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Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops: Practices For Quality Preservation

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Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops: Practices For Quality Preservation

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omar.massoud99
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POSTHARVEST

MANAGEMENT OF
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
Practices for Quality Preservation
Postharvest Biology and Technology

POSTHARVEST
MANAGEMENT OF
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
Practices for Quality Preservation

Edited by
Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD
Asgar Ali, PhD
CRC Press Apple Academic Press, Inc.
Taylor & Francis Group 3333 Mistwell Crescent
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Oakville, ON L6L 0A2
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 Canada

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Version Date: 20160517

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This Book Is
Affectionately Dedicated
to
The World Food Preservation Centre, LLC
for
Education, Innovation, and Advocacy to Reducing Postharvest Food
Losses in Developing Countries
CONTENTS

Dedication..................................................................................................... v
Acknowledgments......................................................................................... ix
List of Contributors...................................................................................... xi
List of Abbreviations.................................................................................. xiii
About the Book Series: Postharvest Biology and Technology.....................xv
Books in the Postharvest Biology and Technology Series......................... xvii
About the Editors....................................................................................... xix
Preface..................................................................................................... xxiii
1. Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce....... 1
Atef M. Elansari and Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui
2. Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers........................ 69
Munir Abba Dandago
3. Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers................................ 91
Sunil Kumar, Kalyan Barman, and Swati Sharma
4. Postharvest Management and Processing Technology
of Mushrooms.......................................................................................... 151
M. K. Yadav, Santosh Kumar, Ram Chandra, S. K. Biswas,
P. K. Dhakad, and Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui
5. Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality
of Horticultural Produce........................................................................ 179
Venkata Satish Kuchi, J. Kabir, and Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui
6. Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables...................... 231
Alemwati Pongener and B. V. C. Mahajan
7. Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality
and Ensuring Safety................................................................................ 265
Ovais Shafiq Qadri, Basharat Yousuf, and Abhaya Kumar Srivastava
viii Contents

8. Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration, and


Spoilage of Horticultural Produce......................................................... 291
S. M. Yahaya
9. Natural Antimicrobials in Postharvest Storage and
Minimal Processing of Fruits and Vegetables....................................... 311
Munir Abba Dandago
10. ENHANCE: Breakthrough Technology to Preserve
and Enhance Food................................................................................... 325
Charles L. Wilson
Index.......................................................................................................... 335
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It was almost impossible to reveal the deepest sense of veneration to all


without whose precious exhortation this book project could not be com-
pleted. At the onset of the acknowledgment, we ascribe all glory to the
Gracious “Almighty Allah” from whom all blessings come. We would like
to thank Him for His blessing to prepare this book.
With a profound and unfading sense of gratitude, we convey special
thanks to our colleagues and other research team members for their sup-
port and encouragement for helping us in every step to accomplish this
venture.
We are grateful to Mr. Ashish Kumar, President, Apple Academic Press,
for publishing this book series, titled Postharvest Biology and Technology.
We would also like to thank Ms. Sandra Jones Sickels and Mr. Rakesh
Kumar of Apple Academic Press for their continuous support to complete
the project.
In omega, our vocabulary will remain insufficient to express our
indebtedness to our adored parents and family members for their infinitive
love, cordial affection, and incessant inspiration.
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Kalyan Barman
Department of Horticulture (Fruit and Fruit Technology), Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,
Bhagalpur – 813210, Bihar, India

S. K. Biswas
Department of Plant Pathology, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, 208002,
Uttar Pradesh, India

Ram Chandra
Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India

Munir Abba Dandago


Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture and Agricultural Technology,
Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil, Kano State, Nigeria
P. K. Dhakad
Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India

Atef M. Elansari
Agricultural and Bio-Engineering Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; E-mail:
[email protected]

J. Kabir
Department of Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal–741252, India

Venkata Satish Kuchi


Department of Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal–741252, India

Santosh Kumar
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, 813210, Bihar,
India, E-mail: [email protected]
Sunil Kumar
Department of Horticulture, North Eastern Hill University, Tura Campus, West Garo Hills District,
Tura – 794002, Meghalaya, India, E-mail: [email protected]

B. V. C. Mahajan
Punjab Horticultural Postharvest Technology Centre, PAU, Ludhiana, 141004, Punjab, India

Alemwati Pongener
ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi, Mushahari, Muzaffarpur, 842002, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
xii List of Contributors

Ovais Shafiq Qadri


Department of Postharvest Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, India,
E-mail: [email protected], Tel.: +91-9419041070

Swati Sharma
ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi, Mushahari Farm, Mushahari, Muzaffarpur – 842002,
Bihar, India

Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui


Department of Food Science and Post-Harvest Technology, BAC Bihar Agricultural University, India;
E-mail: [email protected]
Abhaya Kumar Srivastava
Department of Postharvest Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, India,
E-mail: [email protected], Tel.: +91-9419041070
Charles L. Wilson
Founder/Chairman and CEO, World Food Preservation Center LLC, E-mail:
[email protected]

M. K. Yadav
Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi, 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India

S. M. Yahaya
Department of Biology, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil, P.M.B. 3244, Nigeria,
E-mail: [email protected]

Basharat Yousuf
Department of Postharvest Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, India,
E-mail: [email protected], Tel.: +91-9419041070
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABA abscisic acid


ACS agriculturae conspectus scientificus
AVG aminoethoxyvinylglycine
CA controlled atmosphere
CAP controlled atmosphere packaging
CFB corrugated fiberboard boxes
CO carbon monoxide
DACP diazo-cyclopentadiene
DPCA N-dipropyl (1-cyclopropenylmethyl) amine
DPSS dimethyl-4-(phenylsulfonyl) semicarbazide
DX direct expansion
EASP electronic aroma signature pattern
ETH etheophon
FAB food, agriculture and biology
FEFO first-expired-first-out
GA gibberellic acid
GAP’s good agricultural practices
GGPP geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate
GMP’s good manufacturing practices
HACCP hazard analysis critical control point
HCFCs halogenated hydrocarbons
HOCl hypochlorite
HPTS hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonicacid
IPENZ the Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand
IPRH in-package-relative-humidity
KMS potassiummeta bisulphite
LAB lactic acid bacteria
LDPE low-density polyethylene
LPS low pressure storage
LR-WPANs low-rate wireless personal area networks
MA modified atmosphere
MAC medium access control
xiv List of Abbreviations

MAP modified atmosphere packaging


MENA Middle East and North Africa
MIR mid infra-red
MJ methyl jasmonate
MRI magnetic resonance imaging
MRR magnetic resonance relaxometry
MRS magnetic resonance spectroscopy
NENA Near East and North Africa
NIR nuclear infra-red
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
OTR oxygen transmission rate
PAA peroxyacetic acid
PAL phenylalanine ammonia lyase
PG polygalacturonase
PHY physical layer
PLC programmable logic controllers
PLW physiological weight loss
PME pectin methyl esterase
PP polypropylene
PPE pomegranate peel extract
PVC poly vinyl chloride
RFID radio frequency identification
RH relative humidity
RSCCS refined smart cold chain system
RTE ready-to-eat
SA simulated annealing
SAF Society of American Florist
SCADA supervisory control and data acquisition systems
SCCS smart cold chain system
STS silver thiosulfate
TAL tyrosine ammonia lyase
TDZ thidiazuron
TTIs time-temperature indicators
VFD variable frequency drive
VSDs variable speed drive
WHO World Health Organization
WSN wireless sensor network
ABOUT THE BOOK SERIES:
POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY AND
TECHNOLOGY

As we know, preserving the quality of fresh produce has long been a chal-
lenging task. In the past, several approaches were in use for the posthar-
vest management of fresh produce, but due to continuous advancement in
technology, the increased health consciousness of consumers, and envi-
ronmental concerns, these approaches have been modified and enhanced
to address these issues and concerns.
The Postharvest Biology and Technology series presents edited
books that addressmany important aspects related to postharvest technol-
ogy of fresh produce. The series presents existing and novel management
systems that are in use today or that have great potential to maintain the
postharvest quality of fresh produce in terms of microbiological safety,
nutrition, and sensory quality.
The books are aimed at professionals, postharvest scientists, academi-
cians researching postharvest problems, and graduate-level students.This
series is intended to be a comprehensive venture that provides up-to-date
scientific and technical information focusing on postharvest management
for fresh produce.

Books in the series will address the following themes:


• Nutritional composition and antioxidant properties of fresh produce
• Postharvest physiology and biochemistry
• Biotic and abiotic factors affecting maturity and quality
• Preharvest treatments affecting postharvest quality
• Maturity and harvesting issues
• Nondestructive quality assessment
• Physiological and biochemical changes during ripening
• Postharvest treatments and their effects on shelf life and quality
• Postharvest operations such as sorting, grading, ripening, de-green-
ing, curing etc
• Storage and shelf-life studies
xvi About the Book Series: Postharvest Biology and Technology

• Packaging, transportation, and marketing


• Vase life improvement of flowers and foliage
• Postharvest management of spice, medicinal, and plantation crops
• Fruit and vegetable processing waste/byproducts: management and
utilization
• Postharvest diseases and physiological disorders
• Minimal processing of fruits and vegetables
• Quarantine and phytosanitory treatments for fresh produce
• Conventional and modern breeding approaches to improve the post-
harvest quality
• Biotechnological approaches to improve postharvest quality of hor-
ticultural crops
We are seeking editors to edit volumes in different postharvest areas
for the series. Interested editors may also propose other relevant subjects
within their field of expertise, which may not be mentioned in the list
above.We can only publish a limited number of volumes each year, so if
you are interested, please email your proposal wasim@appleacademic-
press.com at your earliest convenience.
We look forward to hearing from you soon.

Editor-in-Chief:
Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD
Scientist-cum-Assistant Professor | Bihar Agricultural University
Department of Food Science and Technology | Sabour | Bhagalpur | Bihar
| INDIA
AAP Sr. Acquisitions Editor, Horticultural Science
Founding/Managing Editor, Journal of Postharvest Technology
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
BOOKS IN THE POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY
AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES

Postharvest Biology and Technology of Horticultural Crops:


Principles and Practices for Quality Maintenance
Editor: Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD

Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops: Practices for


Quality Preservation
Editor: Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD, Asgar Ali, PhD

Insect Pests of Stored Grain: Biology, Behavior, and Management


Strategies
Editor: Ranjeet Kumar, PhD
ABOUT THE EDITORS

Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui, PhD


Dr. Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui is an Assistant
Professor and Scientist in the Department of
Food Science and Post-Harvest Technology,
Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, India.
His contribution as an author and editor in the
field of postharvest biotechnology has been
well recognized. He is an author or co-author
of 34 peers reviewed research articles, 26 book chapters, two manuals, and
18 conference papers. He has 11 edited volumes and one authored book to
his credit, published by Elsevier, USA; CRC Press, USA; Springer, USA;
and Apple Academic Press, USA. Dr. Siddiqui has established an interna-
tional peer-reviewed journal Journal of Postharvest Technology.
He has been honored to be the Editor-in-Chief of two book series titled
“Postharvest Biology and Technology” and “Innovations in Horticultural
Science” being published from Apple Academic Press, New Jersey, USA.
Dr. Siddiqui is a Senior Acquisitions Editor in Apple Academic Press, New
Jersey, USA for Horticultural Science. He has been serving as an editorial
board member and active reviewer of several international journals such as
PLoS ONE (PLOS), LWT-Food Science and Technology (Elsevier), Food
Science and Nutrition (Wiley), Acta Physiologiae Plantarum (Springer),
Journal of Food Science and Technology (Springer), and the Indian
Journal of Agricultural Science (ICAR), etc.
Recently, Dr. Siddiqui was conferred with the Best Citizen of India
Award (2016), Bharat Jyoti Award (2016), Outstanding Researcher Award
(2016) by Aufau Periodicals, India, Best Young Researcher Award (2015)
by GRABS Educational Trust, Chennai, India and the Young Scientist
Award (2015) by Venus International Foundation, Chennai, India. He
was also a recipient of the Young Achiever Award (2014) for outstand-
ing research work by the Society for Advancement of Human and Nature
(SADHNA), Nauni, Himachal Pradesh, India, where he is an Honorary
xx About the Editors

Board Member and Life Time Author. He has been an active member of
the organizing committees of several national and international seminars/
conferences/summits. He is one of key members in establishing the World
Food Preservation Center (WFPC), LLC, USA. Presently, he is an active
associate and supporter of WFPC, LLC, USA. Considering his outstanding
contribution in science and technology, his biography has been published
in “Asia Pacific Who’s Who” and “The Honored Best Citizens of India.”
Dr. Siddiqui acquired a BSc (Agriculture) degree from Jawaharlal
Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, India. He received MSc
(Horticulture) and PhD (Horticulture) degrees from Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, India, with specialization in
the Postharvest Technology. He was awarded the Maulana Azad National
Fellowship Award from the University Grants Commission, New Delhi,
India. He is a member of Core Research Group at the Bihar Agricultural
University (BAU) where he is providing appropriate direction and assis-
tance to sensitize priority of the research. He has received several grants
from various funding agencies to carry out his research projects. Dr.
Siddiqui has been associated with postharvest technology and process-
ing aspects of horticultural crops. He is dynamically involved in teaching
(graduate and doctorate students) and research, and he has proved himself
as an active scientist in the area of Postharvest Technology.

Asgar Ali, PhD


Prof. Asgar Ali is the Founding Director
and Professor of Postharvest Biotechnology
at the Centre of Excellence for Postharvest
Biotechnology (CEPB), University of Nottingham
Malaysia Campus. The CEPB is a global centre
for postharvest research with the mandate of
reducing postharvest losses. His research on post-
harvest biology and technology is internationally acknowledged, being
notable on the development of natural edible coatings for the extension of
shelf-life of perishable fruits and vegetables. This has resulted in a high
frequency of publications in the top journals in the field, including the Top
25 Hottest Articles by Science Direct and publicly disseminated through
popular media outlets such as National Geographic and EarthSky Net,
About the Editors xxi

from Hungary and USA, respectively, the Biotechnology and Biological


Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) and Farming UK. Prof. Asgar also
contributes to the field as a regular peer reviewer for high impact journals,
and has been appointed Associate Editor for the Journal of Horticultural
Science and Biotechnology, a leading peer-reviewed journal publishing
high-quality research in horticulture since 1919.
Collaborations with government, academic and industrial bodies
within and beyond Malaysia have been forged by Prof. Asgar. This has
resulted in the expansion of his research area through direct funding into
the Centre (CEPB). Dr. Asgar has served as chair, invited speaker, and
keynote presenter for a number of international and national conferences
and meetings in USA, UK, Malaysia, India, Turkey, and South Africa
on recent advances in postharvest biotechnology fields. In addition, he
was appointed as an international evaluator for proposals of international
standards.
He was awarded a BSc Ag & AH and MSc (Horticulture) with first class
from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur India. In 2001, he was offered a Graduate Research Assistantship
(GRA) in the Department of Crop Science, University Putra Malaysia for
pursuing doctoral study in the area of Crop and Postharvest Physiology.
PREFACE

The eating quality of fresh horticultural products is mainly developed on


the plant and can only be established at harvest. The harvesting of the
commodity from the plant cuts off supply or accumulation of carbohy-
drates, water, and nutrients, owing to which the possibility for further
improvement in the quality attributing components that is ceased. It is
well established that these fresh horticultural products are living entities
even after harvest. There are several pre- and postharvest strategies that
have been developed to modify these physiological activities, resulting in
increased shelf life. Therefore, it is very important to understand and apply
the best technologies that positively influence quality attributes, including
senescenal changes and, afterwards, the consumers’ decision to purchase
the product in the marketplace.
This book, titled Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops:
Practices for Quality Preservation, has been contributed to by experts of
their fields, belonging both to developed and developing world. The book
is consists of 10 chapters covering a thorough discussion on postharvest
management strategies of fresh horticultural commodities.
Chapter 1 deals with the recent advances in postharvest cooling of hor-
ticultural produce. The chapter includes thorough coverage of different
cooling systems of fresh commodities. Several photographs have been
provided in the chapter to enhance understanding. The physiological fac-
tors, such as respiration and transpiration or water loss from the surface,
affect the postharvest quality of the root or tuber crops in many ways.
Chapter 2 discusses different postharvest handling and storage systems
of root and tuber crops. The maximum potential vase life of cut flowers
is very short due to high metabolic activities and other factors. For proper
postharvest handling and prolonging vase life of cut flowers, several steps
are needed to make the commercial floriculture venture a profitable trade
are discussed in Chapter 3. Fresh mushrooms have very short self-life, and
hence several technologies are recommended to increase their shelf-life.
Chapter 4 describes in detail the postharvest management and processing
xxiv Preface

technology of mushrooms. Research in the field of plant hormones is an


interesting aspect of physiology in which new research findings have been
established every year. Interaction of gibberellins with other plant hor-
mones and its role in maintaining postharvest quality of horticultural pro-
duce has been highlighted in Chapter 5.
There is continuous demand for innovative and creative packaging
from producers, processors, transporters, whole-sellers, retailers, and con-
sumers to guarantee food quality, safety, and traceability. Chapter 6 deals
with the advancement in packaging of fresh fruits and vegetables. There
has been a continuous increase in consumer demand for convenient and
minimally processed produce, including fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. In
this curriculum, Chapter 7 precisely discusses the technological advances
in preserving quality and ensuring safety of fresh-cut products. Chapter
8 covers important aspects of postharvest pathology, deterioration, and
spoilage of horticultural produce. Fresh fruit and vegetables are perishable
and susceptible to postharvest diseases, which limit the storage period and
marketing life. The use of synthetic fungicides has many limitations and
disadvantages. Chapter 9 describes the application of natural antimicrobi-
als in postharvest storage and minimal processing of fruits and vegetables.
Plants produce an array of phytochemicals in response to stress. Chapter
10 deals with a new concept of ENHANCE that has been supposed to be a
breakthrough technology to preserve and enhance food.
The editors are confident that this book will prove to be a standard ref-
erence work, describing recent advancement in postharvest management
of fresh horticultural commodities. The editors would appreciate receiving
new information and comments to assist in the future development of the
next edition.
CHAPTER 1

