Certificate Course

on
PIPING ENGINEERING
June 26 - July 6, 2019

TRANSIENT FLUID FLOW

Prof. A. S. Moharir
IIT Bombay

Organized by

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai - 400 076
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

TRANSIENT FLUID FLOW ANALYSIS

Prof. A. S. Moharir

Piping system’s importance in any process plant cannot be over emphasized. In

terms of cost, piping cost is estimated at approximately 25% of the total plant cost. This
is next only to the equipment cost (approximately 50%). In terms of engineering man-
hours, piping consumes almost half of the total man-hours. Same is the case for field
man-hours spent on fabrication, assembly and testing. The operating bill is also bloated
significantly by the energy consumed in transporting process or utility fluids through
pipes connecting equipment. In transport and distribution business such as cross-country
pipelines or gas networks etc, the entire capital and operating expenditure is in laying and
running the pipelines. Piping systems, wherever and for whatever these may be
employed, thus have a major footprint on overall project economics.

Wellbeing of piping systems is equally important for smooth and as-expected

functioning of a process plant, just as it is in the case of process equipment. Pipes
distinguish themselves as different from equipment, in terms of their aspect ratio (length
to diameter ratio). A significant aspect is their length and rather complex routing which
make them rather delicate and susceptible to failure or mal-functioning under
single/multiple foreseen/unforeseen loads. Although design formulae for pipes and
cylindrical process vessel are same as far as ensuring their integrity against
internal/external pressures at sub- or super-ambient temperatures are concerned, process
vessels are more stable and rigid compared to pipes due to their larger base (diameter)
and unrestricted nature, at least in one dimension. Piping systems on the other hand, are
‘anchored’ at terminal, held/guided along the way by supports/hangars, must carry rather
large weight en-route (valves etc.), move in complex 3-D configuration, undergo
pronounced net expansion/contraction at operating temperatures different than
installation temperature, must withstand vibrational and displacement loads transmitted
by connecting equipment, must successfully negotiate occassional loads such as seismic
wind, surge etc., must withstand flow induced vibrations and gravitational force etc. To
foresee all these loads and select a pipe route exercises an engineer’s knowledge in
diverse science and engineering disciplines. That makes the so called ‘piping engineer’ so
unique in an engineering organization.

This module deals with fluid transients. The origin of fluid transience, i.e.
dynamic change in pressure and velocity profiles along a pipe route, otherwise designed
for steady state behaviour, impact of these transient values on pipe integrity and methods
to mitigate harmful fluid transients are discussed qualitatively as well as quantitatively.

Basics of Steady State Pipe Hydraulics

Mechanics is a branch of science which studies behaviour of objects under the

application of external forces. Two fundamentally different forces are ‘shear’ and

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 1

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

‘normal’ forces. Normal forces could be tensile or compressive. Behaviour of a

substances or an object under shear force is used to categorise matter, namely, solid and

fluid. A fluid is defined as a substance which when in static equilibrium cannot sustain
shear forces. The term ‘fluid’ encompasses ‘liquids’ and ‘gases’.

Compressive forces result in pressure. Fluid pressure is an important design

parameter for piping systems.

One of the fundamental equations governing fluids in motion is the Bernoulli’s

equation. It is a statement of the law of conservation of energy as applied to fluids in
motion.

Bernoulli’s Equation

It is merely a statement of conservation of energy as applied to fluids in motion. It

considers any fluid as having three types of energies, namely, potential energy, kinetic
energy and internal energy (by way of fluid pressure). While allowing exchange of
energy amongst these forms, Bernoulli’s equation states that the total energy remains
constant. It is best understood by considering a conduit carrying fluid between two points
‘1’ and ‘2’ as in figure 1. If P i , Z i and v i ; i =1, 2 represents the fluid pressure, elevation
and fluid velocity at point i, then

P1 v2 P v2
Z1 + + 1 = Z2 + 2 + 2
g 2 g g 2 g

The equation is valid for any pair of points along a conduit.

