should have given him about twenty-five,
though later I was ready to grant him thirty. 25. The sky was so blue, and the sun
so bright, that an eternal summer seemed to reign over the prospect. 26. It is a well-
known fact that in crossing rapids one should not look at the water because it
makes you dizzy.
Practice 34. Define the types nf subordinate clauses.
1. When he was running across the yard, he fell. 2. When I was going home
yesterday, I kept thinking about my friend. 3. He put on his coat, went out and
looked at the cars which were passing by. 4. She closed the book, put it aside and
looked at the children who were running about in the yard. 5. As the book was
translated into Azerbaijani, it could be read by everybody. 6. As we were given
dictionaries, we managed to translate the article easily. 7. As soon as I have done
my homework, I shall go for a walk. 8.As soon as I buy the book, I shall begin
reading it.

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Practice 35. Define the types of subordinate clauses.
1. That nobody saw them was a mere chance. 2. The mother insisted that her son
should enter the university. 3. The place looked so picturesque and cheerful that he
rejoiced at the thought that he would come to live there. 4. When he entered, she
stood up and left the room, and even did not look at him.<5) When Robert came

home from the college, after he had passed his examinations, he felt very happy.
6. In the darkness they were afraid that they might lose their way. 7. When he
reached his destination, he sent a telegram home to say that he had arrived safely.
8. Thank you that you helped me. 9. The new medicine may be recommended only
after it is approved by the Scientific Board. 10. You will never learn your mistakes
if you do not write them out. 11. When the boy entered the room, he glanced
curiously around.
Practice 36. Define the types of subordinate clauses and the ways of
coordination in a compound sentence.
I had been jobless for nearly eighteen months. I hated these people who
could deny me the right to earn my living. I was considered too well educated, too
good for lowly jobs and too black for anything better.
Fortunately for me, every now and then, some person or persons would say
or do something so unselfish or friendly that I would for a while forget my
difficulties and hurts. It was from such an unexpected quarter that I received the
helpful advice which changed the whole course of my life.
I had been sitting beside the lake in St. Jame’s park, watching passers-by
throwing bits of food to the ducks. Near me was sitting a thin old gentleman
reading the Times, who occasionally commented on the colour or habits of the
ducks. He sounded quite pleasant that I didn’t feel like talking with anybody. He
did not seem to mind my attitude, however, he said to me: “You have been in
England long, haven’t you?”
I did not feel like conversation, especially on the subject of being in
England.

349
 “Big cities are lonely places.” He wanted to talk: some old gentlemen are
like that.
“It’s no one’s fault, really,” he said. Then he continued: “A big city can not
afford to be distracted from the important job of being a big city by such an
unimportant item as your happiness or mine.”
I was suddenly interested. He knew I was with him, listening and his grey
eyes were kind. He continued: “There are monuments to the industry and effort
which have made this a great city. You need to be a fighter to live in it, not exist,
live. Anybody can exist, but living is different. It can be hard, but it can also be
fun. There’s so much going on all the time that’s new and exciting. If you were a
Negro you’d find that even existing would provide more excitement than you care
for.”
Practice 37. Define the types of subordinate clauses and the ways of
coordination in a compound sentence.
It was twenty years ago when I was living in Paris. I had a small flat and I
was earning very little money. One of my readers had read a book of mine and had
written to me about it. I answered, thanking her, and then I received from her
another letter in which she asked me if I would give her a little luncheon at
Foyot’s. Foyot’s is a restaurant at which French senators eat and I had never
thought of going there. But I was flattered and I was too young to say “no” to a
woman, I answered I would meet her at Foyot’s on Thursday at half past twelve.
She was not so young as I expected. She was in fact a woman of forty. I was
frightened when the menu was brought, for the prices were a great deal higher than
I had expected. But she said, “I never eat anything for luncheon. I never eat more
than one thing. I think people eat too much nowadays. A little fish, perhaps. I
wonder if they have any salmon.”
Well, it was early in the year for salmon and it was not on the menu, but I
asked the waiter if there was any. Yes, they had a beautiful salmon. I ordered for
my guest. The waiter asked her if she would have something while it was being