RECENT ADVANCES IN POSTHARVEST


COOLING OF HORTICULTURAL
PRODUCE
ATEF M. ELANSARI1 and MOHAMMED WASIM SIDDIQUI2
Agricultural and Bio-Engineering Department, Alexandria University,
1

Alexandria, Egypt, E-mail: [email protected]


Department of Food Science and Post-Harvest Technology, BAC Bihar
2

Agricultural University, India, E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

Abstract...................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 3
1.2 The Importance of Precooling.......................................................... 5
1.3 Approaching the Optimum Precooling Method................................ 6
1.3.1 How Does the Fresh Produce get Precooled?....................... 7
1.3.2 Heat Load Calculations?....................................................... 8
1.4 Types of Air Pre-Cooling Methods................................................... 9
1.4.1 Natural Convection Air-Cooling
(Room Cooling Method)....................................................... 9
1.4.1.1 Modified Room Cooling Method......................... 12
1.4.2 Forced Air-Cooling............................................................. 13
1.5 Packaging........................................................................................ 17
1.6 Capacity Design.............................................................................. 18
2 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

1.7
System Classification.................................................................... 20
1.7.1 Wet Cooling System (Ice Banks)...................................... 20
1.7.2 Dry System....................................................................... 24
1.8 Mobile Pre-Cooling Facilities....................................................... 26
1.9 Hydrocooling................................................................................ 29
1.10 Vacuum Cooling............................................................................ 34
1.11 Water Loss During Vacuum Cooling Determination.................... 39
1.12 Mathematical Modeling of Vacuum Cooling Process.................. 40
1.13 Features and Benefits of Vacuum Cooling ................................... 42
1.14 Slurry Ice....................................................................................... 42
  1.14.1 Direct Use of Slurry Ice.................................................. 43
  1.14.2 Indirect Use of Slurry Ice................................................ 46
1.15 Control of the Cold Chain Projects............................................... 47
1.16 Variable Frequency Drive and Control Strategy........................... 49
1.17 Temperature and Relative Humidity Control................................ 52
1.18 Energy Saving............................................................................... 56
1.19 Maintenance.................................................................................. 59
1.20 Conclusion.................................................................................... 60
Keywords................................................................................................. 60
References................................................................................................ 60

ABSTRACT

Temperature is the most single important factor that affects the quality
and the shelf life and horticultural crops. The process of precooling is the
removal of field heat as soon as possible after harvest since field heat arrest
the deterioration and senescence process. The precooling process can be
achieved via different methods forced air-cooling, hydrocooling, vacuum,
slurry ice and evaporative cooling. Forced air precooling is the most com-
mon technique and is adapted to many commodities. The classification of
the forced air precooling process includes wet deck system and the dry coil
technique. Wet deck system is a mechanism, which provides air of low
temperature and higher level of relative humidity, which minimizes the
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 3

weight loss of produce during the process of cooling. Dry coil system uses
a direct expansion or secondary coolant coil sized to operate at a small
temperature difference, which will maintain a high relative humidity of
the leaving air stream. An evaluation of precooling systems is presented
through the current study that exhibits a description of the theory behind
each system and its different components. Different control, management
and monitoring requirement are discussed with the most recent advances.
Maintenance to extend the lifetime of the hard ware and maximize system
credibility is also presented. Through this chapter, it is aimed to promote
interest in precooling and encourage its use on a more widespread basis
via the illustration of the different systems details.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Fresh produce (vegetables, fruits and cut-flowers) are living biological


organisms that must stay alive and healthy even after harvest and during
the handling chain until they are either processed or consumed. Highly
perishable produce and because of their exposure to extremes of sun heat
(field heat) and due to ambient temperature contain substantially more
warmness at harvest than is normally acceptable during their subsequent
marketable life chain or storage. Before harvest, the parent plant, com-
pensate losses caused by respiration and transpiration by water, photosyn-
thesis, and minerals. After separation of the parent plant (harvest), and if
field heat is not properly and festally removed, it causes water loss, wilting
and shriveling which leads to a serious damage in the appearance of pro-
duce (Siddiqui, 2016; Siddiqui et al., 2016; Elansari, 2009). Such heat also
accelerates respiratory activity and degradation by enzymes. It encourages
the growth of decay-producing microorganisms and increase the produc-
tion of the natural ripening agent, ethylene. It is well documented that
there is a correlation between food temperature and the rate of microbial
growth. A rule of thumb is that a 1-h delay in cooling reduces a product’s
shelf-life by one day (Elansari and Yahia, 2012). This is not true for all
crops, but especially for very highly perishable crops during hot weather.
Postharvest cooling was scientifically developed by US Department of
Agriculture in 1904 (Ryall et al., 1982). The first commercial pre-cooling
facility was built in Californian in 1955 and was used for cooling grapes
4 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

destined to Florida market (Watkins, 1990). Several definitions for post-


harvest cooling can be found in the literature: the removal of field heat
from freshly harvested produce in order to slow down metabolism and
reduce deterioration prior to transport or storage; immediate lowering of
commodity field heat following harvest; and the quick reduction in tem-
perature of the product (Liberty et al., 2013).
The cold chain (Figure 1.1) is a shortened term encompassing all tem-
perature management programs and other steps and processes that perish-
able must pass through to ensure they reach the end-consumer in a safe,
wholesome and high-quality state. The cold chain should start immediately
after harvest and contentious through the packing process, pre-storage,
transportation and cool storage at the receiving market (Bharti, 2014).
Another definition for the cold chain is the progressive removal of heat
from the produce, starting as soon as possible after field harvest, in the
shortest practical time period. The cold chain program should remove all
field heat from the produce down to its lowest optimum storage and/ or
shipping temperature.

FIGURE 1.1 Illustration of fresh produce cold chain.


Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 5

1.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF PRECOOLING

Within the cold chain, temperature is the greatest determent and the most
significant environmental factor that influences the deterioration rate of
harvested commodities. The rate of respiration, and subsequently the rate
of heat production depends on temperature, the higher the temperature, the
higher the rate. Rapid precooling to the product’s lowest safe temperature
is most critical for Fresh produce with inherently high respiration rates.
Rapid precooling is the first operation of the cold chain to be started from
the instant of harvest, and considered the key element in modern marketing
chain of fruits and vegetables. It removes field heat after harvesting, reduce
breath function, retard ripening and control microbial processes (Siddiqui,
2015). It is also enhance keeping nutrition ingredients and fresh degree,
improving cold-resisting ability, and avoiding chilling injury (Yahia and
Smolak, 2014). Furthermore, precooling minimize the designed heat load
needed for cold rooms and transport equipments. Investigations show that
the postharvest losses of commercial fruit and vegetable is almost up to
25–30% without precooling in the whole storing and transporting chain
while it is only 5–10% through precooling (Yang et al., 2007).
Postharvest cooling also provides marketing flexibility by allowing
the grower to sell produce at the most appropriate time. Precooling also is
applied as an important unit operation for post heat treatment for certain
fruits (El-Ramady et al., 2015). The use of precooling after air-shipment
can extend the shelf-life of certain fresh produce for considerable periods,
by reducing the loss of moisture and maintaining a better firmness and tex-
ture and by limiting the increase of fiber content (Laurin et al., 2003, 2005).
Precooling can be ranked as the most essential of the value added market-
ing services demanded by increasingly more sophisticated consumers.
The primary function of a well designed pre-cooling system is to be
energy efficient and provide sufficient cooling capacity to ensure rapid
pull down to desired temperature of a pallet load in certain conditions that
are required by a product or process within a given space and time. A well-
designed precooling system not only avoids wastage of electrical energy
but also restricts the moisture loss within permissible limit. An accurate
estimation of refrigeration load is the basis of designing and operating any
type of precooling system. Refrigeration load is the rate of heat removal
6 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

required to keep both the space and the product at the desired condition.
The product-cooling load is one of the most important components of the
refrigeration load, which contributes about two-thirds toward the total
refrigeration load during the transient cooling period (Mukhopadhyay and
Maity, 2015). To perform this function, equipment of the proper capacity
and type must be selected, installed and controlled on a 24-h basis. The
equipment capacity is determined by the actual instantaneous peak load
requirements.
Thus, the refrigeration capacity in addition to cooling medium move-
ment and operation control of the precooling process makes it different
than just storing products in a conventional cold storage room. Therefore,
pre-cooling must be considered independently from the cold storage and is
typically a separate operation that requires specially designed equipment
(Elansari, 2009).

1.3 APPROACHING THE OPTIMUM PRECOOLING METHOD

The capital investment and the running costs vary significantly among
different pre-cooling methods. As an added value service, the expense
of the selected technique must be covered through selling prices or other
economic benefits. Various possible trades-offs can occur concerning the
selection of certain method. Such practices may be based on certain condi-
tions, such as amount and mix of produce handled, duration of pre-cooling
season and its regional location, physical characteristics of the produce
and its tolerance, specific market requirements, allowable pull-down time
and the final desired temperature, sanitation level required to reduce decay
organisms, packaging applied, further storage and shipping conditions,
energy cost and availability, labor requirement, interest rates, building
and equipment capital cost and its maintenance (Becker and Brian, 2006).
These factors if not properly optimized, can lead to pre-cooling systems
that do not achieve the required objectives or the cost benefit associated
with the whole process is not feasible.
The process of heat removal from fresh produce can be achieved by
several different methods; all involve the rapid transfer of heat from the
product to a cooling medium, such as water, air, or ice. Such methods
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 7

include as natural air-cooling or room cooling method, forced air-cooling,


hydrocooling, ice cooling, slurry ice, vacuum cooling, and evaporative
cooling, liquid nitrogen, mobile pre-cooler and in line pre-cooling (opti-
flow cooling tunnels); each one is differing in heat removal efficiency
and processing cost. One of the main advantages of hydrocooling is that,
unlike air precooling, it removes no water from the product and may even
revive slightly wilted products (Elansari, 2008). However, not all kinds of
products tolerate hydrocooling (Tokarskyy et al., 2015). The most com-
mon method being utilized for precooling of fresh product is forced air-
cooling. It is one of the few fast-cooling methods used with a wide range
of commodities (Defraeye et al., 2015).
Fresh produce is usually cooled down to its maximum shelf life tem-
perature with various techniques. Forced air-cooling is the most com-
mon method adapted for many types of vegetables fruits and cut flowers.
Hydrocooling uses water as the cooling medium and therefore one of its
advantages is that it removes no water from the produce and may even
revive slightly wilted product. Vacuum cooling has been traditionally used
as a precooling treatment for leafy vegetables that release water vapor
rapidly allowing them to be quickly cooled. Precooling with top icing is
a common practice with green onions and broccoli, where the flaks of ice
are placed on top of packed containers. Table 1.1 indicates the optimum
precooling methods for selected types of vegetables and fruits.

1.3.1 HOW DOES THE FRESH PRODUCE GET PRECOOLED?

• The temperature of the air inside the cooling facility is lower than the
load of fresh produce, so the heat is moving out of the fruit to the sur-
rounding air.
• During rapid heat transfer, a temperature gradient develops within the
product, with faster cooling causing larger gradients. This gradient is
a function of product properties, surface heat transfer parameters, and
cooling rate.
• The evaporator contains refrigerant boiling at low pressure and tem-
perature. As the refrigerant boils or evaporates it absorbs a lot of heat.
This heat is removed from whatever surrounds the evaporator, usually
air or secondary refrigerant.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 7

include as natural air-cooling or room cooling method, forced air-cooling,


hydrocooling, ice cooling, slurry ice, vacuum cooling, and evaporative
cooling, liquid nitrogen, mobile pre-cooler and in line pre-cooling (opti-
flow cooling tunnels); each one is differing in heat removal efficiency
and processing cost. One of the main advantages of hydrocooling is that,
unlike air precooling, it removes no water from the product and may even
revive slightly wilted products (Elansari, 2008). However, not all kinds of
products tolerate hydrocooling (Tokarskyy et al., 2015). The most com-
mon method being utilized for precooling of fresh product is forced air-
cooling. It is one of the few fast-cooling methods used with a wide range
of commodities (Defraeye et al., 2015).
Fresh produce is usually cooled down to its maximum shelf life tem-
perature with various techniques. Forced air-cooling is the most com-
mon method adapted for many types of vegetables fruits and cut flowers.
Hydrocooling uses water as the cooling medium and therefore one of its
advantages is that it removes no water from the produce and may even
revive slightly wilted product. Vacuum cooling has been traditionally used
as a precooling treatment for leafy vegetables that release water vapor
rapidly allowing them to be quickly cooled. Precooling with top icing is
a common practice with green onions and broccoli, where the flaks of ice
are placed on top of packed containers. Table 1.1 indicates the optimum
precooling methods for selected types of vegetables and fruits.

1.3.1 HOW DOES THE FRESH PRODUCE GET PRECOOLED?

• The temperature of the air inside the cooling facility is lower than the
load of fresh produce, so the heat is moving out of the fruit to the sur-
rounding air.
• During rapid heat transfer, a temperature gradient develops within the
product, with faster cooling causing larger gradients. This gradient is
a function of product properties, surface heat transfer parameters, and
cooling rate.
• The evaporator contains refrigerant boiling at low pressure and tem-
perature. As the refrigerant boils or evaporates it absorbs a lot of heat.
This heat is removed from whatever surrounds the evaporator, usually
air or secondary refrigerant.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 9

devices, such as motors, lights, fans, and pumps. Product heat accounts for
the major portion of total heat load on a pre-cooling system. Product heat
load depends on product initial and desired final temperature, cooling rate,
weight of product cooled in a given time, and specific heat of the product.
Heat from respiration is part of the product heat load, but it is generally
small. No rule of thumb can be followed in that regard although that some
figures are available in the literatures (Thompson, 2006). It is has been a
usual practice to have a safety margin to overcome the peak load of the
theoretical calculation. Nowadays and with modern numerical techniques
a more practical cold store operation, the safety margin can be reduced to a
more realistic level (Nahora et al., 2005; Chourasia and Goswami, 2007).

1.4 TYPES OF AIR PRE-COOLING METHODS

1.4.1 NATURAL CONVECTION AIR-COOLING (ROOM


COOLING METHOD)

Conventional refrigerated storage facility is any building or section of a


building that achieves controlled storage conditions using thermal insula-
tion and refrigeration equipment. Such facilities are classified as coolers
with commodities stored at temperatures usually above 0°C. They can be
also classified into small, intermediate and large storage rooms, ranging
from small rooms utilizing prepackaged refrigerator units to massive cold
storage cooler warehouses. This method is the simplest and the slowest
cooling method, in which the bulk or containerized commodity is placed
in a refrigerated room for several hours or days. Typically cooling rates
are not as good as other methods, though this can be enhanced by the use
of forced ventilation via a letterbox wall or velum sheet. In this way some
soft fruits may be cooled in less than 2.5 h, however other crops, such as
Brussels or Cauliflower may take 24 h or may be longer. Air is circulated
by the existing fans from the evaporator coil in the room where produce is
cooled by exposure to cold air around the produce package. Air within the
room is cooled with a direct expansion (DX) refrigeration system. The use
of this type of cooling enables the produce to be both cooled and stored.
Typically the produce being placed on the ventilation wall until cooled and
then being moved to another part of the store for holding or dispatching,
10 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

making space warm produce on the wall. This decrease the handling steps
required and it eliminates the capital investment needed for fast cooling.
Also this system tends to be less heavy on power consumption.
Room cooling (Figure 1.2) is used for produce sensitive to free mois-
ture or surface moisture and for very small amounts of produce or produce
that does not deteriorate rapidly. Exposing certain type of fruit to spe-
cific durations of cold storage has been shown to enhance ripening due to
increased ethylene synthesis in the tissue (Mworia et al., 2012). For apple,
the room cooling method is very common where it kept refrigerated in
rectangular bins with lateral holes to let the cool air in and the temperature
is usually maintained below 1°C (Russell, 2006). Citrus fruit is also used
to be cooled using room cooling method (Defraeye et al., 2015).
In this method produce is loaded into a refrigerated space where cold
air is circulated within the room and around the produce by the refrigera-
tion fans. Cold air does not circulate readily through the packaged pro-
duce. Heat exchange is mainly by conduction through the container walls
to the cold outer surface. The method to be effected needs a uniform air
distribution, (at least 60 to 120 m.min air circulation), spaced stacking for
airflow between containers and well ventilated containers.

FIGURE 1.2 Room cooling method.


Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 11

Coolers of this type generally have less ability to remove heat from the
product and lacks the air movement needed for rapid cooling compared with
other pre-cooling methods. The half-cooling time may be 12–36 h so three
half-cooling times (7/8 cooling time) will be 36–108 h (Ross, 1990). The
efficiency of a forced-air-cooling system compared to a cooling room for
grapefruits resulted in a reduction of 6.7°C in 1 h and 14.6°C after 2.5 h,
compared to 2°C and 3.5°C for 1 h and 2.5 h, respectively, for the cooling
room (Barbin et al., 2012). Due to its slow cooling rate, the produce takes
long time to reach the desired final temperature. Unless the room is designed
to deliver high level of relative humidity, the cooling systems will have suf-
ficient time to remove moisture from the air, and subsequently the dry air
will draw moisture out of the product, which will progressively dehydrate.
Produce is largely composed of water where the loss of this natural mois-
ture will reduce quality, taste, texture and shelf life. Most of these rooms
especially in developing countries are equipped with direct expansion com-
mercial refrigeration system (DX), which is not recommending for perish-
able storage. The installed evaporators usually have small surface area and
large ΔT (temperature difference between room air and coil) that increase
the water loss from the produce. Another disadvantage is that air velocity
decreases with increasing distance from the source, causing produce stacked
further from the fans to have less air passage over it.
Defrost is another problem for this kind of cold room. In a typical cool
store, fans circulate air over the refrigerator coils. To maintain a storage
temperature of 0°C the temperature of the coils will have to be appreciably
below 0°C. Moisture is therefore removed from the air and this accumu-
lates as ice on the coils. This why a defrost system is a basic requirement
since such cold rooms would sometimes run as low as −2°C for certain
products like grapes. Electrical defrost introduce extra heat load to the
system and cause great fluctuation in room temperature.
The nature of the DX cooler has the negative effect of remov-
ing moisture from the air as it passes over the evaporator, this can be
minimized by the careful design of the cooler surface, however some
moisture and hence weight loss is inevitable. Humidification systems
are recommended to reduce the losses by the introduction of water into
the air. Systems, such as ultrasonic nozzles have been applied, though
care must be taken to avoid excessive frosting on the evaporative coil
12 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

face and water being lost from the produce being cooled. Evaporative
humidification is a good alternative in which the water is transferred into
the air in vapor form avoiding introducing this moisture as free water.
Also care must also be taken to avoid freezing of the produce.

1.4.1.1 Modified Room Cooling Method

If the facilities are to be used for rapid pre-cooling, the capacity of the
refrigeration system must be increased. The amount of increase will be
determined by the rate of harvest, the desired cooling time and the required
temperature drop. For the big and medium room, it is expected to have
sufficient cooling capacity to pre-cool predetermined amount of produce
according to its conditions. For a small room, an essential step is the deter-
mining of the capacity of the installed refrigeration system. Knowledge of
the system control will be needed in addition to the produce initial temper-
ature, final temperature, thermal properties, and the space requirements to
place tunnel load. Based upon this data and the estimated cooling capacity
of the storage space, the optimum amount of produce to be pre-cooled can
be estimated. An auxiliary cooling fan is put in position after the pallets
are placed in the room. Pallets are stacked in even numbers in set positions
on the cool room floor. A tarp is rolled down over the bins to direct airflow
(Figure 1.3). The forced air fan is wheeled in position against the pallets.
The fan is turned on which draws air through the pallets. After forced air-
cooling is completed the fan can simply be shut off and the pallets remain
in position for room storage. Barbin et al. (2012) compared exhaustion and
blowing air using an experimental portable forced-air tunnel built inside
an existing cold store. The device was designed to improve cooling rates
inside storage room without the need for a cooling tunnel. A heterogeneity
factor was proposed for air circulation evaluation and compared with con-
vective heat transfer coefficient (h) values. Lower modules of heterogene-
ity factor values represent smaller temperature differences among samples
used. Comparing the two different airflow processes, heterogeneity factor
values were similar for regions where the cooling air could flow without
obstructions. However, larger differences were observed for regions with
hampered air circulation. Results indicated that the air distribution, as well
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 13

FIGURE 1.3 Modified room cooling method.

as the heat transfer, occurs more uniformly around the products in the
exhausting process than in the blowing system.

1.4.2 FORCED AIR-COOLING

Forced-air-cooling is considered an improved technique compared by the


room cooling method since the cold air is forced through produce packed
in boxes or pallet bins via its venting areas. A number of airflow configu-
rations are available, but the tunnel cooler is the most common (Figures
1.4–1.6). In the tunnel system, which is a patch type, pallets are lined
up in front of a pressure fan and covered with a tarp to form a tunnel.
Cold air is pulled through the tunnel of covered pallets so the air must
go through the containers. The product is cooled in batches and cool-
ing times range from 1 h for cut flowers to more than 6 h for larger fruit
(Thompson, 2004).
Vertical Airflow forced air-cooling (Figures 1.7 and 1.8) use pal-
let racking, so that pallets can be stacked 2-high. If 12 pallets occupy a
floor space footprint, with a trapped tunnel precooler system, the verti-
cal airflow design allows 24 pallets to be cooled in that same space. One
advantage of the vertical design system is that it eliminates the traditional
14 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 1.4 Forced air cooler tunnel type.

FIGURE 1.5 Forced air cooler tunnel type during operation.


Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 15

FIGURE 1.6 Concept of Forced air cooler compared by room cooling method.

FIGURE 1.7 Vertical Airflow forced air cooling

precooling problem of “last pallets to cool,” which are typically those two-
pallet positions furthest from the suction fan or fans. The system offer
superior speeds cooling with a flow rates flow up to 2.35 L/s/kg com-
pared by 1 L/s/kg for the trapped tunnel precooler. Through such system,
Strawberry cooling time can be reduced from 1.5–2 h to about (Thompson
16 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 1.8 Concept of vertical Airflow forced air cooling

et al., 2010). So as the design precools faster, at the same time it physically
doubles precooling pallet positions where the capacity can actually tri-
ple. The new design of such technology offer several advantages, such as
faster cooling, increased capacity per unit area, potential for reduced cost
per unit cooled, more uniform product temperature, some can be operated
at field side and automated process control.
The disadvantages of high airflow method and technique are the high-
pressure drop across pallets where doubling airflow increases pressure
drop by a factor of about 4. This is also reflected in the high consumption
of fan electricity where doubling airflow increases electricity demand fans
by a factor of 7–8. Subsequently, an increased heat load because of the
fan heat. The use of high venting area reduces the pressure drop across
the pallet.
The continuous system where product is moved through a cooler on
a conveyer has largely been abandoned in favor of batch cooling due to
the high cost of conveyer systems. Some recent application for that type
of configuration is reported for specific application, such as tying it in a
production line for fresh-cut produce (Christie, 2007).
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 17

1.5 PACKAGING

Package design is a subject of ongoing and active research in the food


industry due to its importance in the forced-convective cooling process
and its complexity (Dehghannya et al., 2010–2012; Ferrua and Singh,
2009a, 2009b; Pathare et al., 2012). Optimum package design is very
product-specific due to the large variety in size and shape and thermal–
physical properties of different fresh produce. Often, a compromise has to
be made between optimal ventilation (percentage and shape) and mechani-
cal strength of the containers, which is required for stacking them and for
protecting the fruit. The way of packaging and the packaging materials
should be properly selected to avoid any blockage of air passage and allow
good air-flow to achieve the cooling rate desired. Packed produce with
airflow restricting materials should be taken in consideration when sizing
the system airflow and static head pressure of the fans. Boxes should have
about 5% sidewall vent area to accommodate airflow without excessive
pressure drop across the box (Kader, 2002). Packing table grapes via sea
shipments is an example; it needs a lot of packing materials that cannot be
avoided, such as consumer bags and unvented liner (Luvisi et al., 1995).
Crisosto et al. (2002) reported an air-flow rate of 9.35 m3/h/kg that over-
come the heavy internal package of table grapes boxes during the pre-
cooling process. Luvisi et al. (1995) reported a value of 216 min for the
7/8th cooling time of grapes that were bagged and packed in corrugated
box. The corresponded initial and final temperatures were 21.1 and 1.7°C,
respectively. For most systems, fans are being selected based on a maxi-
mum static pressure of 200 Pa (Hugh and Fraser, 1998).
The complex and chaotic structure within fresh produce ventilated
packages during a forced air precooling process complicates the math-
ematical analysis of heat and mass transfer considering each individual
produce. The complexity of the physical structure of the packed systems
and the biological variability of the produce make both experimental and
model-based studies of transport processes challenging time consuming.
Ventilation of the produce packages should be designed in such a way that
they can provide a uniform airflow distribution and consequently uniform
produce cooling. Total opening area and opening size and position show a
significant effect on pressure drop, air distribution uniformity and cooling
18 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

efficiency (Pathare et al., 2012). Recent advances in measurement and


mathematical modeling techniques, such as CFD, have provided powerful
tools to develop detailed investigations of local airflow rate and heat and
mass transfer processes within complex packaging structures.
Ferrua and Singh (2011) proposed a new packaging design capable of
promoting a more uniform and energy-efficient performance during forced
air-cooling using CFD modeling. It was reported that and for the same air-
flow conditions, the new design significantly improved the uniformity and
energy-efficiency of the process, while replicating of the cooling rate of
commercial designs. In particular, no significant differences were found
among the cooling rates of individual clamshells, and the pressure drop
across the system was decreased by 70%. Defraeye et al. (2013) analyzed
the cooling performance of newly design pack, Supervent and Ecopack
with citrus fruit during precooling process using CFD modeling. The best
cooling performance was found for Ecopack where the uniformity of fruit
cooling and the magnitude of the convective heat transfer coefficients, in
a specific container and between different containers on the pallet, was
the best for Ecopack container, followed by the Supervent and the stan-
dard container. The new container designs thus clearly showed significant
improvements in cooling performance. A 3-D CFD model of ventilated
packaging was applied to fresh produce where the cooling rate increased
with an increase in vent area up to a limit. It was found that a vent area
beyond 7% did not substantially increase cooling rate (Delele et al., 2013).

1.6 CAPACITY DESIGN

Forced air pre-cooling facility design involves a variety of tasks, includ-


ing planning, site selection, architectural and structural design, refrigera-
tion system design, equipment selection and installation, construction,
supervision, inspection, maintenance and management. In addition, con-
siderations of building and safety codes, efficient operation, and cost
effectiveness make the design procedure more exhausting. The first step
in a forced air pre-cooling facility design is for the designer to develop an
exact set of specifications that meets all the interests of the facility owner.
Specifications for the overall facility must consider the individual prod-
uct specifications, forced air arrangements, environmental conditions, and
other miscellaneous aspects of the design process.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 19

One of the critical design parameter is the required capacity for a forced
air precooling facility. The capacity mainly depends upon factors, such as
the total production of the farm, nature of the produce and its thermophysical
specifications, expected duration of production season and modes of mate-
rial handling. An essential step in determining the capacity requirements of
the prospective refrigerated storage facility is to acquire data concerning
the traffic levels of the harvested produce. In addition, space requirements
for loading docks, product handling and logistics must be estimated. Based
upon this data and the estimated capital and operating costs per unit volume
of the storage space, optimum dimensions may be determined.
For forced-air-cooling, the refrigeration capacity requirements (Figure
1.9) are much greater than just storing products in a typical cold storage room
and might be as much as 5 or 6 times greater than the requirements for a stan-
dard cold room design (Elansari, 2009). Sufficient cooling capacity allows
room air temperature to be stable throughout the cooling process and avoids
temperature rising that slows cooling rates. Cooling time in forced-air-cool-
ers is controlled by volumetric airflow rate and product diameter (Flockens
and Meffert, 1972; Gan and Woods, 1989).
For the estimation of the refrigeration capacity needed, Wade (1984)
developed an equation for the estimation of the load required in terms of

FIGURE 1.9 The refrigeration capacity requirements.


20 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

the rate of heat loss from the cooling produce. The developed model uses
the seven eighth cooling times and the lag factor, which is an empirical
measure of the thermal properties of the product. Thompson and et al.
(1998) reported a calculation method for the estimation of the peak refrig-
eration tonnage associated with product cooling based on certain assump-
tions. Heat from miscellaneous source, such as fan motors was taken as a
percentage of the product load. Watkins (1990) developed a cooling load
calculation method and graphs were presented that show the relationship
between the air-flow rate and the cooling rate required for different com-
modities based of a pallet load. The method was specified for the sys-
tems, which use an auxiliary fan with the existing cold stores. Elansari
and Yahia (2012) charted the cooling capacity required for table grape,
mango, melon, strawberries and green been as a function of precooling
cycle designed and the initial temperature of the produce.

1.7 SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

There are generally two designs of forced are precooler. They are: (i) wetted-
coil or spry deck style; and (ii) dry-coil high humidity style. The two sys-
tems have significant differences in design concepts and philosophy. Each
has advantages and disadvantages that should be considered to determine
which is the best for a specific commodity.

1.7.1 WET COOLING SYSTEM (ICE BANKS)

The practice of precooling and cold storage fruits, vegetables and flow-
ers in a high humidity atmosphere has been applied for many years in the
U.S. and it is has been used commercially for some 25–30 years (James,
2013). Several systems are available for achieving this, such as the ice
bank system and many other forms branded by various manufacturers. The
wet deck system (Figures 1.10 and 1.11) was developed by the Institute
of Agricultural Engineering in the 1970s (Farrimond et al., 1979; Geeson,
1989; Rule, 1995; Macleod-Smith et al., 1996; Tassou and Xiang, 1998).
It is the common precooling systems installed in many pack-house facili-
ties especially in developing countries where ice cold water is brought
into intimate contact with the recalculating air within a cooler (Elansari,
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 21

FIGURE 1.10 Wet cooling system (Ice banks).

FIGURE 1.11 Wet cooling system (Ice banks) ready for operation.

2003; Ahmad and Siddiqui, 2015). Wet Deck systems have the ability to
maintain low temperatures and high relative humidities with lower run-
ning costs than conventional systems, making them suitable for long- and
medium-term storage of a number of vegetable crops (Farrimond et al.,
22 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

1979). Wet air-cooling has been used successfully for the pre-cooling and/
or storage of grapes, mushrooms cucumbers, carrots, cauliflowers, toma-
toes, strawberries, cut flowers white and red cabbage, Brussels, spinach
potted plants and flowers, lettuce chicory potatoes, celery chicory roots
cheese, leeks.
Warm produce is loaded in the precooling room in open crates stacked
to allow forced circulation of air through the crates. The cooling unit is usu-
ally located near the end of the room. Air is circulated by the wet air-cooler
to the opposite end of the room where it is drawn through the stacked pro-
duce pallets and returns to unit. A false wall or a plenum chamber (Tassou
and Xiang, 1998) at the end of the room creates a positive pressure in the
space to force cold air evenly through the produce and forms a return air
passage to the cooling unit. Each cold room may have one or more unit
operating in parallel based on the total capacity required. The circulation
rate is typically 40 air changes per hour (Benz, 1989).
Wet cooling system is an alternative to simple direct expansion cooling
where the refrigeration is supplied in the front of the water pumped from
the ice water tank, which works as thermal storage unit at the top of the fill
pack heat transfer surface (cooling tower), thus, cooling the air and warm-
ing the water. The formation of the ice on the surface of the evaporative
coil occurs when the refrigeration load is light and melts when the load
goes up. Air-cooler, which can cause damage to the produce, are stripped
from the air stream by directional mist eliminators. The water is prevented
from freezing completely through mechanical agitation, which also main-
tains good heat transfer rates between the refrigerated plates and the water
(Tassou and Xiang, 1998). The air exits the cooler at temperatures as low
as 1.5°C and relative humidities as high as 98%.
Wet cooling system is suitable for most crops other than those that
require low humidity storage, such as dry bulb onions and produce that
is required to be stored much lower than 1°C. When combined with a
forced ventilation system, the precooling cycle maybe shortened to only
2 h, however bulkier and packaged produces will last longer (10–17 h).
Due to the high relative humidity of the cooled forced air, the water losses
from such systems are minimal. As with the DX system, the cooler pro-
vides both cooling and holding possibilities. Freezing of the crop is not
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 23

possible, though care must be taken with crops that are sensitive to chill
damage.
Since wet spray and wet deck systems are recirculated water system,
the cooler must be designed to control disease organisms that enter the
system via the coming produce. The water acts as an effective air scrubber
and can be very efficient in removing air borne contaminations into the
water stream. Chlorine is commonly used, and requires concentrations of
100–150 ppm available chlorine for water near 0°C. However, chlorine is
corrosive to many common metals, thus care must be taken to determine if
chlorine can be used with the cooling equipment installed.
Conventional commercial refrigeration or industrial system using
either semi-hermetic compressors or screw working with ammonia or
halocarbon refrigerant are used to supply the required refrigeration capac-
ity to charge the ice chiller thermal storage unit. In order to reduce energy
and capital cost, the ice also can be built at night or when they’re no loads.
An evaporative or air-cooled condenser rejects the heat from the refrigera-
tion system.
Tator (1997) summaries the disadvantages of the wet deck precooling
system where it is usually designed with a smaller coil surface. The coil
must operate at a high temperature difference, usually 5–6°C delta t (Δt).
That system can only cools the fruits to usually 2.5–3°C or above. Cross
contamination can occur unless the recirculated water is chlorinated. Wet
air produces wet product surfaces that may detract from the appearance,
make handling difficult, or provide an enhanced environment for micro-
bial growth. Due to the wet air used, packaging must be water resistant,
hence waxed face packs or plastic trays are usually required.
Varszegi (2003) conducted an experiment to determine the relation-
ship between the bacterial growth on mushroom cap and the wet forced
air precooling methods (forced wet cooling and vacuum cooling) and
found that vacuum cooling provided the longest period of time needed to
reach the maximum value of microbial population and this method was
found beneficial for the quality. However and with a view to reduce the
weight loss during the conventional vacuum- cooling, ice bank cooling
of mushrooms is now in vogue where a stack of mushrooms is passed
through forced draft of chilled but humidified air from the ice bank (Rai
and Arumuganathan, 2008).
24 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Elansari et al. (2000) mentioned that the wet deck system is not the
optimum precooling technique for sea shipment produce since it is not
capable of reaching the lowest recommended temperature for certain prod-
uct like table grapes and strawberries. Also the ice bank coolers required a
larger space (James, 2013). However, the wet air-cooler offers some eco-
nomic advantage in addition to reduce weight loss:
• Smaller refrigeration plant since peak heat loads are met by the
reserve of ice. The plant therefore runs for longer periods at full
capacity.
• Running a refrigeration plant at full load (as ice bank systems oper-
ate) is more feasible than running at part load and therefore the over-
all efficiency of the plant is greater.
• Energy saving since smaller plant consumes less power.
• Portion of the refrigeration capacity is utilized to accumulate a
reserve of ice during the nighttime where electrical power is cheaper.