A special case is worth considering. Let the conduit be horizontal

(Z 1 = Z 2 ) and of uniform cross-section (v 1 = v 2 ). The above statement of conservation of
energy would then imply that the pressure is same at the two ends of the pipe. This is
contrary to expectations as one expects pressure at upstream point (‘1’) to be higher than
the pressure at the downstream point (‘2’) and this pressure difference actually sustaining
the fluid flow. A force (P 1 -P 2 )  is then seen as acting on the fluid between points 1 and
2 causing it to move in direction 1 2.

This is incorporated in the Bernoullli’s equation by a ‘loss’ terms as follows:

P v2 P v2
Z1 + 1 + 1 = Z 2 + 2 + 2 + h f
g 2 g g 2 g

h f is the head loss which accounts for the loss of energy due to fluid friction
and/or turbulence. In fact, this energy gets converted into heat, marginally increasing the
fluid temperature which gets dissipated and is ‘lost’ for all practical purposes as it cannot
be employed to do any useful work. Pumps and compressors are provided in the process

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 2

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

plant essentially to sustain this ‘loss’. This ‘loss’ constitutes a significant portion of
operating cost. This constituent of the operating cost can be reduced by opting for a larger

bore pipe for a given service. This, however, increases the capital investment. Pipe sizing
is thus a balance between capital and operating costs. Reliable estimate of frictional

losses is thus important from process economics point of view. Some basic concepts and
calculations are covered here.

Frictional Losses

Consider the earlier case of a horizontal, constant cross-section segment of a pipe

transporting fluid from point 1 to 2. Let the pipe segment be straight and of length L. In
addition, let the pipe be of circular cross-section with inner diameter ‘d’, let the steady
velocity of fluid be v, the fluid density be  and viscosity  .

2
v2
2g
2
v1 2 g

P2
g

P1 g

Z2

Z1

Bernoulli’s equation as applied to this straight pipe is:

P1 P2
  hf
g g

or P1  P2   h f g

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 3

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The fluid plug within the pipe between the points 1 and 2 experiences a differential
pressure at its two ends. This causes a forces acting on the plug which is equal to
P1  P2 
d 2
Where  is the pipe cross-sectional area (= ).
4

From above, this force is thus

d 2
h f g
4

However, since the fluid plug is moving at a constant velocity (i.e. no acceleration), there
can be no net force acting on the plug. The above force due to pressure differential is seen
as negated by an equal and opposite frictional force between the fluid and the pipe wall in
contact with the fluid. If this shear force per unit contact area (shear stress) is denoted as
 f , one can write an overall force balance as

d 2
h f g   f dL
4

The shear stress depends on fluid velocity (v), fluid properties (  ,  ), and pipe properties
( d , ).  is a measure of pipe roughness and is expressed as an average height of
‘roughness’ mounds on the pipe surface. It is also called as ‘equivalent sand roughness’.
Thus

 f   f (v, d ,,  ,  )

One can apply dimensional analysis to this qualitative functionality and arrive at the
following relationship in dimensionless numbers.

f  dv  
 f  , 
v   d
2

For a given flow of a given fluid in a given pipe, one can thus write

f
= constant = X (say)
v 2

or  f  Xv 2

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 4

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Using this in the force balance written earlier one gets

4 XLv 2 8 XLv 2
hf = =
gd 2 gd

This in the fundamental relation used to calculate frictional head loss for flow through
pipes. X or its multiples are termed as friction factors (f). Three common definitions of
the friction factor are as follows:
8 f Lv 2
I. Churchil fC = X  hf  C
2 gd
4 f Lv 2
II. Fanning f F = 2X  h f  F
2 gd
f Lv 2
III. Darcy f D = 8X  h f  D
2 gd

The use of three friction factors (without a subscript) is a source of confusion and often
calls for care on the part of the user. Over- or under – estimation of pressure drop can be
caused leading to erroneous pipe sizing or rating of pumps/compressors etc. if this point
is overlooked.
The friction factor ( f C , f F or f D ) is a function of two dimensionless numbers,
Reynold’s number ( dv /  ) and roughness factor (  d ). The dependence is normally
presented graphically as friction factor vs Reynold’s number plots with roughness factor
as a parameter. Familiarity with these f vs R e plots and a quick identification of which
friction factor a given plot refers to is very important for all hydraulic system rating and
design.

Several friction factor-Reynold’s number correlations are also proposed as

substitutes for the f - R e plots. Some for Darcy’s friction factor are collected below.