350
cooked. “No”, she answered, “I never eat more than one thing. Unless you have a
little caviar.”
I knew that caviar was very expensive and I could not afford it, but I could
not tell her that. I told the waiter to bring the caviar. For myself I chose the
cheapest dish on the menu and that was a mutton chop.
Practice 38. Define the types of subordinate clauses and the ways of
coordination in a compound sentence.
I was ten years old then, and my brother Nick was fourteen. For both of us
this purchase of a gift for our mother on Mother’s Day was an occasion of
excitement and great importance.
Our mother worked from early morning till late at night, cooking, buying,
washing and looking after us in illness.
“What are you going to give her”, asked Father.
“We’re going to give separate presents”, I announced importantly.
Nick and I discussed what to buy. We became involved in a competition of taste.
“Let’s not tell each other what we’re getting,” said Nick.
After careful deliberation I bought for my mother a comb decorated with
little shiny stones that could even be mistaken for diamonds. Nick came back from
the store with a pleased look. He liked my gift very much and wouldn’t tell me
about his. He only said: “I’ve picked a certain moment when I’ll give my gift.”
The next morning Nick kept me close and when my mother got ready to
wash the floor he nodded to me and we ran to get our gifts.
When I came back, Mother was as usual, on her knees, wearily scrubbing the
floor. It was the job she hated most in the world.
Then Nick returned with his present, and Mother sat back on her hells,
staring unbelievingly at the gift. Her face went pale with disappointment as she
looked at the new scrubbing pail with the fresh mop in it.
“A Mother’s Day gift of a scrubbing pail,” her voice almost broke.

351
Tears sprang to Nick’s eyes. Without a word he picked up the scrubbing pail and
mop and blindly trudged down the stairs. I put the comb in my pocket and ran after
him. He was crying and I felt so bad that I began to cry, too.
On the way down we met Father. Nick could not talk, so I explained:
“It’s a fine gift. A wonderful gift.
We all went upstairs where Mother was still scrubbing the floor. Without a
word Father soaked the puddle of dirty water up with the mop and showed us how
to use it.
“You didn’t let Nick finish,” he said to Mother. “Part of his gift was that he
was going to wash the floor from now on.” He looked at Nick. “Isn’t that so,
Nick?”
With a flush of shame Nick understood the lesson. “Yes, yes,” he said in a low
eager tone.
“Ah, a woman can become so stupid.” she said. Then she kissed Nick and
he felt better. “What is your gift?” asked Father.
Nick looked at me and paled. I felt the comb in my pocket. The comb with
shining stones would make the scrubbing pail, again, just a scrubbing pail.
“Half the scrubbing pail,” I said and Nick looked at me with love in his eyes.
Practice 39. Define the types of subordinate clauses and the ways of
coordination in a compound sentence.
Aime let herself into the room feeling light-hearted, and trying to decide
what she could do if she were ill - the fear that never leaves the working girl who
has nobody to take care of her. She was living alone just now, in a bed-sitting room
which cost her twelve shillings a week. It was impossible with her friends, and the
only thing distinct to her mind was that she had to go to the rehearsal the next day
somehow. For one thing she could not afford to pay a fine, for another, terror. She
had five pounds in the Post-Office - that was all. The pounds between her and the
streets! She pulled the pins out of her thick hair, hoping to still the pain in her head.
Then she took off her clothes with trembling fingers and crept in between the
sheets.

352
 That evening the landlady didn’t expect to find Alma at home because she
knew that the little actress was rehearsing. She almost started back with
astonishment on entering the room to see Alma lying in bed with closed eyes.
“Poor thing! She is tired out, and won’t need any food tonight,” she said,
looking a little curiously at the tired white face. “But I’ll leave the supper.”
She put the tray on the table and went away. Alma was crying in her sleep
just as the landlady left the room.
Alma was still lying in bed when the woman entered the room as she had
done the night before; but she was talking in her sleep - repeating lines from
operas and plays, and as if the opening the door caught her attention she half sat up
in bed, fixing her feverish eyes on the woman.