1.7.2 DRY SYSTEM

This system uses a direct expansion (as detailed on Figure 1.12) or second-
ary coolant coil sized to operate at a small temperature difference between

FIGURE 1.12 The details of the refrigeration DX system


Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 25

room air and coil (∆T), which will maintain a high relative humidity of
the leaving air stream. The dry-coil system can maintain 85–90% relative
humidity during the precooling process if properly designed and operated.
The DX system is not recommended for high humidity fruit precooling.
However, customers sometimes, due to economical reasons, buy accord-
ing to the lowest price, and then they have to compromise. For a bigger
size a flooded ammonia systems is an obvious choice for different reasons.
A flooded ammonia system achieves less temperature fluctuation, which
is especially critical for the precooling process. Another reason is mainly
for its lack of oil separation problems and better efficiency, providing the
plant with less cost for Kwh.
In case of DX system using commercial type style it must incorporated
in its refrigeration loop different components that maintain high level of
relative humidity to enhance its efficiency. Elansari (2009) indicated dif-
ferent details for the dry-coil concept that utilizes a semi-hermetic con-
densing unit working with R-134a (Figure 1.13). The refrigerant main loop
for each tunnel includes a liquid receiver; a thermostatic expansion valve;

FIGURE 1.13 Dry-coil concept that utilizes a semi-hermetic condensing unit working
with R-134a.
26 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

and a plate-finned tube evaporator coil. Each compressor is equipped with


a capacity control that controls the delivered cooling capacity by 50%.
The evaporator coil should match the same capacity and conditions
of the condensing unit with two circuits. A separate axial auxiliary fan is
used to circulate the designed amount of air against 400 Pa static pressure.
A wide fin spacing evaporators is used (1.575 cm/fin) to guarantee a
good supply of air through the precooling cycle and to avoid any block-
ing of the coil by dirt or frost. In order to maintain a relative humidity
level not less than 85%, the coil is designed to have larger facing area.
The installation includes a temperature compensated back-pressure regu-
lator valve. Its function is to maintain the evaporating temperature at the
required setup conditions and preventing it from falling down at the end
of the precooling cycle. Therefore, the system minimizes the dehydration
effect might happen due to the big difference in ΔT.
The air-flow rate supplied by the auxiliary fan in each precooling tun-
nel is controlled via a variable frequency drive (VFD). VFDs are an elec-
tronic motor controller that is used to reduce fan speed after the heat field
has been pulled down to storage temperatures. By other word, as the pre-
cooling process nears its end, water loss from product should be avoided
by minimizing air-flow which can be reduced as low as 50%. The VFDs
offer very attractive energy savings. At half fan speed, the fans will con-
sume only about 15% of full speed power (Morton and McDevitt, 2000). A
safety cut-off arrangement is installed at the front of the air return channel
to sense the return air temperature and stop the auxiliary fan if the tem-
perature is less than 0°C. That is to prevent any freezing might happen for
the produce being precooled.

1.8 MOBILE PRE-COOLING FACILITIES

A mobile precooler is one, which removes the field heat at the farm and
during transit period. Commercial mobile precooling system had been pre-
viously designed, in which three-precooling unit container loads of product
could be precooled simultaneously (Green, 1997). The capital investment
and running cost of the system are very high due to its capacity, which
exceeds the production of the average size facilities. It consumes about
eight, of fuel per hour to run the ammonia screw compressors.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 27

Talbot and Flitecher (1993) utilized a trial mounted cooling unit


equipped with two 10.5 kW packaged air conditioner units, a high-pres-
sure blower and a self constructed cooling chamber for cooling a pallet
of containerized product as a mobile precooling facility. Boyette and
Rohrbach (1990) promoted a similar idea that applies two to three tons
refrigeration air conditioning with integrated fan unit to supply the cooled
air through the length of insulted flexible duct, which holds the product
being precooled. The cooling rate reported for previous units were slow
and the product load exceeded the design load by 30% apart from the very
limited capacity, which is only for one pallet. The water loss was a major
concern for both units. The used air conditioning systems were to comfort
the human body rather than the fresh product
Elansari et al. (2001) designed a portable forced air-precooling unit
using 40" high cube bottom air delivery reefer container. The precooling
unit was modified by using a bulkhead door, and the floor T-sections were
blocked in order to short cycle the cooled air around the precooled pal-
lets. The average pallets grapes temperature was lowered by 18°C in 8 h.
The product load exceeded the available load for the unit by about 50%,
which caused longer cooling time. The designed refrigeration capacity of
the reefer container was to hold and maintain the temperature of the ship-
ment and not to pull down the field heat of the shipment.
Elansari (2009) described the development and performance of a por-
table forced air-cooling unit exclusively designed to satisfy different pre-
cooling requirements (Figures 1.14–1.16). It took 150 min to cool down
2.3 tons of Strawberries from 22°C initial temperature to 1–4°C final tem-
perature. The unit is simple and use on-shelf refrigeration components.
The cooling system uses Scroll compressor that has proven to be efficient
and reliable with respect to the precooling requirements. The unit is an
insulated container (8590 × 2990 × 2940 mm) divided into three sections
as shown in Figure 1.15, a machine room; a cooling chamber which repre-
sents the false wall and finally the main cooling area that holds the stacked
produce pallets. The dimensions and weight of the unit were to accommo-
date highway regulations. The unit can run with a separate motor genera-
tor fueled with diesel/electrical portable power unit for keeping it running
while off the road.
In this regards, Barbin et al. (2012) suggested a portable precooling
tunnel that improve cooling rates inside storage room without the need for
28 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 1.14 Portable precooling unit loaded with strawberries.

FIGURE 1.15 The machine room of the Portable precooling wit maneurop hermetic
compressor.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 29

FIGURE 1.16 External view of the Portable precooling wit the electrical generator
beside.

a the conventional forced precooling tunnel. As an alternative to forced-


air precooling, warm loading of citrus fruit into refrigerated containers
for cooling during marine transport was explored (Defraeye et al., 2015).
Although a refrigerated container was theoretically able to cool the pro-
duce in less than 5 days, the experiment showed that these cooling rates
are not currently achieved in practice, bearing in mind that step-down
cooling was applied. Future improvements in the technique point towards
an improved box design and better stacking on the pallet, and to reducing
airflow short-circuits between pallets is still required.

1.9 HYDROCOOLING

Hydrocooling as shown in (Figure 1.17) is the process or technique of


arresting the field heat of fruits and vegetables after harvesting by immer-
sion in ice or cold water. Hydrocooling is one of the fastest precooling
methods. One main advantage of hydrocooling is that it does not remove
water from the produce and in contrary; it may even revive slightly wilted
produce (Elansari, 2008). Hydrocooling is an effective method for rabidly
precools a wide range of fruits and vegetables in containers or in bulk. It is
normally only applicable to fresh fruits and vegetables that can withstand
30 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 1.17 Continues type hydrocooler.

water immersion (peach, cherry, avocado, mango, sweet corn, and carrot),
it is also may be applied to vacuum packs of prepared foodstuffs.
For the cherry industry as an example, the high efficiency of hydro-
cooling system is achievable due to the large heat capacity and high rate
of heat transfer of agitated water. At typical flow rates and temperature
differences, water removes heat about 15 times faster than air, resulting
in threefold shorter cooling time in comparison with products cooled by
forced air, or 10-fold, when products are placed in conventional or storage
room (Manganaris et al., 2007).
Based on the hydrocooler type, hydrocooling process is achieved by
immersing or flooding products in chilled water or spraying chilled water
over the products. Water is an excellent heat transfer refrigerant com-
pared to air where the convection resistance at the product surface is usu-
ally negligible. During the hydrocooling process, the main resistance to
heat transfer is the internal resistance of the product, and internal heat is
removed once it arrives at the surface. The temperature difference between
the product surface and the cooling water is normally less than 0.5°C.
Under idealized conditions, the convection heat transfer coefficient and
the cooling rate per unit surface area can be 680 W/m2·°C and 300 W/m2,
respectively (Cengel and Ghajar, 2013).
For efficient hydrocooling, water must be kept as cold as possible with-
out endangering produce. In commercial practices, water temperature is
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 31

usually kept around 0.5°C except for chilling sensitive commodities. The
water in a hydrocooling system is cooled by passing it through cooling
coils in which a refrigerant flows at about −2°C. Hydrocooler usually uses
a plate-type heat exchanger to cool the recirculated water to 0.5°C, either
placed directly over the belt conveyor or on the process floor near the
hydrocooler belt. The plates are refrigerated using R-717 or R-22. Usually,
the refrigerant is supplied from the central equipment room. The water
is normally recirculated within a closed system to save both water and
energy. However, recirculation can cause cross contamination for fruits
and vegetables and this why chemicals, such as active chlorine (or ozone)
are commonly added (usually at a rate of 50–100 mg/kg water) to reduce
bacteria build-up in water (Suslow, 1997) to disinfect the water used in
the process and therefore minimize the potential risk of spreading any
contamination.
The variation of the mass-average product temperature with time is
shown (Figure 1.18) for some fruits (ASHRAE, 1993). The typical seven-
eighths cooling times are 10 min for small-diameter products like cherries
and up to 1 h for large products, such as melons. It is clear that reducing the

FIGURE 1.18 Cooling rates for different produce with varying diameter.
32 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

temperature difference between the fruit and the water to 10% of the initial
value takes about 0.4 h for peaches while it take 0.7 h for citrus fruits. The
size of the fruit is an important factor influencing the hydrocooling rate in
addition to other factors, such as water temperature, produce orientation
and water flow pattern. Hydrocoolers can be portable, extending the cool-
ing season. Containers used in hydrocooling must be water-tolerant.
Container design and the stacking arrangement of the produce are
critical to achieve efficient hydrocooling. Water distribution within the
containers and the amount of water flowing out of the container through
the side-walls influences the effectiveness of hydrocooling process. The
containers should be designed to provide an efficient and uniform cool-
ing throughout the entire volume of container and throughout an entire
stack of containers. In terms of uniform water distribution, the width of
the openings on the bottom of containers is also important (Pathare et al.,
2012). Vigneault et al. (2004) investigated the non-uniform water supply
inside plastic collapsible containers used for three types of produce during
the hydrocooling process. The study recommended to use a container base
opening that covers approximately 5.2% of the bottom surface which will
allows a more uniform water distribution and insures the fastest cooling
rate by obtaining higher minimum flow rate in each section of the container.
Forced-air-cooling is traditionally, the most common method applied
for the fats cooling of strawberries in pack-house facilities where the typi-
cal cooling times for the pulp temperature to reach 3°C ranges from 60 to
90 min. However, the final strawberry pulp temperature can vary widely
according to the location within the cooling tunnel, resulting in uneven
cooling and a delay in achieving the desired final temperature. In addition,
water loss has been associated with forced-air-cooling process, contribut-
ing to reduced shelf life and the quality of the strawberries. Recently, the
application of hydrocooling was extended to strawberries leading to overall
better quality than forced-air-cooled, with significant differences in epi-
dermal color, weight loss, incidence and severity of decay (Ferreira et al.,
2006; Jacomino et al., 2011). Hydrocooling did not affect the fruit quality
during cold storage in terms of physical and chemical analyzes, freshness
or decay. Use of this method resulted in fruit that were 2–3% heavier than
those that were forced-air-cooled by the end of the storage time. For straw-
berries, hydrocooling is an alternate method that has several advantages
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 33

compared to forced-air-cooling, including a faster cooling time (12–13


min), and reduced dirt/field debris, and overall microbial load (Jacomino
et al., 2011). Based on the current practices, strawberries are unwashed and
field-packed for fresh market, which increases the risk of microbial con-
tamination during cultivation, harvest and postharvest, handling. Fresh and
frozen strawberries have been associated with several reported foodborne
illness outbreaks (FDA, 2011), which highlight a need for better sanita-
tion and process control. The use of antimicrobials sodium hypochlorite
(HOCl, 100 mL/L) and peroxyacetic acid (PAA, 80 mL/L) are both effec-
tive in reducing surface contamination on strawberries during hydrocool-
ing (Tokarskyy et al., 2015). Sreedharan et al. (2015), reported that and
compared to forced-air-cooling, hydrocooling significantly reduced sal-
monella survival on inoculated intact strawberries, with levels below the
enumerable limit (1.5 log CFU/berry) by day 8. Hydrocooling reduced the
initial salmonella levels by 1.9 log CFU/berry, while the addition of 100 or
200 ppm HOCl reduced levels by 3.5 and 4.4 log CFU/berry, respectively.
The immersion hydrocooling with sanitized water for strawberry ship-
pers in which the fruit were uniformly cooled in approximately 13 min,
potentially increasing throughput by 4- to 8-fold (Tokarskyy et al., 2015).
Hydrocooling of strawberries in clamshells cooled at the same rate as those
in bulk; after 14 days at 2°C, quality of hydrocooling fruit was equal to or
better than forced air-cooling of the fruit.
Also for Blueberry, the current practices are forced-air-cooled for 60–90
min to 2–3°C pulp temperature. Carnelossi et al. (2014) compared the cool-
ing efficiency and the effect of forced-air-cooling with hydrocooling and
with hydrocooling plus forced-air-cooling on fruit (Emerald and Farthing
varieties) quality. The results indicated that ‘emerald’ was more sensitive to
hydrocooling than ‘farthing,’ where several fruit from the former showed
skin breaks. Both cultivars had no decay during storage.
For sweet cherries, it was mentioned that hydrocooling shortly after
harvest (4 h) and then transporting fruit in cold flume water during pack-
ing are used to maximize postharvest quality, but can cause fruit splitting
(Wang and Long, 2015). In a simulated commercial procedure, hydrocool-
ing cherry fruit in appropriate CaCl2 solutions (i.e., 0.2–0.5%) for 5 min
and then passing the fruit in cold flume water for 15 min increased fruit
firmness, retarded losses in ascorbic acid, titratable acidity, and skin color,
and reduced splitting and decay following four weeks of cold storage.
34 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

The effectiveness of hydrocooling treatment with a minimum delay


after harvest to suppress decay and prolong the storage life of many pro-
duces is still being evaluated. Liang et al. (2013) investigate the influence
of hydrocooling at 1, 2, 4, and 6 h post-harvest on the storage life and qual-
ity of the litchi cultivar, Feizixiao, by comparing litchi with and without
hydrocooling treatment. The observed parameters included variations in
temperature during hydrocooling, biochemical properties of the pericarp,
and fluctuations in the content of soluble solids and titratable acids in the
aril during storage. Hydrocooling for 30 min reduced the temperature of
the pericarp by 6.2 ± 0.3°C. It also delayed the increase in electrolyte leak-
age and polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activity in the pericarp.
Thorpe (2008) developed a commercial large scale, transportable
hydrocooler with a capacity of 6 tons/h of broccoli from 30°C initial tem-
perature to a final one of 12°C/h. The water in the hydrocooler is recircu-
lated and the water consumption is estimated to be 35 L/ton of round fruit,
such as apples and 75 L/ton of broccoli. If the water were not recirculated,
the water consumption would be 60,000 L/ton of produce cooled. The
electrical running cost is estimated to be 20 kWh and 16 kWh per ton of
produce when the throughput is 4 ton/h and 6 ton/h, respectively. If the
water were not recirculated the running cost would be about 300 kW per
ton. This may be regarded as being infeasible.
It can concluded that hydrocooler and in case of custom designed
hydrocooler to meet specific needs provide fast, reliable and efficient means
of cooling many water tolerant fruits and vegetables, such as sweet corn,
broccoli, artichokes, asparagus, avocados, green beans, beets, Brussels
sprouts, cantaloupes, carrots, celery, cherries, strawberries, endive, greens,
kale, leeks, nectarines, parsley, peaches, radishes, romaine lettuce, spin-
ach, turnips, watercress and more.

1.10 VACUUM COOLING

In the mid-20th century, vacuum cooling was developed by the University


of California (Tragethon, 2011). Vacuum cooling (Figure 1.19) is a batch
process where the products are cooled by vaporizing some of the water
content of the products under low-pressure conditions. By other words,
vacuum precooling, which uses the principle of absorbing the latent heat
of vaporization by water under vacuum pressure to rapidly cool down
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 35

FIGURE 1.19 Vacuum cooler.

freshly harvested produce, thus inhibiting respiration, is applied to main-


tain the storage quality of fruits and vegetables (Liu et al., 2014).
The newly discovered vacuum cooling technology at that time was
commercial applied by several companies to meet the postharvest handling
needs of their customers. The first commercial vacuum cooling industrial
facility could precool five pallets of product as a batch. This is achieved
by lowering the product temperature below 4.4°C as soon as possible after
harvesting. Prior to vacuum cooling technology the precooling process
used to last hours to reach the pulp temperature of the product below 4.4°C
using other precooling techniques. Nowadays, precooling process using
vacuum cooling can be shortened to as little as 35 minutes.
The concept behind the vacuum cooling is due to the thermodynamic
properties of water, namely: the latent heat of vaporization which is
absorbed from the products during evaporation process results in lower-
ing its temperature. Water is considered a natural refrigerant with a com-
mercial name of R718. Liquid water as a refrigerant will boil at 100°C
where it is well established that boiling water at higher elevations, such
as in the mountains, causes the water to boil at a temperature less than
100°C. Vacuums cooling of leafy vegetables (such as, lettuce) is based on
lowering the pressure of the air-tight (sealed) cooling tube to the satura-
tion pressure that meet the desired final low temperature, and evaporat-
ing some water from the products to be cooled. During this process, free
water evaporates at the temperature corresponding to the boiling (flash)
36 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

point and since the saturation pressure of water at 0°C is 0.61 kPa, the
products can be cooled to 0°C by lowering the pressure to that level. The
cooling rate can be increased by lowering the pressure below 0.61 kPa,
but this is not desirable because of the danger of freezing and the added
cost (Cengle and Boles, 2014). With the constant reduction in the pressure
of the vacuum cooling system, the progressing evaporation of the product
takes place. Practically and when a product is subjected to vacuum gradu-
ally, the flash point of the water decreases and some of the water boils until
new equilibrium conditions is obtained (Alibas and Koksal, 2014; Reno et
al., 2011; Rodrigues et al., 2012).
Looking at Figure 1.20 in a vacuum cooler, one can distinguish two
stages. Primary, the produce with at initial temperature of 25°C for an
example, are brought into the vacuum tube and the operation starts. The
temperature in the tube remains unchanged until the saturation pressure is
reached, which is 3.17 kPa at 25°C. In the second stage that follows, satu-
ration conditions are maintained inside at progressively lower pressures
and the corresponding lower temperatures until the desired final tempera-
ture is achieved which is usually slightly above 0°C.
Compared by other conventional precooling techniques, vacuum cool-
ing is considered the most expensive choice. One of the reasons for that is

FIGURE 1.20 The concept of vacuum cooling.


Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 37

its limited application, which is: much faster cooling. It is applied to any
fresh produce, which has free water provided that its structure will not be
affected by the removal of such water. The rate of cooling and effective-
ness of vacuum cooling are mainly related to the ratio between its evapora-
tion surface area and the mass of foods. Vegetables with large surface area
per unit mass and a high tendency to liberate moisture, such as lettuce and
spinach are good example for vacuum cooled products. In the contrary,
produce with low ration of surface area to mass are not suited to vacuum
cooling, especially those that have relatively water-resistant peels, such as
tomatoes and cucumbers. Some products, such as mushrooms and green
peas can be vacuum cooled successfully by wetting them first.
Precooling of mushrooms is a major traditional application of vacuum
cooling. The porous structure and high moisture content of mushrooms
have made this possible (Zheng and Sun, 2005). For mushrooms (He et al.,
2013) reported a cooling time of 25 min from 25.1°C initial temperature
to 2.4°C final temperature where the weight loss was 5.3%. The effects of
vacuum cooling on the color, firmness, polyphenol oxidase and membrane
permeability of mushroom after cooling and storage were determined. The
results showed that vacuum cooling significantly reduced the polyphenol
oxidase and membrane permeability. It has been seen shown that fresh
produce can be cooled much more rapidly and efficiently with vacuum
cooling than with conventional cooling (Ozturk et al., 2011).
Cauliflower heads, whose initial temperature was 23.5 ± 0.5°C, were
cooled until the temperature reached at 1°C using different precooling
methods (Alibas and Koksal, 2014). It was found that the most suitable
cooling method to precool cauliflower in terms of cooling time and energy
consumption was vacuum, followed by the high and low flow hydro and
forced-air precooling methods, respectively. The highest weight loss was
observed in the vacuum precooling method, followed by the forced-air
method. However, there was an increase in the weight of the cauliflower
heads in the high and low flow hydro precooling method. The best color
and hardness values were found in the vacuum precooling method. Among
all methods tested, the most suitable method to precool cauliflower in terms
of cooling and quality parameters was the vacuum precooling method.
Rahi et al. (2013) vacuum cooled cabbage where the results indicated
that pressure 0.7 kPa reduce the cooling time by 17% and 39% compared
38 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

with 1 and 1.5 kPa, respectively. The optimum selected pressure was 0.7
kPa that will minimize weight loss. It has been also found that temperature
distribution within the products during vacuum cooling despite the cabbage
complex structure was homogeneous. Water loss during vacuum cooling is
unavoidable due to the essence of vacuum process. Percent product yield,
water loss and cooling time where significantly improved by regulation of
pressure.
Liu et al. (2014) studied the effect of vacuum precooling process on leaf
lettuce, which is a complex process of heat and mass transfers. Based on
the properties of leaf lettuce in vacuum precooling process, an unsteady
computation model was constructed to analyze the factors affecting vacuum
precooling. Some factors, such as the precooling temperature, pressure and
quantity of the spray-applied water were verified throughout the experiment.
The study showed that the measured and simulated values were basically the
same, and the overall trend was similar. The lower the vacuum pressure, the
greater the cooling rate lettuce and water loss rate.
Garrido et al. (2015) compared four precooling systems including room
cooling, forced-air-cooling, hydrocooling and vacuum cooling for their
effects on quality and shelf-life of baby spinach. Leaf water content increased
after cooling in hydrocooling and vacuum cooling but more significantly in
winter while in spring, differences among treatments were not significant.
The color measured as Chroma was more vivid in hydrocooling and vacuum
cooling just after processing but after storage, no differences among pre-
cooling treatments were observed. In winter, there were no significant dif-
ferences in the respiration rate among precooling systems applied. However,
in spring, hydrocooling and vacuum cooling decreased respiration rate and
modified less the headspace gas composition of the packages. Surprisingly,
visual quality was significantly lower in vacuum cooling compared with the
rest of precooling treatments due to the higher degree and number of dam-
aged leaves. In conclusion, selection of the precooling method is critical
during warm weather due to the higher field temperature at harvest.
In recent years, vacuum-cooling technology has attracted much atten-
tion and its application has been extended to precooling of cut flowers. In
2013, FlowerForce, Netherlands, started to use the new loading cooler. They
choose the vacuum cooler as the best solution due to the quickest way to
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 39

cool their products. Using vacuum cooling significantly increases the shelf
life of the flowers and reduces the health risk caused by organism growth.
Most of the existing precooling facilities and equipment has been
designed to use halogenated hydrocarbons (CFCs and HCFCs) whose emis-
sions to the environment are depleting the ozone layer and contributing
significantly to global warming since the refrigerant leakage rates of the
vapor-compression systems to the environment is about 15% of the total
charge per annum (Elansari and Bekhit, 2015). Producing and handling of
CFCs is banned in most of the world and many HCFC refrigerants are only
short-term alternative and becoming more expensive and less efficient. With
the phase-out of R22, which together with ammonia was a popular refrig-
erant in food processing. Vacuum cooling machines have a large potential
market, in food cooling and processing industry. As its refrigerant is water,
which is more environment-friendly, it can be widely used and has no limit.
The removal of water vapor from a product during vacuum cooling results
in the loss of heat, approximately equivalent to the latent heat of vaporization
of water. An advantage of vacuum cooling is that it is possible to stop the
cooling process at a predetermined pressure and temperature. Water loss can
be minimized by spraying the produce with water before cooling. Some cool-
ers are equipped with water spray systems that are activated during the cool-
ing cycle, such systems is called hydro-vacuum methods. Like hydrocooling
water, this water must be disinfected if it is recirculated.

1.11 WATER LOSS DURING VACUUM COOLING


DETERMINATION

The amount of cooling (heat removed from the product) is proportional to


the weight of water evaporated, wv, and the latent heat of vaporization of
water at the average temperature, hfg, and is determined from:

Qvacuum = wv hfg (kJ)


Since:

Qvacuum = mP Cp ΔT (kJ)
40 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

where, mp is the product mass, Cp is the specific heat of the product (kJ/kg·°C)
and ΔT is the temperature difference between the product initial temperate
and the final desired temperature (°C). Therefore, during vacuum cooling,
the amount of water vapor generated (also cooling loss) can be calculated by:

wv = mP Cp ΔT/hfg (kg)

If the initial temperature of the product to be vacuum-cooled is 25°C


and the desired final temperature is 0°C, the average heat of vaporization
can be taken to be 2472 kJ/kg, which corresponds to the average tem-
perature of 12.5°C. This is adapted from the properties of saturated water
tables by interpolation (Cengel and Ghajar, 2011) as shown. Assuming
that the specific heat of products is about 4.12 kJ/kg·°C, the evaporation of
0.01 kg of water will cool down 1 kg of product by 24.72/4.12 = 6°C.by
other words, the vacuum-cooled products will lose 1% moisture for each
6°C drop in their temperature. This means the products will experience a
weight loss of 4% for a temperature drop of about 24°C. To minimize the
product moisture loss and enhance the effectiveness of vacuum cooling,
the products are often wetted prior to cooling.

1.12 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF VACUUM COOLING


PROCESS

Modeling of vacuum cooling process is useful. It can lead not only to a


better design of vacuum cooling equipment, but also to a better under-
standing of the effects of the process on the physical, chemical and sen-
sory properties of the products.
Isik (2007) tested and compared the results of thermodynamically
analysis implemented to the vacuum cooling of lettuce. According to the
findings of the trial and results of the thermodynamically model, it is pos-
sible to predict the weight loss within an error of 2.12%, close to the other
parameters to be used in the design of vacuum precooling system, such
as temperature, pressure, enthalpy and entropy on specified points using
the mathematical model prepared from thermodynamically equations.
Moreover, the fact that the power need, the most important parameter in
the design of the system, could be predicted with a minimal error (0.162%)
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 41

which reveals that the thermodynamically model could be applied to the


design of a vacuum precooling system.
Liu et al. (2014) and through an unsteady computation constructed model
verified some factors that influence the vacuum cooling process such as the
precooling temperature, pressure and quantity of the spray-applied water.
The study showed that the measured and simulated values were basically
the same, and the overall trend was similar. Their work discovered that the
quantities of leaf lettuce covered with water were equal to 4.211–5.977% of
the total sample mass and the mass loss of the sample was 1.987–2.873%.
Under precooling pressure of 600, 1000, and 1500 Pa, the mass loss was
2.758, 2.701, and 1.929%. After that, the results of calculation indicated
that the quantities of capture water of the water-catcher was 1.607–2.567 g,
and the cooling capacity of the total sample was 3.722–5.946 W in vacuum
precooling process. The results reveal that the model of leaf lettuce was fit-
ted and it was confirmed by the experimental data.
Zhang et al. (2014) constructed a coupled model for the porous food
vacuum cooling process based on the theory of heat and mass transfer.
Sensitivity analyzes of the process to food density, thermal conductivity,
specific heat, latent heat of evaporation, diameter of pores, mass transfer
coefficient, viscosity of gas, and porosity were investigated. The results
indicated that the food density would affect the vacuum cooling process
but not the vacuum cooling end temperature. The surface temperature of
food was slightly affected and the core temperature is not influenced by the
changed thermal conductivity. Change of the Specific heat as well as latent
heat of evaporation affected both, the core temperature and surface tem-
perature. The core temperature is affected by the diameter of pores while
the surface temperature is not affected obviously.
As indicated before, water-spraying is regarded as an effective method
to reduce the weight loss of product during vacuum cooling process.
Tian et al. (2014) investigated the effect of vacuum cooling factors on
the weight loss of broccoli, and attempted to optimize the treatment con-
ditions by simulated annealing (SA) technique. An algorithm based on
simulated annealing meta-heuristic technique was established to identify
the optimum condition for vacuum cooling treatment of broccoli. Results
indicated that the simulated annealing algorithm could adjust well with
the simulation of the broccoli vacuum cooling process. The optimum
42 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

condition was at 200 Pa of pressure, 274 g broccoli, 6% of water vol-


ume and 40 min processing time. Under this circumstances, a product with
only 0.35% of weight loss and 1.48°C final temperature was obtained. The
developed method may used to effectively control the weight loss during
vacuum cooling process and reducing the economic loss.

1.13 FEATURES AND BENEFITS OF VACUUM COOLING

The features and benefits of vacuum cooling can be summarized as follows:


1. Vacuum cooling machines have a large potential market, in food
cooling and processing industry as its refrigerant is water, which is
more environment-friendly where it can be widely used and has no
limit.
2. Solve the internal field heat problem in 20–30 min, inhibiting
organism growth of their own.
3. Cool down the temperature inside and outside the products in a
consistent steady and uniform way.
4. Applicable to fruits and vegetables harvested on rainy days where
it can quickly take away surplus moisture on their surface, achiev-
ing cooling effect.
5. Hydro-vacuum cooler designed with additional water circuit meets
the rapid cooling while avoid excessive moisture loss.
6. Safe and stable since electric components are imported from
famous suppliers to ensure safe working and long service life.

1.14 SLURRY ICE

In the past, most of ice forms involve a certain level of manual handling for
transportation from one place to another. It also has sharp edges and quite
coarse that may injury the fresh product’s surface in case of using it as a
direct contact chiller. Such ice performance to lower the heat load of the
product is poor due to the limited heat transfer performance when releasing
their latent heat of fusion. The ice slurry overcomes most of these disadvan-
tages since it has a high-energy storage density because of the latent heat of
fusion of its crystals. Due to its large heat transfer surface area created by its
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 43

numerous particles, it results in fast cooling rate. The principal advantage of


liquid icing is the much greater contact between the ice and product afforded
by this method in addition of being economical and environmental nature.
Ice slurry as shown in (Figure 1.21) is a homogenous mixture of small ice
particles and carrier liquid which can be either pure freshwater or a binary
solution consisting of water and a freezing point depressant. The most com-
monly used freezing point depressants in industry are Sodium chloride,
ethanol, ethylene glycol and propylene glycol. Over the last two decades
interest in using phase-change ice slurry coolants has grown significantly
(Kauffeld et al., 2011). Slurry ice can be used in two ways; directly for the
rapid chilling of fresh produce or indirectly as a secondary refrigerant within
a refrigeration loop for the cold chain elements applied to the fresh pro-
duce industry such as cold storage and refrigerated transportation. With such
refrigeration system and if one allows a temperature change of −12°C upto
−8°C, the enthalpy content for ice slurry will be approximately eight times
higher than for any conventional heat transfer fluid (secondary refrigerant)
based on water such as propylene glycol (Rhiemeier et al., 2009).

1.14.1 DIRECT USE OF SLURRY ICE

Slurry ice can be used directly for rapid chilling or precooling for veg-
etables that can tolerate water such as asparagus, cauliflower, broccoli,

FIGURE 1.21 Handling of slurry ice.


44 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

green onions, cantaloupes, leafy greens, carrots and sweet corn, spinach,
parsley, and Brussels sprouts (El-Ramady et al., 2015; Kitinoja, 2013). For
broccoli as an example, rapid chilling by ice slurry to the field-packed,
waxed broccoli cartons, immediately after harvesting prevents wilting,
suppresses enzymatic degradation and respiratory activity; slows or inhib-
its the growth of decay-producing micro- organisms, and reduces ethylene
production. The use if slurry ice with broccoli ensures that broccoli heads
are retained in a fresh and attractive condition throughout the cold chain,
right to the consumer.
Package ice can be used only with water tolerant packages such
as waxed fiberboard, plastic or wood (Kitinoja and Thompson, 2010).
The ice remaining after cooling protects the produce from warming
and dehydration during transport (Vigneault et al., 2009). There are
several ways to inject slurry ice in the carton packed with a variety
of produce. The easiest icing method is to add a measured amount of
ice manually to the top of each carton although the method usually
resulted in uneven cooling of produce. The method is low efficiency,
since it takes 5 min for two dedicated workers to ice a pallet of 30 cases
(Boyette and Estes, 2000), this is only marginally justified for small-
scale operations.
Kauffeld et al. (2010) described the use of an automatic pallet icing
chamber design that can greatly improve the icing efficiency. The design
incorporates a stainless steel enclosure capable of handling a pallet of 48
cases (9 kg broccoli per case) during each icing cycle where only a single
operator is required to move the produce pallet into the chamber. Once a
locally positioned, icing machine is switched on and the two front doors
are closed automatically. A pump begins to circulate the ice slurry in the
mixing tank located right underneath the chamber to the top of the enclo-
sure, where it is distributed to four vertical slots built on the side walls.
Then, ice slurry is forced to flow through the hand openings and fill the
voids throughout the produce within the cases in a about 90 seconds. As
water drains off, ice particles are tightly packed with the produce. The
pallet is then moved out of the chamber. Therefore, slurry ice can be ben-
eficiary in both small and large operations despite the fact that the pro-
duce is wet during the process, liquid icing is an excellent cooling method
(Kanlayanarat et al., 2009).
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 45

The liquid ice slurries range in water to ice ratio from 1:1 to 1:4. The
liquid nature of the slurry allows the ice to move throughout the box, fill-
ing all of the void volume of the container, reaching all the crevices and
holes around the individual units of the product. The slurry maintains a
constant low temperature level during the cooling process, and provides
a higher heat transfer coefficient than water or other single-phase liquids.
These features of ice slurry make it valuable in many applications among
them is fresh produce handling. For example, the ice slurry based thermal
storage system within the fresh produce packhorse and cold stores in the
form of dense ice slurry during nighttime hours when power is cheap.
Latter on and during the daytime working hours the cold energy can then
be quickly released by melting the ice slurry for produce chilling when
electricity might be several times more expensive.
In a recent study, Rawung et al. (2014) used a simple tropical cooler
with fresh cabbage in order to analyze cooler air circulation, cooling rate,
storage duration, and cabbage loss using ice. Results showed a highest
cooling rate of ice at room temperature of 0.64°C/h and weight loss of
cabbage was reduced to only an average of 0.83%.
For Broccoli, four cooling methods were tested, room cooling, forced
air-cooling, hydrocooling and package icing (Kochhar and Kumar, 2015).
The temperatures of all four cooling mediums were in the range of 0–1°C.
Based on the obtained results, it was concluded that package icing and
hydrocooling were better methods of cooling compared to forced air-cool-
ing and hydrocooling.
A Canadian manufacturer (SUNWELL, 2015) has recently developed
an ice slurry system for the preservation of fresh products, which are tra-
ditionally stored and preserved in ice such as broccoli, green onions, corn,
herbs and other delicate produce. In this system, the slurry ice formed
inside an ice generator are pumped into an insulated storage-dispenser
insulate tank, where they remain suspended in water. Dry ice crystals from
the top of the tank are then mixed with a small amount of water and the
mixture is pumped with a positive displacement pump via a pipe system to
the display cases where it is spread over the display surface with a flexible
hose. Boxes containing produce are stacked on a pallet. Ice slurry is then
injected into the boxes. The entire pallet is rapidly chilled in 36 sec. The
excess water is drained away, leaving the cartons and uniformly packed in
46 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

slurry ice and ready for storage and distribution. Unlike other icing sys-
tems, this system reduces the shipping weight by selecting the amount of
slurry ice packed in to each box. The amount of water with the ice slurry
can varies according the temperature wanted to be attained and it could
be ranged from 65 to 80% where the diameter of ice crystals is as low as
50–500 μ micron.
Slurry ice may also be mixed with other additives, such as ozone to
inhibit microbial growth and to increase shelf life and maintain sensory
quality, as demonstrated (Keys, 2015; Lu et al., 2012), but there are few
studies comparing ozonized flake ice to ozonized slurry ice.