 Colebrook – White equation for turbulent flow

1   2.51 
= -2 log  
fD  3.71d R f 
 e D 

 For Smooth pipes

1 R f 
= 2 log  e D 
fD  2.51 
 


= 2 log Re 
f D - 0.8

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 5

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

 Blasius Equation
0.316
fD = for Re > 10 5
Reo.25

 For rough turbulent flow

1  3.71d 
= 2 log  
fD   

The above procedure is applicable only for straight pipelines. The actual pipe
routing would have several piping elements (elbows, tees, expanders, reducers, etc.)

along its route as well as regulation, control valves etc. These cause extra turbulence and
energy loss. For simplicity of engineering calculations each element is assigned
equivalent length. This is the straight pipe length which would cause same pressure drop
as the element for same flow rate. The piping element/valve can thus be replaced in

calculation by the equivalent (hypothetical) length. Total effective length of a pipe route
is thus calculated. Frictional pressure drop for a given route is thus calculable.

Some Examples:
 Pressure drop in straight horizontal pipe
 Pressure drop in pipe with fittings
 Pressure drop in a complex pipe route
 Pipe in series, parallel, series-parallel
 Pipe Network
 Reserviors and pumps in network

Unsteady Flow Analysis

Steady state analysis (pressure drop due to fluid friction, Bernoulli’s equation) can
be applied to a complex pipe route or network to arrive at pressure and velocity at each
node. A node is where there is a change of direction and/or diameter and/or flow.
Normally, one would define a node each on either side of a straight, uniform cross-
section pipe segment as well as on either side of a piping element or valve.

A steady state can be sustained as long as there is no external disturbance which

momentarily or over a stretched time interval perturbs the flow conditions (flow rate,
pressure, flow resistance at one or more nodes). The perturbation could be temporary and
the conditions at the node return to their original status. In this case, the initial system at a
steady state will deviate from it, but return to same steady state condition after sufficient

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 6

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

time. The transient behaviour of the system from the point of application of disturbance
to return to steady state is of interest in transient analysis. In other cases, the deviation
may be permanent. The system will then reach another steady state after going through a
transient phase. The transient phase is thus straddled by steady state on either side. These
steady states serve as initial/ boundary conditions in the transient analysis. The steady
state analysis is thus important from the point view of transient analysis as well.

The transient phase could take the system monotonically from one steady state to
another or take the system through over-,under-, or critically damped oscillations. Some
simplified situation could be analysed to appreciate the mathematics and behaviour of
fluid transients.

In the following examples, the fluid has been assumed to be incompressible. Also,
the changes in pressure are assumed not to cause change of phase. For example, consider
a liquid in the piping system well above its vapour pressure throughout.

Example 1 :

Consider a straight horizontal pipe as shown.

1 2

At steady state, a force balance over the pipe section between two points ‘1’ and ‘2’ was
written earlier as

2
f Lv
 P1  P2  = D 0  g
2 gd

The term on the left hand side is force on the liquid plug due to pressure difference at its
two ends. The term on the right hand side is the shear force (frictional force) between the
moving fluid and the stationary pipe wall. ‘’ is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. v 0 is
the steady state velocity.

If for some reason, say downstream pressure ‘P 2 ’ is suddenly changed at time

1
zero to P 2 and then held constant at P 2 1 subsequently, the velocity will change with time
and finally stabilize at the new steady state value v 1 given by

 
2
fLv 1
 P1  P2 1
=  g
2 gd

The velocity will change from v 0 to v 1 during the transient phase and one would
like to get a measure of that and also the governing mathematical model.

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 7

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The fluid clearly experiences an acceleration (or deceleration) as it changes

velocity from v 0 to v 1 . There must, therefore, be a net force acting on the fluid. This is
 
the difference between the force due to pressure difference [=  P1  P2 ] and shear force
1

at any time t when the velocity is v

 fLv 2 
   g  .
 2 gd 

The net force must be equal to mass of the fluid plug between points ‘1’ and ‘2’
multiplied by acceleration  dv 
dt

at that instant.
Expressed in an equation

 
 P1  P21 
fLv 2
2 gd
 g = L
dv
dt

This is a differential equation in v . This can be simplified as

1
dv P P 1
= 1  2   fv 2
dt L L 2d

(Remember that the friction factor ‘ f ’ itself is a function of v ). This nonlinear first
order ordinary differentical equation is subject to the initial condition.
v = v 0 at t = 0

The solution gives a v vs time profile. Without solving the equation, one can
qualitatively say here that the velocity will monotonically change from v 0 to v 1 . The rate
of change will be high initially and gradually taper.