353
 REVISION TESTS
REVISION TEST I
1. Use the correct tense and voice.
Michelangelo, the famous Italian sculptor, lived in Florence. Once a
beautiful piece of white marble (to bring) to Florence, and the governor of the city
told him that he wanted him to make a statue out of the marble.
The sculptor (^wor^) for two years to make the statue as beautiful as

possible. When the statue was ready a lot of people gathered in the square.
Everybody (to wait) for the governor. At last he came, but he didn’t like the statue
at all because the statue’s nose was too long.
When the governor (not to look) he picked up handful of marble dust and
went up to the statue. He (to drop) the marble dust he (to pick) up little by little to
make the governor believe that he really (to change) the shape of the nose. The
governor thought that the sculptor (to do) as he (to tell), and so when he finished
working, he said proudly: “Now, the statue (to'be) wonderful.”

2. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them stating their
functions.
When Ivan Pavlov, the great Russian scientist, was young, he lived in very bad
conditions. One day his friends collected some money and gave it to him. saying
that they would like him to buy a new suit for himself. It took his friends a very
long time to make Pavlov accept the present. Finally he thanked them heartly and,
looking very awkward took the money, again looking at his friends. Next day,
when he appeared in the laboratory, he had his shabby suit on, with several dogs of
different sizes and colours accompanying him, but they saw his eyes shining with
joy. “I am so glad I had your money with me. Without it I wouldn’t have been
able to buy these dogs. I would buy one some other time. I’m quite pleased with
my old suit,” he said.

354
3. Use the correct form of the subjunctive mood.
Clarence: Mary, have you ever had a teacher who changed your life or influenced
you greatly?
Mary: Yes. But the teacher influenced me in a very negative way. I wish I (to
know/not) him. You know, I have always had problems with math, and I think it
comes from my seventh grade math teacher, Mr. Harris. He thought girls couldn't
do math. When any girl asked a question, he always sighed and said, "Girls can't
do math. It's a well-known fact." When a boy asked a question, he smiled and
asked for his answer.
Clarence: That's terrible! Your teacher actually said that to you?
Mary: Yes. If he ever did let me answer a question, and I actually got it right, he
always said that it was a lucky guess.
Clarence: I wish your parents (to do) something about him. I wish they (to go) to
the principle of the school and complained about the way Mr. Harris treated the
girls. The principal of the school (to help) you and your parents. If you (to be) my
child, I (to demand) that such an irresponsible teacher (to fire).
Mary: You're right! If somebody (to force) Mr. Harris to treat the children
equally, I (to become) more confident in math. I am afraid lest his behavior (to
affect) every girl in that class.
Clarence: I think you are right. I'm glad our children don't have teachers like that!
4. Define the types of subordinate clauses.
Mr. Boggis was dealing in antique furniture and had his own shop. When
customers came to his shopjie showed them round it so that they could see the
whole range of his goods. He bought furniture from people in the country who
didn’t know the real value of antique furniture. One Sunday when Mr. Boggis was
travelling about the countryside near London, he found a commode by a famous
English carpenter. Mr. Boggis didn’t want to show the owner that it was of great
value. So he said:

355
 “Well, the commode doesn’t look beautiful. I can’t compare it with the others that
I have. I have just remembered that I wanted to have legs for the coffee table in my
own home.”
“How much could you give for the commode if you are interested in the legs”
asked Mr. Rummond.
“Shall we say 20 pounds?”
Mr. Boggis walked to his car to get it nearer the door. Mr. Rummond’s son
said to him: “Listen to me, father. He told us that he wanted only the legs. So all
we have to do is to cut them off right now before he comes back. He won’t have to
cut them off at home himself.”
5. Translate the following passage.
I’ll give you ten minutes, but I can’t give you much more than that. It cost the
airlines a fortune to pull stunts like that and delay on the ground. She turned away
from Mel then and spoke into the small walkie-talkie she carried as Mel ran back
to the pay phone, and put the call on her credit card. They got her through to the
newsroom right away but it took four precious minutes to find an assistant
producer and a story editor, who conferred with Mel on the phone.
What’s up?
A real break. One of the people I interviewed was a patient waiting for a transplant.
And I just got a call from Hallam. They have got a donor, and they’re going to
operate now. Can I stay and take a camera crew back out to Center City to film the
operation? She was breathless from the excitement and from running to the phone.