1.14.2 INDIRECT USE OF SLURRY ICE

Elansari and Yahia (2012) presented a design for the fresh produce cold
store using slurry ice as secondary refrigerant in which the relative humid-
ity can be maintained at higher level leading to a minimum weight loss
during cold storage (Figure 1.22). The system is a thermal storage one and
can provide two temperature range, the first is for banana ripping rooms
along with other cold storage products, 10°C and above, while the other is

FIGURE 1.22 Conceptual design of slurry ice system for fresh produce.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 47

for potato cold store, 4°C. The system consists of a main circuit in which
in an ice generator is producing slurry ice via a heat exchanger using
ammonia as the primary refrigerant. The harvested slurry ice is accumu-
lated and stored in an insulated tank with an optimum capacity. The tank
is manufactured from a plastic material or a stainless steel and to be posi-
tioned in a shaded area. The slurry ice within the tank is always agitated to
keep its homogeneity. The heat generated within the agitator is to be con-
sidered during the design stage as a heat source. The first pump is located
in lower level with respect to the tank; it pulls the melted water due to the
heat added by the agitator and return it continuously to the generator. This
keep the slurry ice quality as per required. Over the last fifteen years there
have been a large number of installations completed in over 40 countries
for direct contact cooling of various food products (Kauffeld, et al., 2010;
Matsumoto et al., 2010).
Slurry ice is also used in refrigerated trucks transporting fresh produce. It
was found that ice slurry refrigeration system operates at a higher efficiency
than the standard on-board truck cooling system where it is in operation in
Japan (Kato and Kando, 2008). Ice slurry is produced at a central plant and
is charged into special heat exchangers in the insulated boxes fitted into the
truck. Carbon dioxide emissions associated with the refrigeration system
could therefore be reduced by 20–30% (Kato and Kando, 2008). In addition,
the engine in the ice slurry cooled trucks can be switched off completely
at the points of goods pick-up and delivery, therefore reducing noise and
exhaust emissions, a feature which is especially valuable in large cities with
air quality problems (Kauffeld, et al., 2010).
Slurry ice is undoubtedly a promising technology the postharvest refriger-
ation of the horticultural crop that should be encouraged because of its numer-
ous advantages, in particularly energy savings and for being environmentally
friendly. Further research and improving work need to conducted particularly
on its effect and performance in keeping produce quality and extending its
shelf life for different products and under various circumstances.

1.15 CONTROL OF THE COLD CHAIN PROJECTS

In industrial installations that use refrigeration systems that are associated


with the fresh produce industry; the optimization of energy consumption
48 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

associated with the achievement of high quality standard and extended


shelf life is one of the main objectives of the modern innovation. The
two sides on any cold chain element is the mechanical side and the air
side. The mechanical side is where the hardware of the refrigeration cycle
is located, the machine room. The control algorithms for the mechanical
side has no direct relation to the quality, maturity, storage, etc., of the pro-
duce in the cold room (Brettl, 2001). The airside is the insulated cooling
chamber where we cool the produce. Cold stores (chamber) or refrigerated
warehouses are defined as these facilities where perishable foodstuffs are
handled and stored under controlled temperatures with the aim of main-
taining quality. The main stages in controlling the process and in assess-
ing potential energy saving opportunities are audit existing refrigerating
equipment, check controls and set points, reduce heat loads, improve
defrosting, reduce temperature lifts in refrigerating plant, optimize com-
pressor and system operation, institute planned maintenance.
For some products, other conditions related to the postharvest stage,
besides temperature and relative humidity, control might be required such
as; the moisture content and/or the composition of the surrounding atmo-
sphere has to be changed like in the case of potato storage or for con-
trolled-atmosphere (CA) storage or ultra-low-oxygen (ULO) storage.
Accurate control of temperature, relative humidity (RH), and airflow
significantly affects grape metabolism in terms of volatile compounds.
Temperature plays a key role in accelerating or delaying the desired water
loss during the handling of grapes but it is mainly important for the modu-
lation of volatile compound metabolism and the formation of volatile acid-
ity (Chkaiban et al., 2007; Silva and Teruel, 2011).
As an example and for CA room and for long-term storage, the qual-
ity is maintained by controlling certain parameters (Brettl, 2001). These
parameters include:
• Temperature differences in the storage room (for example: −1 to −2°C).
• Temperature fluctuation (0.1 to 0.2°C).
• Relative humidity (92–95%RH).
• RH differences (5 or 10%).
• Temperature fluctuation in the space.
• RH fluctuation in the space.
• O2 measurement accuracy.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 49

• CO2 measurement accuracy.


• Nitrogen pull down.
• Low limit of O2.
• Low limit of CO2.
• Air tightness of the chamber.
• Air circulation figure rate.
We will limit our discussion in this section to the airside of the refrig-
eration process only where we concern about temperature, relative humid-
ity and controlling the air pattern in the forced air precooling process.

1.16 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE AND CONTROL STRATEGY

Another aspects of the control of different cold chain element is its strat-
egies which should be generally intend to reduce the fluctuation of the
controlled environment temperature and often minimize energy consump-
tion associated with the system operation. A failure in cold chain causes
lower durable produce and uneconomical use of energy for cooling and
storage. According to Meneghetti et al. (2013), when cold chain is inter-
rupted, it can create gaps for deterioration due to water condensation on
the product, providing an excellent environment for fungi growth and
other microorganisms.
Therefore, during the short- or long-term cold storage period, it is essen-
tial to maintain the steady temperature in a narrow range and no major vari-
ation or fluctuations, in spite of the existence of disturbances resulted from
different heat sources. Such heat sources included heat generation due: the
biological activity, the operation of electric motors of the evaporator; pres-
ence of operators, the heat loss through walls, floor and roof and heat losses
due to frequent opening of the chamber, in addition other factors.
In the forced air precooling process, the effect of airflow blockage and
guide technology applied on energy consumption is vey much related the
type of control strategy implemented. The velocities and temperatures of
the air in the cold zone for different designs of airflow blockage and guide
boards should be very carefully planned and evaluated since the airflow
pattern plays a key role on energy efficiency, precooling time, and produc-
tivity (Akdemir, 2012).
50 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

In potato cold store, the inadequate and poorly manage airflow distribution
through stacks of bagged potatoes could also result in non uniform humid-
ity which might lead to condensation of moisture where relative humidity
reaches saturation or excessive dehydration where the relative humidity
remains below 80%. The prevailing conditions in potato cold stores lead to
storage losses up to 10%, against the prescribed maximum limit of 5% during
the storage period of 8 months (Chourasia and Goswami, 2009). Therefore,
one of the main aims in designing a storage system is to ensure a uniform
targeted airflow, which leads to better temperature and humidity control.
Most stores are designed to provide an airflow of 0.3 m3/min. per ton of
product, based on the maximum amount of fresh produce that can be stored
in the chamber (Akdemir and Arin, 2006; Cold Chain Development Center,
2010). This is needed to cool product to storage temperature and also may
be needed if the produce has a high respiration rate. This high airflow rate
can cause excessive water loss from products, and fans are a considerable
source of heat, so the system should be designed to reduce airflow to 0.06
m3/min to 0.12 m3/min. of airflow per ton. Motor speed control systems,
such as variable rate –frequency control controllers (Figure 1.23) for alter-
nating current motors, are used to control fan speed at the lowest possible

FIGURE 1.23 New set of FVD being installed for a precooling station.
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 51

speed that will prevent unacceptably warm product in the storage as well as
minimizing weight loss.
In the forced air precooling process, the airflow rate supplied by the
auxiliary fan in the precooling tunnel is controlled via a variable frequency
drive (VFD). Also and for cold store, the flow air supplied by fan evapora-
tors can be controlled by VFD (Elansari, 2009). VFDs are an electronic
motor controller that is used to reduce fan speed after the heat field has
been pulled down to storage temperatures. For the forced air precooling
and as the process nears its end, water loss from product should be avoided
by minimizing air-flow which can be reduced as low as 50%. The VFDs
offer very attractive energy savings. At half fan speed, the fans will con-
sume only about 15% of full speed power (Morton and McDevitt, 2000).
In a CA facility, fans are typically operated at full speed for several weeks
following room seal. At that point, fan speed can be immediately reduced
to 50%, or can be staged down over several weeks, again with a minimum
of 50% speed (Becker et al., 2013). Therefore, benefits of evaporator fan
VFD control include smooth temperature control and subsequently con-
trolling relative humidity and weight loss.
In 2007, PG&E conducted a demonstration of variable frequency
drives for a vacuum cooler (PG&E, 2008). They demonstrated a 29% elec-
tricity savings and a 29% reduction in demand compared with a conven-
tional vacuum cooler. Research conducted in the Pacific Northwest for the
Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance (2008) reported an improved prod-
uct quality and reduced mass loss in fruit stored in controlled atmosphere
rooms with VFD controls on evaporator fans. VSDs applied also to evapo-
rator fans in cold stores provided good temperature control. The report
indicated that it is very feasible to use VFD to control motor speed in
evaporators with fan motors greater than 1 hp. Thus for all motor sizes, the
motor speed should be controlled based on targeted temperature, required
with a provision for a minimum speed setting that can be defined by the
operators of the refrigerated warehouse.
The other alternative to VFDs is fan cycling by the on-off method.
Excessive fan cycling can cause an increase in shrinkage of fresh produce
due to depressed humidity levels in the room; poor or irregular tempera-
tures in the fruit and poor air circulation in parts of the room in addi-
tion to a permanent unwanted oscillations in the chamber temperature
52 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

(Meneghetti et al., 2013). In the other hand, implementing VSDs on evap-


orator fan motors, fan speed can be modified to match varying cooling
loads. At low loads, reducing the speed of the fan decreases the power
consumption of its motor significantly, as power is proportional to the
cube of speed. For example, reducing fan speed by 20% will reduce
power requirement by approximately 50% (NSW Government: Office of
Environment and Heritage, 2011).
Therefore, it could be concluded that, the marketable life of most fresh
vegetables can be extended by prompt storage in an environment that
maintains product quality. The desired environment can be obtained in
facilities where temperature, air circulation, relative humidity, and some-
times atmosphere composition can be controlled (El-Ramady et al., 2015).
There are a number of benefits to implementing variable speed drives
on the evaporator fans motors including:
• Energy savings due to reduced operation speeds.
• Maintenance cost savings due to reduced operation hours.
• Labor savings due to reduced maintenance required.
• For cold storage, reduced fan speed may improve the storage of per-
ishables such as potatoes and apples in a controlled atmosphere.
• The mass loss from fruit is reduced.
• Provides outstanding humidity control.
• Allows modification in air-flow.

1.17 TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY CONTROL

The production, storage, distribution and transport of fresh produce (veg-


etables, fruits and cut flowers), are taking place continuously and around
the clock all over the world. The key success for such handling and sup-
ply chain is the control of temperature and relative humidity, which are
very essential (Garcia et al., 2011; Melis et al., 2015). Mainly, the term
“cold chain” defines the sequences of interdependent equipment and pro-
cesses employed to grantee the temperature preservation of perishables
and other temperature-controlled products from the harvesting to the con-
sumption end in a safe, wholesome, and good quality state (Elansari and
Yahia, 2012). For an example, the inadequacy of sufficient and efficient
cold chain infrastructure is a major contributor to food losses and waste
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 53

in NENA (Middle East and North Africa) as undeveloped countries, esti-


mated to be 55% of fruits (FAO, 2011). This amounts to up to 215 kg/year
per capita, which not only exacerbates the food insecurity in poor countries
and the high reliance on imports, but is a waste of scarce natural resources
(water and land, most acutely) and a source of economic losses and envi-
ronmental problems (FAO, 2014). A reliable and efficient cold chain can-
not only contribute to minimizing losses and waste in the quantity and
quality of food, but can also improve the efficiency of food supply chains
and compliance with food safety and quality standards, thus also reduc-
ing health problems and costs associated with the consumption of unsafe
food. In addition, reducing food losses and waste will also minimize food
secrecy and thus exposure to food price volatility for countries dependent
on food imports. Cold chain development is, therefore, a necessary step in
improving food and nutrition security worldwide (FAO, 2012).
The quality of fresh produce might change rapidly due to inadequate
temperature and relative humidity conditions during different cold chain
steps especially handling warehousing and transport. Inadequate tempera-
ture is second on the list of factors causing foodborne illnesses, surpassed
only by the presence of initial microflora in foods (López and Daeyoung,
2008). Also, temperature is considered the most important single factor
influencing the quality and shelf life of fresh produce in postharvest stage
(Thompson et al., 2002). Water loss is one of the main causes of deteriora-
tion that reduces the marketability of fresh produce. Transpiration is the
loss of moisture from living tissues. This process causes most weight loss
of stored fruit. Temperature and relative humidity of the product, tempera-
ture of the surrounding atmosphere, and air velocity all affect the amount
of water lost from perishable food products. In the contrary the use of poor
controlled humidifiers to increase relative humidity leads to free water
accumulation or condensation is also a problem as it encourages microbial
infection and growth, and it can also reduce the strength of non-waxed
cardboard boxes (Burg, 2014).
Also, there is an increasing pressure of traceability in the food chain,
statutory requirements are up-warding stricter and there is increasing
demand to develop standardized traceability systems. From the raw mate-
rial to the sale of goods, more and more information needs to be gathered
and made available. We should take in our consideration also the new
concept of first-expired-first-out (FEFO). The basic idea is to apply stock
54 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

rotation in such a way that the remaining shelf life of each item is best
matched to the remaining transport duration options, to reduce product
waste during transportation and provide product consistency at the store
(Jedermann et al., 2014).
In refrigerated trucks or marine containers, temperatures rise very
rapidly if a reefer unit fails. A recent study shows temperature-controlled
shipment rise above the specified temperature in 30% of trips from the
supplier to the distribution center, and in 15% of trips from the distribution
center to the store. Lower-than required temperatures occur in 19% of trips
from supplier to distribution center and in 36% of trips from the distribu-
tion center to the store (Garcia and Lunadei, 2011).
Thus, studying and analyzing both temperature gradient data and rela-
tive humidity inside precoolers, refrigeration rooms or warehouses, con-
tainers and trucks is a primary concern for the fresh produce industry.
Any temperature disturbance can undermine the efforts of the whole chain
(Mahajan et al., 2014). Maintaining appropriate conditions over the whole
chain is a very challenging task where negligence or mishandling in the
logistics of perishable food products is very familiar. A lot of reports in
the literature give many cases where the inadequate management during
temperature control usually leads to losses in the food chain (postharvest,
distribution and at home). However, in reality less than 10% of such per-
ishable foodstuffs are in fact currently refrigerated (Coulomb, 2008). Also
it should be mentioned that, the production of food involves a significant
carbon investment that is squandered if the food is then not utilized. In the
planning phase for an element of the cold chain, the costs of a new refrig-
eration system can sometimes quickly be recovered in energy savings over
an old system, which is achieved by precise and better control (Energy
Efficiency Best Practice Guide Industrial Refrigeration, 2009).
The operation of the cold chain element of perishable produce requires
both automatic and manual control of the equipment in order to properly
pull down field heat in a precooler, optimum storage and relative humidity
within a cold store as an example. The most successful cold chain elements
are those whose owner and operators understand the need to continuously
measure system performance and energy consumption. Such project can-
not meet the ultimate goals of produce quality and optimum energy con-
sumption and the most feasible running or operating cost without proper
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 55

control. Thus and based on the above, studying and analyzing temperature
gradient data inside precoolers, refrigeration rooms, containers and trucks
is a primary concern for the industry where they are the main input for any
system control.
Garcia et al. (2009) illustrated the great potential of a specific type
of motes, providing information concerning several parameters such as
temperature, relative humidity, door openings and truck stops. They also
developed a Psychometric charts for improving the knowledge about
water loss and condensation on the product during shipments.
Aung et al. (2012) discussed the application of radio frequency iden-
tification (RFID) systems in logistics applications to track and trace the
location of produce throughout different points in the supply chain. RFID
tags attached to produce are capable of providing real-time tracking infor-
mation across the supply chain. Applying such technology can lead to
a better decision with the fresh produce supply chain and could then be
made based on information (temperature and relative humidity) and not
only the location of an asset, but also its condition (Roussos et al., 2008).
Vandana et al. (2014) designed a low cost data logger prototype suit-
able for Cold Chain Logistics. The proposed data logger is capable of
measuring levels of temperature (T), humidity (H), and carbon monoxide
(CO). It is capable of alerting the user regarding the parameter changes
using SMS, so that early precaution steps can be taken. The system also
incorporates GPS module, which enables the live tracking capability of
the cargo at any point of time.
Chandra and Lee (2014) presented a system comprising of Arduino
wireless sensor network and Xively sensor which can be an ideal system
to monitor temperature and humidity of cold chain logistics. The applica-
tion is making use of the internet of things (IoT), which is a new evolu-
tion in technological advancement taking place in the world today. The
combination of wireless sensor networks and cloud computing is becom-
ing a popular strategy for the IoT era. The cold chain requires controlled
environment for sensitive products in order for them to be fit for use. The
monitoring process is the only assurance which tells if a certain process
has been carried out successfully. Taking advantage of IoT and its benefits
to monitor cold chain logistics will result in better management and prod-
uct handling.
56 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Melis et al. (2015) presented the results of a combination of RFID and


wireless sensor network (WSN) devices in a set of studies performed in
three commercial wholesale chambers of 1848 m3 with different set points
and perishable produces. Up to 90 semi-passive RFID temperature loggers
were installed simultaneously together with seven motes, during one week
in each chamber. 3D temperature mapping charts were obtained and also
the psychometric 32 data model was implemented for the calculation of
enthalpy changes and the absolute water content of air. It was concluded
that, the feedback of data, between RFID and WSN made it possible to
estimate energy consumption in the cold room, water loss from the prod-
ucts and detect any condensation over the stored commodities.