One can extend this to a pipe which is not horizontal as well as a piping systems
with several piping elements as well as valves. For a simple case of laminar flow, one
could even attempt and get an analytical expression. Also the perturbation which sets up
fluid transients could be due to different causes and of different temporal nature. Some
such exercises can lead to a better appreciation of Bernoulli’s equation extended to
transient behaviour.

Oscillating Transience

An interesting case of how a perturbation can set up oscillations in a system is

offered by a simple U tube. This is discussed below and a simplified mathematical model
is developed and solved.

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 8

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1 length of liquid
column = L
h
steady state level
-h

For simplicity, let us assume that there is negligible frictional loss as the fluid
(manometric) moves through the limbs. Let the pressure be same in both the limbs. This
would mean that the manometric fluid level in both the limbs is same. Let that level be
the datum level.

Let at time zero, the column in the right limb be pushed down below the datum by
height h 0 (thereby also raising the column in the left limb by h 0 above the datum) and
released. This perturbation sets up an interesting dynamics in the systems, which can be
modeled as follows:

Let the fluid column be at position  h at time t as shown. Applying the Bernoulli’s
equation modified for transient behaviour earlier, we get

2 2
P1 v1 P v L dv
 h = 2  2 h
g 2 g g 2 g g dt

As P1 = P2 and v1 = v 2 = v

L dv
h = h
g dt

dh dv d 2h
Also v =  =
dt dt dt 2

Therefore, the equation governing the dynamics is

d 2 h 2 gh
+ =0
dt 2 L

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 9

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

If we guess the solution as

h (t ) = c1 cos c2 t

we get c1 = h0

and c2 = 2g
L

We thus observe the liquid column oscillating with an amplitude of h 0 and a frequency of
2g 1 2g 1
radians/s. The frequency in cycles/s (i.e. Hz) is = g 2 L . The
L 2 L 
period of vibration is  2 L .
g

What happens if the frictional losses are not neglected ?

Can we make a statement as to when a perturbation can lead to this kind of oscillatory
response in a system ?

Transient Discharge from a Tank

Consider a tank of a large diameter connected to a horizontal, uniform cross-

section tube of length L. Let the water level in the tank be at a height H from the tube
axis. Allow some water to run through the tube and then close the tube exit (Point 2). Top
of the liquid in the tank is designated as point 1. Now the tube is full of liquid and so is
the tank. At time zero, instantaneously open the tube exit to allow the liquid to flow. See
figure for visualization. Develop and solve the mathematical model of this system.
1

H
2

L
At any time ‘t’ after the tube exit at point ‘2’ is opened, Bernoulli’s equation modified for
transient flow is :

2 2
P1 v1 P v L dv
  Z1 = 2  2  Z 2  h f 
g 2 g g 2 g g dt

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 10

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

For the problem under consideration;

v1 = 0
v2 = v

P1 = P2
Z1  Z 2 = H
fLv 2
hf =
2 gd

Therefore,
v2 fLv 2 L dv
H =  
2 g 2 gd g dt

Let the velocity at steady state be v 0 . Then, from steady state Bernoulli’s equation,

2 2
v fLv 0
H = 0 
2g 2 gd

Subtracting the steady state equation from the unsteady state equation, one gets

L dv
g dt
=
1  fL  2
1   v 0  v
2g  d 
2
 
This is subject to the initial condition

v = 0 at t = 0

Rearranging and writing in integral form:

1  fL 
v t
dv
v
0
2
 v2
= 1    dt
2L  d 0
0

Integration using partial fractions gives

1 v v 1  fL 
ln 0 = 1  t
2v 0 v0  v 2L  d 
OR
v0  v v  fL  
= exp  0 1  t 
v0  v L d 

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 11

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

v0  fL 
Abbreviating 1   as c , one can write
L d 

v0  v
= exp ct 
v0  v
or
v e ct  1
= ct
v0 e 1

One can thus see that the fluid velocity v reaches steady state velocity monotonically.
Time to reach a certain percentage of value of the steady state velocity can be found out
easily from above.

v 1
1. What is ct for = ?
v0 2
v
2. What is ct for = 0.99, 0.999 ?
v0
3. What mistake did we make in the above derivation?