REVISION TEST II
1. Use the correct t^eandvoi^ {,
The plane they (to provide) with was luxurious for the wartime. It (to fit)
with seats. Little lights (to glow) along the roof. Soon the doors (to shut). The
lights (to go5 out. It was completely dark. The roar of the engine^to in?pos3) the

silence on the party. Dan (to try' compose himself for sleep. He (to wear) the
same shirt all day without a chance of changing. In the hot afternoon it (to be)

356
damp with sweat. It did not occur to him to bring his greatcoat. It (to be) an
unsatisfactory day.
2. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them stating their
functions. * \ro'sX?Ay*' pPS/
The USA capital was named after George Washington, the first American
President, the Father of the Country. Americans wanted to have a statue of George
Washington ip the centre of the capital. In 1832 Congress found money for the
statue. They wanted it to be a big statue of Washington on horseback and asked an
--- -
artist to do the work. The artist worked for eight long years and finally the statue
was ready. But there was a problem: the artist worked in Florence, Italy. How
could they get the statue from Italy to America? Congress discussed this problem
for weeks and after all they sent a man-of-war to bring the statue across the
Atlantic Ocean. But the marble George weighed twelve tons, and it took forty-four
oxen to pull him over the Italian roads...
The great hero being naked to the waist, congressmen were shocked when
the statue arrived in Washington. It was not what they wanted. So they decided to
put the statue inside the Capitol.
3. Use the correct form of the subjunctive mood.
An American lady travelling in England got into a compartment in a
smoking carriage where an Englishman was smoking a pipe. For short time she sat
quietly, expecting that the Englishman would stop smoking. But when the train
was under way for half an hour, she began to cough and sneeze, trying in this way
to show him that she objected to the smoke. At last, seeing that all her efforts to
attract his attention failed, she addressed him impatiently. ,
“If you (to be) a gentleman, you (to stop) smoking when a lady got into the
carriage. I wish you (to. finish,) smoking when I got into the carriage. I wish you
\^J Wx P Lvt
(toVe) more poli^^ Z
“If you (to be) a lady,” replied the Englishman, “you (not to get) into a
smoking carriage.”

357
 vdLtf ize

“Even if you (to be) my husband,” said the American lady angrily, “I (to
give) you poison.”
The Englishman looked at her; fora^noment or two. “Well”, he said at last,
“If I (to be) your husband, I (to take) it.
4. Define the types of subordinate clauses.
Malcolm Stacey, who is 38 years old, is a part-time BBC journalist and the
author of two books about money. He earns £50,000 per annum. He lives in New
York with his wife Jo, 32. They have two children.
‘I never buy luxuries and I never buy a pound of drinks. When colleagues go
out to the pub, I’ll stay in the office and say I’m expecting a phone call. I’ll never
invite people to dinner, but I never feel guilty about accepting their invitations. I
know they invite me to have someone interesting to talk to. The meanest-thing I’ve
ever done was to go to a wedding without a present. I just took some wrapping
paper and a tag saying ‘Love from Malcolm’ and put it onto the table with the
other presents. I got a thank-you letter from the bride. She obviously thought she’d
mislaid the present.
People don’t believe I can be so stingy. I’ll organize an office collection for
earthquake victims but I won’t give anything myself. I would never ask passers-by
to throw money in, but I collect it when they do.
I’ve always been mean. When I was a child I would never buy flowers for
Mum, but I’d give her a bouquet from her own garden. My wife gets embarrassed
by my meanness, but we never row about money. People think I’ve got a fortune
stashed away somewhere. I don’t care what they think.
5. Translate the following passage.
Balzac, who was known as a famous French writer, was a man of a great
talent. But he himself was proud of his ability to tell a person’s character by his or
her handwriting. He often told his friends that he could tell anybody’s character
exactly by his handwriting.
One day a woman - friend brought him a young lady’s exercise - book. She
said that she wanted to know what Balzac thought at the boy’s character.