1.18 ENERGY SAVING

Fresh produce industry includes facilities engaged in precooling and cold


storage of fruits, vegetables and cut-flowers. Such industry consumes a
considerable amount of fuels and electricity per year to run its refrigera-
tion plants and its supporting systems. Apart from energy consumption,
cold storage facilities are responsible for approximately 2.5% of global
green house gas emissions through direct and indirect energy consumption
(Reinholdt, 2012). Therefore, energy efficiency improvement is a vital
goal to reduce these costs and to increased predictable earnings, especially
in times of high-energy price volatility. There are a variety of opportuni-
ties available at individual plants that handle fruit and vegetable to reduce
energy consumption in a cost-effective manner.
Many opportunities exist within fresh produce facilities to reduce energy
consumption while maintaining or enhancing productivity and quality pro-
vided that it pursued in a coordinated fashion at multiple levels within a facil-
ity. At the hardware (component and equipment) level, energy efficiency can
be enhanced through sustainable preventative and predictive maintenance
programs, proper loading and operation, and upgrading of older components
and equipment with higher efficiency models (e.g., high efficiency motors)
whenever feasible. At the process stage and via process control and opti-
mization, the operations can be pursued and run at maximum efficiency. At
the facility level (precooling and cold store), the efficiency of space lighting
and cooling can be improved while total facility energy inputs can be at the
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 57

minimum level through process integration and combined heat and power
systems, where feasible. Lastly, at the level of the organization, energy man-
agement strategies can be adapted to ensure a strong corporate framework
exists for energy monitoring, target setting (temperature and pull down time),
employee involvement, and continuous improvement and training.
Supervisory control and data acquisition systems (SCADA) can be very
helpful in energy monitoring and metering of cold store for fresh produce
project. SCADA is fast data-acquisition software for monitoring and con-
trol power availability of electrical distribution networks. The software gives
operators exceptional knowledge and control of their network through an
intuitive, interactive and customizable interface. With fast, consistent access
to actionable information, SCADA system is more effective at protecting and
optimizing their electrical distribution network, thereby improving both its
efficiency and productivity.
All critical cold store rooms temperatures and relative humidity, plant
temperatures and pressures, will be observable through the SCADA sys-
tem. It will record and file all relevant data allowing subsequent viewing and
reporting of all previous working conditions and plant operational param-
eters. Historical data should be backed up to provide a permanent record of
product storage history as well as energy consumption and its circumstances.
The SCADA computer and operating system software should be upgraded at
least every five years to ensure the system remains currency with IT industry
personnel skills (IPENZ, 2009). In the past, large food storage operations
may have been staffed 24 h a day seven days a week, but in recent years, the
advent of PLC and SCADA systems with monitoring and alarming features
have provided a more economical alternative. For example, the SCADA sys-
tem can send error messages on the status of the refrigeration system to the
plant operator’s pager.
Yu et al. (2013) used a programmable logic controllers (PLC) to control
a SCADA system that was designed to keep fruits and vegetables fresh with
ozone. To address the problem of system accuracy and real-time monitor-
ing, Rockwell configuration software (CITECT) was used, the Cicode func-
tion, SWOPC-FXGP/WIN-C principles of programming and the information
transfer between the PC and the control system to provide real-time moni-
toring of the ozone concentration and the temperature of the cold storage.
It was reported that the accuracy of the system was improved. Experiments
that have been conducted showed that the system was successfully used to
58 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

preserve a crop of kiwi fruit. Long-range automatic control technology and


agricultural technology were implemented to optimize the ozone treatment
used to preserve fruits and vegetables.
Thompson et al. (2010) analyzed utility bills, facility equipment, opera-
tion and production records from seven forced-air-cooling operations. Also
the range of electricity use for commercial forced-air-cooling facilities were
documented to evaluate the electricity use and conservation options for the
major system components, and to estimate annual electricity use for forced-
air-cooled produce in California. It was confirmed that electricity use was the
greatest for fruit cooling, with nearly as much for direct operation of fans plus
field heat removing. Power demand for operating and cooling lights, remov-
ing heat gain through walls and operating and cooling lift trucks comprised
the next largest energy consumption in decreasing order of use. Options for
reducing electricity use of each system were suggested. Possible methods
of reducing electricity use are to utilize produce containers with appropri-
ate venting area and minimum amounts of internal packaging materials.
Increasing product throughput per unit of refrigerated area has great potential
to improve efficiency.
In refrigerated spaces, energy-efficient lighting can produce addi-
tional coincidence cooling savings of 30–40% (Raftery and Cummings,
2013). LEDs are substantially more energy-efficient and give off much
less waste heat than HIDs, reducing cooling loads and maintenance costs
for cooling equipment. LED lighting system can achieve a 90% reduc-
tion in lighting energy costs and generate 30–40% additional coincidence
cooling savings.
Mulobe and Huan (2012) studied the impact of airflow efficiency or stack-
ing style on the rate of energy consumption by evaporator fans motors where
variable speed drive (VSDs) technology on evaporator fans motors for fresh
produce cold store were applied. VSDs reduce motor electricity consumption
by 30–60%; other benefits include prolonging equipment life through motor
speed adjustments according to refrigeration load.
Hilton and Airah (2013) detailed how at one of the largest cold stores in
Australia, energy efficiency was improved from 53.5 kWh/m3 to 37.6 kWh/
m3. Over this period the total storage capacity increased by 34.5% from
106,270 to 142,970 pallets but the total electricity consumption (kWh) did
not change. The major contributors to improving energy efficiency were:
Recent Advances in Postharvest Cooling of Horticultural Produce 59

1. Constructing the new buildings and refrigeration plants to high


energy-efficiency standards.
2. Energy-efficiency benchmarking of the existing facility
3. Improved monitoring and control of chamber temperatures.
4. Improvements in door design to reduce infiltration.
5. Retrofitting energy efficient LED (light-emitting diode) lights.
6. Retrofitting VFDs to existing screw compressors, freezer and con-
denser fans.
7. Over-sizing evaporative condensers.
8. Power factor correction and Voltage optimization.
9. Rain water harvesting to substitute for potable condenser feed
water.

1.19 MAINTENANCE

Maintenance can have many objectives. Long time ago maintenance was
seen as repairing those items that have broke down for whatever reason,
so called corrective maintenance. A step was set when preventive main-
tenance became more common, preventing breaking down of items or
replacing the subject item before it broke down. Nowadays, the objec-
tive of maintenance is not only to have the refrigerating plant available
at all time, but also to maintain its capacity, efficiency and the quality of
the stored. Another, not less important objective is safety with regard to
people, stored foodstuffs and environment.
As any piece of mechanical equipment, also a refrigerating plant needs
maintenance in order to keep it operational with the original capacity and
efficiency for a long period of time. Maintenance should not be restricted
to equipment with moving parts only. Inspection and maintenance must
comprise the complete installation from compressors, coolers, condens-
ers and pumps to controls, piping and insulation and even the primary
and secondary refrigerant. A maintenance comprehensive plan should be
developed for all equipment, including the building itself.
As a minimum, the maintenance program should include periodic
inspection and maintenance of the following items:
60 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

1. Building: vapor retarder, structure and piping insulation, doors,


floors.
2. Material handling system: forklifts, conveyors, pallet racks.
3. Refrigeration equipment: compressors, heat exchangers, pumps,
tanks and receivers, condensers, evaporators, fans, piping, valves,
instrumentation, purgers, system oil management.
4. Safety apparatuses: fire detection devices and alarms, refrigerant
leak detectors and alarms, fire extinguishing devices, relive valves.

1.20 CONCLUSION

Different precooling methods are presented along with its recent applica-
tions. To maximize the benefits of each system, careful design and selection
is required in order to minimize capital investment as well as the running
cost. Saving energy approaches should be considered and implemented dur-
ing different stages. Investment on the management and controlling appara-
tus will be reflected on the performance as well as the quality of the produce.

KEYWORDS

•• cold chain
•• forced air
•• hydrocooling
•• precooling
•• slurry ice
•• vacuum

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CHAPTER 2

POSTHARVEST HANDLING AND


STORAGE OF ROOT AND TUBERS
MUNIR ABBA DANDAGO
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture
and Agricultural Technology, Kano University of Science and
Technology, Wudil, Kano State, Nigeria

CONTENTS

2.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 70
2.1.1 Nutritional Importance of Root and Tuber Crops............... 71
2.1.2 Production Statistics of Root and Tuber Crops................... 71
2.1.3 Physiology of Root and Tuber Crops.................................. 72
2.1.4 Dormancy and Spouting in Root and Tuber Crops............. 73
2.1.5 Curing in Root and Tuber Crops......................................... 74
2.1.6 Description of Major Root and Tuber Crops....................... 75
2.1.6.1 Cassava................................................................. 75
2.1.6.2 Yams..................................................................... 76
2.1.6.3 Sweet Potato......................................................... 77
2.1.6.4 Potato.................................................................... 78
2.1.6.5 Cocoyam.............................................................. 78
2.1.7 Postharvest Losses in Root and Tuber Crops...................... 79
2.1.8 Major Reasons for Postharvest
Loss in Root and Tuber Crops............................................. 79
2.1.9 Harvesting, Handling, Transportation and
Marketing of Root and Tuber Crops................................... 81
70 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

2.1.9.1 Harvesting of Root and Tubers............................ 81


2.1.9.2 Handling of Root and Tubers............................... 83
2.1.9.3 Transportation of Root and Tubers....................... 83
2.1.9.4 Marketing of Root and Tubers............................. 83
2.2 Storage Method for Root and Tuber Crops..................................... 84
2.2.1 Traditional Storage Methods of Root
and Tuber Crops.................................................................. 84
2.2.2 Improved/Modern Storage Methods of Root and
Tuber Crops......................................................................... 86
2.2.3 Common Handling Practices and
Conditions Affecting Postharvest Life and
Quality of Root and Tuber Crops........................................ 86
2.2.4 Recommended Storage Conditions of
Root and Tuber Crops......................................................... 88
Keywords................................................................................................. 88
References................................................................................................ 89

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Root and Tubers belong to the class of foods that provide energy in the
human diet in form of carbohydrates. According to FAO (1990), root and
tubers refer to any grown plant that stores edible material in the roots,
corms, and tubers. They rank next to cereal crops in importance because
they provide a major part of the daily calorie needs of the people in the
tropics (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1989).
The principles root and tuber crops of the tropics are cassava (Manihot
esculenta Crantz), Yam (Dioscorea Spp), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas L.),
Irish potato (Solanum tubaeroson) and edible aroids (Colocasia Spp and
Xanthosomonas sagattifolium). They are widely grown and consumed as
subsistence staples in many parts of Africa, Latin America, Pacific Islands
and Asia (Dandago, 2009).
Root and Tuber crops also serve as a source of fermentable sugar
required in the production of alcoholic beverages as well as source of
raw materials for various industrial fermentations in pharmaceuticals,
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 71

industrial enzymes, organic solvents and cosmetics. The edible green


leaves of sweet potatoes, cocoyam and cassava are good sources of pro-
teins, vitamins, and minerals are offer used to augment diets of local peo-
ple as well as livestock feed (Eka, 1998).

2.1.1 NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF ROOT AND TUBER


CROPS

Root and Tubers form a major staple food group for a large number of
persons in most developing countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Nutritionally they are principal sources of calorie to the diets and many
contribute a nominal quantity of protein. Cassava for example is the chief
source of energy in Southern Nigeria, and D. R Congo. Yam, which is
another popular staple tuber crop has less than 5% true protein while
cocoyam has <7% true protein but a fair source of calcium. Sweet potatoes
are poor source of protein but good source of β-vitamins, ascorbic acid and
rich source of provitamin A. Root and tubers contribute about 21–46%
of total calorie and about 6.6% protein to the diet of people sub-Saharan
Africa (Okaka, 2009).
According to Sanni et al. (2009), root and tuber crops provides a staple
carbohydrate source to an estimated population of over 500 million people
and also contribute to energy and nutritional requirement of more than 2
billion people (Table 2.1).

2.1.2 PRODUCTION STATISTICS OF ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

It is estimated that about 300 million tons of root and tuber crops are pro-
duced in 1993 by developing countries of the world. Cassava and pota-
toes put up about 83% of the total production. The most important root
and tubers in terms of production are cassava (48.8%) and sweet potato
(39.8%); while yam (9.4%) and cocoyam (2%) are less important. Most
cassava is produced in Africa, Asia, and South America while sweet pota-
toes production is heavily concentrated in Asia. Africa dominates the pro-
duction of yams and Taro (Sanni et al., 2009).
72 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 2.1 Nutritional Composition of R & T Crops on Fresh Weight Basis


Yam D. alata Cassava M. Taro Sweet Irish Tania
esculuta cocoyam potato potato cocoyam
Nutrient
Moisture (%) 77.3 62.8 69.2 71.1 78.0 67.1
Energy 347.0 580.0 480.0 438.0 300.0 521.0
(KJ/100 g)
Protein (%) 2.2 0.5 1.1 1.4 2.1 1.6
Starch (%) 16.7 31.0 24.5 20.1 17.0 27.6
Sugar (%) 1.0 0.8 1.0 2.4 1.4 0.4
Dietery Fiber 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.0
(%)
Fat (%) 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
Ash (%) 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.7 1.2 1.1
Source: Eka (1998).

2.1.3 PHYSIOLOGY OF ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

Root and Tuber crops are still living even after they have been harvested
and as such they continue to respire by taking in oxygen (O2) and passing
out carbon dioxide (CO2). The respiration process results in the oxidation
of starch, which is contained in cells of the root/tuber into water, carbon
dioxide and release of some energy in form of heat. The amount of starch
(which is the dry matter in the tuber) is reduced during respiration. The
factors affecting the rate of respiration in root and tuber crops include the
following:
i. Physiological age of the root or tuber crop.
ii. Storage conditions of the root/tuber (mainly temperature).
Generally, when a root or tuber crop is harvested, the rate of respira-
tion is normally high and this is then followed by a decrease (especially
during storage) then followed by another increase once spouting begins.
Temperature is the single most important factor affecting the rate of
respiration in root and tuber crops. The rate of respiration is almost dou-
bled for every 10°C increase in temperature over the range of 25°C. This
is mathematically expressed as Qw = 2.
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 73

Another important physiological factor is transpiration or water loss


from the surface of the root or tuber crop. Root and Tubers are charac-
terized by high water content even at ambient conditions; and they con-
tinue to lose water to the surrounding atmosphere. This loss of water even
though may not affect the original food value but will affect the quality of
the produce in many ways. It may reduce the market value and culinary
property as well as increase peeling loss.

2.1.4 DORMANCY AND SPOUTING IN ROOT AND TUBER


CROPS

During physiological development of root and tuber crops, they pass


through different stages of growth, harvesting, storage, and subsequent
planting as seeds. At all these stages of development, the physiology of the
tuber varies and as such the respiration rate also varies.
Root and Tuber crops are normally propagated vegetatively and in
their attempt to counter an unfavorable condition at the end of their growth
period, they go into dormant phase (with exception of cassava). The begin-
ning of dormancy is considered the point of physiological maturity in root
and tuber crops.
Dormancy in root and Tuber crops is defined as the period of reduced
endogenous metabolic activity during which the tuber shows no intrinsic
or bud growth although it retains the potential for future growth. Dormancy
is both a space and a varietal characteristic and it is affected by factors,
such as:
• temperature;
• O2 and CO2 content of storage environment;
• extent of wounding or otherwise.
Cassava root is a plant of perennation and not propagation; therefore it
has no dormancy (it senescence after harvesting).
Root and tuber crops can be satisfactorily stored for a period of time
when in dormant phase provided they are not injured. When root crops are
harvested, they go into dormancy as such they can be satisfactorily stored
but as soon as the dormancy is broken, spouting begins.
74 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Spouting is a period when the tuber dormancy is broken and tiny


sprouts begin to appear from the eyes of the tuber crop. During sprouting
the dry matter content of the tuber decreases because the formation of the
spouts requires energy, which is normally drawn from the tubers’ carbohy-
drate reserve. The rate of water loss from the tuber surface also increases
causing the tuber to shrivel and exposed to attack from pathogens.