4. Under what flow conditions, the mistake is not so serious?

5. What happens if flow is laminar throughout?

6. What happens if the tube is vertical and drawn from bottom of the tank?

7. What happens in the reverse case when the flow is established and then the exit is
closed suddenly at t = 0 . Stretch this as L   .

Water Hammer

Mulling over the last question leads to appreciation of water hammer.

For simplicity, let us consider that the liquid was incompressible and the pipe was rigid
(non-elastic). Let the valve be closed over say a period of  seconds after a steady state
flow and with fluid velocity of v 0 has been reached. An estimate of the pressure that it
would develop can be arrived at as follows.

The mass of fluid plug in the horizontal pipe (length L, cross-sectional area  ) is L .
This has to be brought to a zero velocity from a velocity v 0 over a period of  seconds.
It thus needs to be imparted a deceleration (negative acceleration). Its magnitude can be
found by using the instantaneous velocity vs acceleration formula.
v = v0  at

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 12

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Where v is velocity at time ‘t’ and ‘a’ is acceleration. For v to be zero at t=,
acceleration should be

v0
a =


A mass (m) of fluid in the horizontal pipe m  L  can be imparted this acceleration
(a) if a force F (= ma) acts on it in a direction opposite to the flow direction.

v 
F = L  0 
 
Or
F L v 0
= = P
 

F  is the pressure that would be generated at the exit end of the pipe. This pressure
which is generated due to sudden closure of a valve is called water hammer. Water
hammer effect can be severe if the length of the pipe upstream of the valve is larger,
and/or the density of the liquid is large, and/or the velocity of the fluid prior to valve
closure is high, and/or the valve closure time is small. Excessive pressure can lead to
system failure. While L ,  , v 0 are dependent on layout, service and pipe selection, the

closure time (  ) can be suitably planned through valve selection, design and operation.
Valve choice is thus crucial from the point of view of mitigation of water hammer effects.

The above is a highly simplified picture of water hammer. It none the less
provides a quick conservative estimate of pressure levels that could be expected to
develop due to sudden valve closure. The actual pressure developed will be somewhat
less than this estimate as the liquid is not totally incompressible nor is the pipe rigid.
Compression of the liquid and elastic expansion of pipe cross-section due to heightened
pressure help mitigate the water hammer effect to some extent.

Other complications are 3-D layout of piping systems in reality, to and fro travel
of pressure wave and possibility of its reflection, thermodynamic behaviour of the
flowing medium at different pressures which may cause phase change (evaporation,
condensation). Applied mechanics, fluid mechanics and wave mechanics all get together
to decide the pressure-velocity profiles with time and space in a piping system subject to
sudden closure (or opening) of a valve or a failure, restarting of a pump. The mathematics
is quite complicated and calls for numerical solutions of the governing partial differential
equations with numerous boundary conditions. Competent s/w tools are available which
expect the user to ‘define’ the system. Setting up of equations and boundary conditions as
well as solving these to generate pressure-time-space and velocity-time-space profiles in
the piping system is the job of the s/w. The user then analyzes the results and suggests
remedial measures (surge vessel, pressure relief valve, valve closure pattern, control

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 13

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

valves, etc.) to safeguard the piping system in the event of happenings leading to water
hammer effects.

The following sections deal with water hammer analysis with the aim to develop a
feel for physics so that educated use of such computer aided analysis is possible.

A simplistic formula was presented earlier to estimate pressure that could be

generated by quick closure of a valve. For instantaneous closure (   0 ), it would
estimate an infinitely large pressure rise. In reality, finite liquid compressibility and pipe
elasticity prevent this infinite pressure rise. The following discussion pertains to making
the estimate more and more realistic in view of actual fluid and pipe properties.