358
Balzac studied the handwriting carefully for a few ten minutes. The woman,
however, told him that he might tell her the truth since the boy was not her son.
“All right.” said Balzac. “I’ll tell you the truth.” And he said that the boy was a
bad, lazy fellow.
‘It is very strange,” said the woman smiling. “This is a page from your own
exercise - book, which you used when you were a boy.”
When Balzac heard it he had nothing to do but keep silent.

359
 EXAMINATION TESTS
EXAMINATION TEST I
1. Use the correct tense and voice. /
On the 17th January, I960, a terrible storm (to break out) in the Kurils. A
« ■ *' if
Soviet barge (to cany') out to sea with four men on board. The men on the barge (to
be) in great danger. They (to do) their nest to approach the shore but it was
impossible. The wind (not to stop) blowing for one second, the sky (to cover)
with dark clouds, and it (to rain) so hard that they could hardly see anything round
them. The men on board (to hear) the voice of the radio calling out to them, but
they were unable to answer because something (to go) wrong with their own radio
set. When the storm calmed down, they saw that the waves (to sweep) away almost
all their food and fresh water.
2. Point out the verbals and predicative construction^ with them stating their
functions. -<■ f
X -—'A > V . /v
Einstein, like many other scientists, did not like being^bothered while he was
working. The servant knowing this very well tried not to go into.his study when
he was there. > r ■ , v
Once a servant entered his library' to clean it, and to her great horror she saw
some strange-looking men hurriedly throwing books into a big bag. Since the
thieves didn’t notice her, she could step out of the room and ran to the scientist s
study and burst in without knocking.
“Thieves, thieves in your library, Professor,” she began to cry.
“Well, well,” the scientist said without looking up. “What are they reading.
Einstein’s paying po attention to him surprised him.

360
3. Use the correct form of the subjunctive mood.
Joe is a brilliant student. He is good at his lessons. Two years ago he wished
he (to go J to the university, (to study ) medicine and (to become ) a doctor. His
parents also wished that he (to become ) a doctor.
Now he is a second year student. Yesterday he took an exam in biology and
couldn’t pass. If Joe (to work) harder, he (to pass ) his exams. He says:
/yW f
-1 was sick for two weeks last month, or else I (not to miss) so many lectures
and I ( can pass ) this exam. Oh if I (to pass ) it. Now it is necessary that H to
pass ) the other two exams.
4. Define the types of subordinate clauses.
When you travel about the country, you can see how the scenery changes
right in front of your eyes. Highlands turn into lowlands, forests and hills turn into
meadows and plains very quickly. Often what people first notice about Britain,
especially if they arrive by plane, is the green of the fields, hedges and trees.
We’ll begin our journey with England which is the largest part of the UK.
When people travel to Britain by sea or air, they usually arrive in Southeast,
for this is where the main passenger ports and airports are situated. The Southwest
is the region where the main activity is farming. If you want to see the famous
Stonehenge, you should also come here. As England is a picturesque place, many
tourists come here every year.
5. Translate the following passage.
One morning the old Water-rat put his head out of his hole. He had bright
beady eyes and stiff grey whiskers, and his tail was like a long bit of black india-
rubber. He saw the little ducks swimming about in the pond, looking just like a lot
of yellow canaries, and their mother, who was pure white with real red legs was
trying to teach them to stand on their heads in the water. “You will never be in the
best society unless you can stand on your heads,” she kept saying to them; and
every now and then she showed them how it was done, the little ducks paying no
attention to her. Ducks being young, they didn’t seem to know about an advantage
of being in society at all.