Finite Liquid Compressibility, Rigid Pipe

Joukowski formula gives a more realistic estimate of pressure rise as follows.

P = cv

Here, P is the maximum expected pressure rise due to sudden valve closure,  is fluid
density, v is the effected change in fluid velocity and c is the velocity of pressure wave
in the medium. It is related to the fluid properties as follows.
c = Ef 

where E f is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid.

Consider for example a case where water in a pipe flowing at 2 m s velocity is brought to
halt by closing a valve instantaneously.
E f = 2.2 gPa .

Finite Liquid Compressibility, Elastic Pipe

Joukowski formula is applicable here as well. A composite modulus of elasticity

( E c ) is defined in place of bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid as follows.

1 1 D
=  0
Ec E f tE P

E f and E P are modulus of elasticity for fluid and pipe respectively. E c is the
composite modulus of elasticity. E c is used in place of E f in calculating pressure wave
velocity in the medium. An equivalent definition of this velocity can be shown to be as
follows.

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 14

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Ef 
c =
E f DO
1
Ep t

The numerator is the pressure wave velocity in the fluid in a rigid pipe and the
denominator can be viewed as a correction for pipe elasticity. DO is pipe OD and t is
pipe thickness.

One can thus generate a feel for the sensitivity of the water hammer effect.

Repeat the above calculation for a 4” SCH 40 pipe made of metal

EP  207 109 Pa , as well as plastic pipe EP  1.4 109 Pa  . See what happens if the
pipe is 8” SCH 40 instead.

Why is the length of the pipe not involved in any of these calculations?

Multi Section Pipe

Consider the earlier example with the only change that the pipe is made of three
sections of different diameters (say 6”, 4”, 2” SCH 40 pipes). Let the lengths be 10m
each for each section and velocity be 2m/s in the 2” section. Repeat the calculations for
the cases where liquid is incompressible and pipe is rigid, liquid is compressible and the
pipe rigid, liquid and pipe are both elastic.

10m 10m 10m

6” 4” 2”

What will happen if the telescope is reversed?

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 15

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

2-D, 3-D Pipe Routes

Consider the earlier case of an infinitely large reservoir connected to the discharge
pipe. The only difference being the pipe runs in 2-D, still horizontally. A plan of the
scheme is shown below.

In this case also, maximum pressure is generated at the point of application of sudden
closure, i.e. at the valve end of the pipe. The pressure wave generated thus will travel
upstream and hit the first elbow/bend. This would create a pounding effect and the wave
will be reflected downwards. It will hit the next elbow/bend, create a pounding effect and
get reflected towards the source. The source being a large, relatively stagnant mass would
reflect the wave back. It will travel back, create pounding effect on the two elbows and
reach the valve end. It will then get reflected again and so on. The pounding creates the
audible water hammer effect. The fluid in the pipe also senses the local-temporal pressure
gradients and moves helter-skelter. The pressure attenuates due to continuous loss of
energy due to friction between fluid and pipe wall as well as minor losses in the piping
elements (elbows, entry from tank to pipe). Rigorous water hammer calculations are done
to generate these pressure and velocity profiles at important locations with time. The
water hammer effect can also be seen as creating vibrations in a piping system. These
need to be taken into account in dynamic analysis as occasional load.

The reflection of the pressure wave can be advantageous in the sense that it
further reduces the peak pressure that can get generated in a system. To what extent the
maximum pressure (as calculated by Joukowski formula) is affected by pressure wave
reflection depends on the layout and the distance to be travelled from the peak pressure
location to the point of possible reflection. Although the formula (Joukowski) is for
instantaneous closure, real life valve (even if they fail closed unintentionally) take finite
time to close. Relation of the magnitude of this time to the time required for wave
reflection is an important factor that decides the maximum pressure that gets generated.

Maximum pressure gets generated at the point of application of closure if the

valve closes in a time (  ) less than the time taken for the pressure wave to start from the
point of application, reach the point of reflection and return to the point of application.
The returning wave can negate some of the pressure and reduce pressure levels.

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 16

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

If the distance between the point of closure and reflection is L, the above can be
expressed as follows:

2L
If   pressure surge is maximum.
c

2L
If  > pressure surge will reduce.
c

A reasonable correction for the maximum pressure surge given by Joukowski

formula for cases where valve closure spans over a period (  ) more than 2 L c is given
by

 2L c 
P =   cv
  

 2L c 
=   Pmax
Joukowski

  

The reflected and the original waves can cause periods and locations of high and
low pressure. Periods of low pressure can cause degassing of liquids or even evaporation.
Similarly, high pressures can cause re-condensation etc. High and low pressures also can
cause periodicity of stresses in the pipe and eventual fatigue failure.

Fluid transients can occur due to several other reasons apart from sudden valve
closure. The other reasons could be sudden opening of valves, starting or stopping of
pumps, changing elevation of reservoir, change in power demand of turbine,
reciprocating pumps, tube rupture in an heat exchanger, etc.

Anything that suddenly changes the steady state behaviour by changing one or
more flow parameters sets up transient response. This could take the pressures to reach
levels beyond the range confined by initial and eventual steady state. Measures need to be
taken to ensure that these levels do not damage the systems.

Mathematical Model for Fluid Transients

Flow transience in any piping system or its section is captured in the following
two simultaneous partial differential equations.

P v
 c 2 =0
t x

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 17

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

v 1 P fv v
  =0
t  x 2 D

The two dependent variables are the pressure and the velocity of fluid. The two
independent variables are time and space.

The equations can be solved with suitable initial/boundary conditions. These

would be situation specific. For a simple case of a straight pipe discharging from a large
reservior through a valve and the valve then closed over a period  as per some closing
curve, the conditions could be visualized as follows.

P (x = 0, t) = gh
P (x = L, t) = Pressure drop across valve
P (x, t = 0) = Steady state pressure
v (x, t = 0) = Steady state velocity
v (x = L, t) = Valve discharge rate/ pipe 

For pipe routes with different diameters and other valves en-route, similar conditions may
be required over each section.

These equations are solved with powerful solvers using method of characteristics,
finite difference method, orthogonal collocation etc. Accuracy and convergence of the
solution depends on suitable choice of space-time ( x  t ) grid. Choice of grid must
observe certain logical restriction such as

x  ct

That grid size which gives grid-size-independent solution is desired. Finer the grid, more
accurate could be the solution and larger the computational effort. One needs to strike a
balance between accuracy and solution time.

It may be helpful to derive the basic model from first principles. No new concept
is actually involved other than conservation of mass and energy. The equations are
actually statements of mass conservation and Bernoulli’s equation.

It is also useful to mull over the reasons for a product v v appearing in one of the
equations. What physical statement is one making in this term?

If due to pressure reduction, there is degassing of liquid or minor evaporation

causing tiny bubbles to form and get dispersed in the liquid, what would be the effect on
pressure surge? If pressure rise is unacceptably high, what are the possible remedies?

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 18

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Pump and Valves

The occurrence of pressure surge has been discussed so far in relation to the
sudden shutting down of the valve. In general, pressure surges would occur as a
consequence of any event which causes rapid change in the velocity of the fluid. Rapid
closing or opening of the valve or start or shut down of a pump could cause such a
change in velocity and hence pressure surges. The role of pumps and valves in the piping
system is discussed here further.

Consider the following simple but typical water distribution scenario.

R1

R2
P1

P2

Water is pumped from an underground reservoir to two high level reservoirs to

facilitate supply against day-time non-uniform demand of customers. The pumps operate
in parallel and simultaneously till tank R 2 (which is smaller in size as compared to R 1 ) is
near full. The butterfly valve is then closed over a short period. Once the valve is fully
closed, Pump P 2 also trips over a short period.

Comment on the possible happenings and pressure surges that could develop in the
system for a rapid and not so rapid valve closure.

 Compile a list of data that you would collect to be ready for transient analysis.
 Discuss qualitatively worst case scenario (very rapid closure)
 Discuss instructions/ measures to avoid abnormal pressures.

Control Valves

If there is a pressure/ flow control valve on the line experiencing surge, the
control valve dynamics would modify the surge characteristics. A knowledge of control
valve characteristics and control law is important. Some basic background of the types of
control valves and control strategies as well as dynamics of valve-pipe systems is
important for transient analysis.

*******************

Transient Fluid Flow Analysis 19