361
 “What disobedient children!” cried the old Water-rat; “they really deserve to be
drowned.”

EXAMINATION TEST II
1. Use the correct tense and voice.
I X.

It was 20 years ago and I (to live) in Paris. I (to earn) very little and (can
keep) hardly body and soul together. One of my readers, a lady wrote to me about
one of my books she (to head). She asked me if I (to give) her a little luncheon.
I (to answer) that I (to meet) her at the restaurant on Thursday 11.30.
The next day when she came I (to wait) for her for1 an hour. She was a
woman of forty and not very attractive. When the waiter brought the menu, she
said: ”1 never (to cat) many things. I (to eat) only one thing, a little fish, perhaps.”
2. Point out the verbals and predicative constructions with them stating their
functions.
. That night my father bought a shirt for me to wear. A red one. It was likely
to be a good one, but my mother said that it was too loose on me to wear and it
----------------- i ' \ ; t pr
needed washing once for becoming tight on my body after it. I begged her not to
wash, just not to wash it, that’s all! Mother looked at me and smiled. Then she
called my father to the kitchen. They stood face to face and talked in whisper. The
kitchen door being opened I saw that my mother’s eyes had become tortured. My
'Z f fl G'\

father’s lips began trembling. Turning off the light she looked at me: ’’Don’t put on
tlie shirt tomorrow.” The next day I-put on my red shipt and left the room, my
hands in my pockets. There I saw many men smoking and women weeping.
3. Use the correct form of the subjunctive mood.
Martin entered the room and said: “It ’s impossible that he (to say) it.” “Why not?
It’s possible that he (to forgetf his prqmisp”, answered James.
। j- VL-i eX v
- James, if I (to be) you, I (not to think) so. , ji

- Look, when I saw him, he looked really very exhausted, as if he (to work) hard
for a long time. Maybe, that is the reason.
- If only I (can believe ) it. Ok, (to be) it so.
- Let him (to explain) everything.
- 1 wish you (to be ) right. "
- Ok, Martin, it’s high time I (to be off). - -
4. Define the types of subordinate clauses.
At supper John, who was a close friend of Antonia told his wife that he was
going away on business. His wife said she was sorry he was leaving on the eve of
International Women’s Day, because she would feel lonely on the holiday. She
asked him how long he intended to stay away. He answered that he didn’t intend to
be away for long, and mentioned that all the necessary arrangements had been
made. The problem was what she should put into his suitcase. He answered that he
didn’t want to have a lot of luggage and a few things would do. Then they got
down to the business packing.
5. Translate the following passage.
They began to row with their hands. It was the thirty-fourth day when Gene
saw something green in the distance. It was an island, but they had no idea whether
it was in the hands of their enemies or friends. They saw that it would be difficult
to get to the land as the rocks were surrounding the island. His land was some four
hundred meters away. Though they were very tired, they were fighting for their
lives. The problem was how they would get to the island, and they were so
exhausted that they could not stand up, though they slowly inch by inch pulled
themselves over the rocks.
They didn’t know how much time had passed before the natives found them and
took care of them.
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 CONTENTS
PREFACE......................................... 3
THE CONJUNCTION....... ........................... 6
THE PREPOSITION.................................... 28
THE INTERJECTION................................... 53
MODAL WORDS..................................... 56
THE PARTICLE...................................... 58
HOMONYMOUS PARTS OF SPEECH........................... 62
REVISION TESTS..................................... 81
THE NON - FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB......................... 86
MODAL VERBS............................. 1
REVISION TESTS..................................... 188
EXAMINATION TESTS.................................. 192
THE SENTENCE..................................... 235
PARTS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE............................. 250
AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT................. 280
SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE........................ 293
INVERTED ORDER OF WORDS.............................. 317
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.......................... t. .. 325
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE................................ 328
REVISION TESTS..................................... 354
EXAMINATION TESTS.......................... 360
RESOURCES....................................... 364

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