2.1.5 CURING IN ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

During harvesting, bruising and cutting of root and tubers are likely to
occur. These fresh wounds are ideal entry point for disease causing organ-
isms (Dandago, 2009) if not properly healed. The term curing refers to the
operation of self-healing of wounds, cuts, abrasions and bruises in root
and tuber crops.
According to Kitinoja and Kader (2003) curing root and tuber crops
such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, cassava and yams is an important prac-
tice if these crops are to be stored for any length of time. Curing can be
accomplished by holding the produce at high temperature and high rela-
tive humidity for several days while harvesting wounds heals and new
protective layers of cells form. The best conditions for curing vary among
root and tuber crops as shown in Table 2.2.
Curing can be done in specially heated storage house, which must be
well ventilated to prevent accumulation of carbon dioxide. In the tropics,
curing of root and tuber crops can be accomplished by piling the crops on
the ground (under shade) and covering it with dark sheet of polyethylene
for few days depending on the type of crop. The two steps involved in cur-
ing process of root and tuber crops are:

TABLE 2.2 Best Conditions for Curing Root and Tuber Crops
Commodity Temperature Relative Humidity % Days
°C °F
Potato 15–20 59–68 90–95 5–10
Sweet potatoes 30–32 86–90 85–90 4–7
Yams 32–40 90–104 90–100 1–4
cassava 30–40 86–104 90–95 2–5
Source: Kitinoja and Kader (2003).
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 75

i. Cell suberisation: This is a stage where a chemical substance called


suberin is synthesized and deposited in the cell walls.
ii. The formation of cork cambium: The second stage of curing involved
the production of cork tissue in the bruised area, which seals the cut
or bruised area and prevents the entrance of decay causing organisms
and reduce water loss. The factors that affect the wound healing ability
during curing in root and tubers are:
a. temperature of the commodity;
b. oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration within the commodity;
c. humidity within the commodity;
d. use of sprout inhibitors.
Curing of root and tuber crops has several advantages such as increase
sweetness and palatability (Wang et al., 1998); facilities synthesis of
enzymes and improves flavor during cooking (Kays and Wang, 2000) and
facilitates toughening of the skin (Ray and Balagopalan, 1997).

2.1.6 DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

2.1.6.1 Cassava

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is believed to have originated from


eastern Brazil where it is grown as a major staple food. Cassava was intro-
duced to Africa in the year 1600 and into Nigeria about 300 years ago. The
Portuguese merchants were said to be responsible for the spread, cultiva-
tion and consumption of cassava (Oyebunji, 2004).
Cassava is almost entirely produced and consumed in developing coun-
tries and according to Oyebanli (2004) the major producers of cassava in the
world are Nigeria, Ghana, Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda,
Zaire, China, India, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Brazil, Columbia and
Paraguay. Nigeria is the leading producer of cassava in the world since
1989 and coincidently the largest consumer of cassava as food.
Cassava is highly productive and tolerant crop. It is also a relatively dis-
ease free crop compared to other crops and can do fairly well on poor soil.
Cassava provides a major source of energy to over 500 million peo-
ple. The energy content of cassava in the diets of people in tropical areas
76 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

of Africa, America and Asia has been established as 37%, 12% and 7%,
respectively. Cassava is the chief source of energy in southern Nigeria and
DR Congo. It is consumed in many forms as Garri, Fufu, Lafun, etc.
Basically there are two important varieties of cassava based on the
hydrogen cyanide content of the cassava root. The hydrogen cyanide con-
tent of cassava is not normally stable but fluctuating and several factors
such as varietal and environmental differences are responsible for this.
In Nigeria bitter varieties of cassava are found in the southern part of
the country and can contain up to 250 mg/kg hydrogen cyanide. For the
cassava to be safe for human consumption the HCN has to be removed
through detoxification process.
While on the other hand, the sweet cassava variety is found gener-
ally in the Northern part of Nigeria and it contains around 50 mg/kg of
Hydrogen cyanide. Because of the low Cyanide content of sweet cassava,
it can be eaten fresh (to some limited extent) but it also undergoes some
detoxification process in the course of processing.

2.1.6.2 Yams

Yams (Dioscorea Spp) are widespread in the humid tropics throughout the
world. The genus Dioscorea contains about 600 species spread throughout
the world. The edible and economically important species of yams include
the following:
a. White yam (Dioscorea rotundata poir): This yam species is
believed to have originated from Africa and it is the most widely
grown and preferred yam specie. It is called white yam because of
the flesh color. A number of cultivars of white yam exist.
b. Yellow yam (D. cayenensis Lam): This variety of yam also derives
its name from the yellowish color of the flesh, which is believed to
be due to the presence of carotenoids. Yellow yam is also believed
to have originated from West Africa.
c. Water yam (D. alata L.): Unlike white yam the water yam is believed
to have originated from South East Asia. Water yam is widely
spread across the world and seeing only to white yam in Africa in
popularity.
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 77

d. Bitter yam (D. dumetorum Pax): This specie of yam is character-


ized by bitterness of the flesh. It is believed to originate from West
Africa and its cultivation is limited to Western Africa. Some spe-
cies of Bitter yam are highly poisonous.
e. Chinese yam (D. esculenta): Chinese yam is believed to originate
from South East Asia. Chinese yams are small and characteristi-
cally borne in clusters unlike other yams, which produce one or
two large tubers per plant. The flesh of Chinese yam is also white
but less fibrous then other yams. It is also sweeter and its starch
grain is finer.
According to FAO (1998) the total world production of yam stand at
28.1 million tons in 1993, and 96% of this figure came from West Africa
with Nigeria producing 71% of world production Cote d’ivoire 8.1%,
Benin 4.3% and Ghana 3.5%. Nigeria, the leading yam producer is also
the leading consumer.

2.1.6.3 Sweet Potato

Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas) is a root crop which is believed to have


originated in central America and was probably introduced to Africa about
the end of 19th century (Dandago, 2009).
It is the world’s seventh most important food crop after wheat, rice,
maize, potato, barley and cassava. The world sweet potato production has
been established to be 140,903 x 103 m of which 92% is produced in Asia
and the pacific Islands (FAO, 2002). China is the worlds’ largest producer
of sweet potato accounting for 86% of global production. (Ray and Ravi,
2005). The crop is new widely produced as an important staple food in a
number of African countries, which includes Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda
and Nigeria (Dandago, 2009).
The crop is usually planted in less fertile, marginal soils with limited
water supply but despite this fact, sweet potato produces more calories/
hectare/day than any other major food crop (Ray and Kari, 2005). In
Africa, both the fleshy storage roots and tuber leaves of sweet potato are
used as food animal feed and to some extent as raw materials for the pro-
duction of starch and beverages.
78 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

There are many cultivars of sweet potato according to FAO (1998)


each with its own characteristic size, shape, color, storage life, nutrition
and suitability to processing. A single plant may produce 40–50 tubers
weighing from 100 g–1 kg. The chemical composition of sweet potato
varies according to genetic and environmental factors.

2.1.6.4 Potato

Potato (Solanum tuberosom) which is otherwise called Irish potato origi-


nated in tropical highlands of south America from where it was introduced
into Europe towards the end 16th Century. Potato is the 14th most important
crop (after wheat, rice and maize) in the world in term of production.
It was introduced to Nigeria (Jos–Plateau) by the missionaries. The
production of Irish potato in Nigeria in commercial quantity is restricted
to areas of high altitude (plateau and Mambilla in Taraba state). There
are pockets of areas of production in Kaduna, Nassarawa, Kano, Gombe
and Adamawa states. About 75% of the total production in Nigeria comes
from plateau state, 15% from Taraba state and 10% from remaining states.
Although Irish potato production is restricted to two states, its consump-
tion is spread all over the country (Okunade, 2004).
The chemical composition of potatoes varies and is greatly influenced
by environment, varietal type and also the farming practice in the produc-
tion area. Irish potato is an important source of protein, Iron, riboflavin
and ascorbic acid; and the starch content of it is in the range of 65–80%
on dry weight basis.

2.1.6.5 Cocoyam

Cocoyams (Colocasia esculenta and Xanthasomas sagattifolium) are


important staple foods in Nigeria particularly Southern and middle belt
areas. Colocasia esculenta which is otherwise called Taro is by far more
popular than Xanthosomas Sagittifolium called Tannia (Onuaha and
Alfred, 2011). Cocoyam ranks third in importance after cassava and yam
among root and tuber crops in Nigeria (NRCRI, 2012).
About 60% of the world production is grown in Africa while remain-
ing 40% is produced in Asia and pacific Islands through Egypt (Eka, 1998).
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 79

Nigeria with an average annual production of 3.7 million metric tons is the
leading cocoyam producer in the world (NRCRI, 2012).
The corms and cormels are prepared into food by simply boiling and roast-
ing (Ofoeze, Ezeama and Awa, 2011). Young leaves of taro cocoyam are also
eaten in Nigeria as in other West African countries as vegetables and food for
ruminants particularly sheep and goats (Adetuyi and Ogundahunsi, 2009).
Nutritionally cocoyam is more readily digested (NRCRI, 2012). Cocoyam is
a good source of carbohydrate, energy and fair high source of crude and true
proteins, rich in Ash, low in fiber and a fair source of lipids.
Cocoyam is high in P, Mg and Zn than any other root and tuber crops. The
protein of taro cocoyam is well supplied with essential amino acids but some-
times low in only histidine and lysine (Adetuji and Ogundahunsi, 2009).

2.1.7 POSTHARVEST LOSSES IN ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

Root and Tuber crops incur high postharvest losses due to their perish-
able nature. They contain fairly high amount of moisture and the skins are
delicate especially at harvest; and therefore any cut or bruise can speed up
metabolic and physiological process and as such lead to postharvest loss.
The cuts or bruise are also ideal entry points for spoilage micro-organisms.
Many researchers are of the opinion that postharvest losses in root and
tuber crops can be high as 50% of the total output. Postharvest loss can
simply be defined as any loss in quality or quantity of crop that occur
between harvest and consumption.

2.1.8 MAJOR REASONS FOR POSTHARVEST LOSS IN ROOT


AND TUBER CROPS

Root and tuber crops incur high loss and the reasons for the loss can be
pre-or postharvest. Postharvest loss in root and tuber crops can occur due
to the following factors:
I. Mechanical damage:
The skin of a mature root and tuber crop is an effective barrier against
external factors such as disease causing organisms. When the root or
tuber crop is intact, it is normally protected but once the skin is broken/
80 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

abraded or bruises micro-organisms gain entry into the root or tuber crop
and deterioration sets in. An injury to the root or tuber crop also speeds
up physiological process such as respiration within the material and the
energy reserve of the tuber would be depleted and deterioration speed up.
Moisture loss can also occur at the point of injury and this also is detri-
mental to the postharvest life of the tuber crop.
Root and tuber crops sustain injury at verities points within the produc-
tion chain. The following illustrates the points:
• Injury can be sustained at the point of harvesting of root or tuber
from harvesting instruments and/or rough handling.
• During transportation of the crop it can sustain injury on the skin
due to rough vibrations from the vehicle and also due to rough roads.
• Loading and unloading of root and tuber crops can is also an impor-
tant point where the crop can sustain injury or even broke.
• Crops can also sustain injury during storage. The injury can be as a
result of attack by rodents or insects.
II. Physiological factors:
Physiological factors such as respiration and transportation are important
factors in the postharvest life of root and tuber crops. Careless handling
and poor management can speed up the physiological processes within
the root and tuber and therefore lead to postharvest loss in the crop.
Root and tubers are living organs and therefore they respire by taking
in oxygen and passing out water, carbon dioxide and heat energy. The rate
of respiration in root and tuber crops is usually high at harvest time, which
is followed by decrease during storage and another increase when spout-
ing begins. Normally root and tuber at harvest through storage follows this
natural pattern in respiration but once this pattern is disrupted, the rate of
respiration include:
• mechanical injury to the root/tuber;
• over heating of storage environment;
• poor ventilation, etc.
Transpiration is another physiological factor that can affect the posthar-
vest life of a root or tuber crop. The term transpiration is used to describe
natural evaporation of moisture from the surface of the crop. Excessive
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 81

transpiration due to exposure to high temperature during harvesting, han-


dling, storage and distribution of root and tuber crops can lead to many
farms of deterioration such as shriveling, loss of texture and subsequent
loss of market value. All these contribute to deterioration of the tuber and
postharvest loss.
Other physiological factors such as sun scorch, greening and sprouting
also leads to various farms of deteriorations which all contribute to the
postharvest loss in root and tuber crops.
III. Pathological factors:
Root and tuber crops are living organs and as such are subject to inva-
sion by various microorganisms, which include bacteria, fungi and viruses.
These organisms cause of direct postharvest loss in tropical root crops.
Attack of the root or tuber crop by the micro-organism can occur at
pre or postharvest storage. For example, the microorganisms which are
normally found in the soil, water or air can attack the crop through the
natural pores when the crop’s still underground and this can extend to the
postharvest life of the root crop.
Cuts, abrasion and bruises on the root or tuber crop are ideal entry
points for microorganisms. Injuries or cuts on the root or tuber can be sus-
tained at various points of harvesting, handling, transportation, and stor-
age. Once the organism gain entry into the crop, they establish themselves
and subsequently cause deteriorations by breaking down of lost tissues
thereby causing a loss in quantity and quality.
The microorganisms responsible for postharvest losses in root and
tubers vary from one crop to the other. Many workers have isolated the
different microorganisms responsible for postharvest losses or different
root and tuber crops.

2.1.9 HARVESTING, HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION AND


MARKETING OF ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

2.1.9.1 Harvesting of Root and Tubers

There are principally two methods of harvesting root and tuber crops. These
are hand harvesting and machine harvesting. In developing countries, root
82 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

and tuber crops are almost entirely harvested by hand. Hand harvesting
when properly done is the best because the crops suffer less damages than
machine harvesting.
There are different types of farm tools and implements that are used
for harvesting root and tuber crops and they range from cutlasses, hoes,
sticks and machetes. Root and tubers are likely to suffer some degree of
mechanical injury at harvesting because of the nature of the tools used but
harvesting is made easier where the crops are grown on heaps, mounds or
ridges as is practiced in yam growing areas of Nigeria.
It is important to note that the quality of the root/tuber crop once har-
vested cannot be improved but only maintained. Therefore careful har-
vesting, harvesting at peak quality, removal of field heat, proper handling
prompt transportation and curing are all important to successful posthar-
vest life of root and tuber crops.
Harvesting should be done during cool hours of the day and produce
kept shaded. Crops meant for storage shall be free from cuts, bruises, and
abrasions and should be cured immediately (Siddiqui, 2015, 2016). Curing
is so important in root and tubers because it helps to head the wounds
sustained during harvesting and also assist in toughening of the delicate
skin. Curing in root crops generally can be accomplished by under tropical
conditions by subjecting the root to temperature of 27–29°C and relative
humidity 85–95% for 4–5 days.

2.1.9.2 Handling of Root and Tubers

Handling refers to the way and manner the crop is treated between harvest-
ing and marketing. Proper handling is a panacea to good postharvest life of
the crop. Even if the crop is properly harvested but mishandled the storage
or postharvest life will be short.
In developing countries like Nigeria most root and tuber crops are
harvested badly, subjected to direct sunlight and transported in open and
badly managed vehicles. In many instances a number of people sit on top
of the produce. These are of course what lead to the short postharvest and
storage life of root and tubers.
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 83

2.1.9.3 Transportation of Root and Tubers

Transportation of root and tuber crops from the farm to storage area or
from tuber storage area to marketing or retail is also very important. This
is so because the tubers in the course of transportation can sustain some
injuries and as such get infected with a disease-causing organism.
The tubers during transportation can be exposed to temperature
extreme, for example, direct sunlight. This in turn can speed up the rate
of respiration in the crop and therefore shortens the postharvest life of the
root or tuber.
Generally there is no organized means of transportation of agricul-
tural produce from the farm to warehouse or market. All sorts of vehicles/
means of transportation are used. For example donkeys, cars, vans, lor-
ries, trucks, motorcycles and even bicycles are normally used. Most of
the vehicles also are not in good condition and therefore it is a common
sight to see a van or lorry loaded with a full load of an agricultural pro-
duce broken down and under harsh environmental condition.

2.1.9.4 Marketing of Root and Tubers

In most developing countries, the market is an open place where transac-


tions are carried out. Root and tuber crops are not an exception, there-
fore marketing is normally carried out in an open place and exposed
to all sorts of environmental factors such as wind, sunlight, rain etc.
(Ahmad and Siddiqui, 2015) Marketing is not organized, and therefore
their exposure increases the processes within the root or tuber and also
exposed it to all sorts of accidents or damage from pests.

2.2 STORAGE METHOD FOR ROOT AND TUBER CROPS

Farmers through experience have learnt that root and tuber crops dete-
riorate rapidly once harvested and have develop methods to contract this
problem using several techniques to ensure that the qualities of the root or
tuber are preserved during storage. The basic requirements for the storage
84 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

of root or tuber crops differ from one crop to the other and also from one
region to another depending on several factors. Even for the same crop,
storage methods can vary depending on the reason for storage and ultimate
use (Ihekeronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Storage methods for root and tuber
crops can briefly be classified into:
i. traditional storage methods for root and tubers;
ii. imported/modern storage methods for root and tuber crops.

2.2.1 TRADITIONAL STORAGE METHODS OF ROOT AND


TUBER CROPS

The most common traditional method of root and tuber crops in the trop-
ics after they are harvested are pit storage, storing in house, storing on
platforms in the open, leaving the crop underground until needed, clamp
storage and barns for yams particularly (Ihekeronye and Ngoddy, 1985).
a. Pit storage of root and tuber crops
Pit of various dimensions are usually dug on the ground for storage of root
and tuber crops. The major advantage of pit storage method especially for
root and tuber crops is that the tuber can be stored for fairly long period of
time without serious alteration in the quality of the tuber. While the disad-
vantage of it is that it is not possible to inspect the crop and an infection on
one tuber can migrate to other.
b. Barn storage
The barns are standing platforms elevated above the grand, and usually
made of wood and covered on top with grass or thatch. The structure is
specifically used for storage of yams. The advantages of yam barn include:
• product can be inspected while on storage;
• there is fairly enough air in circulation;
• spoilt is products can easily be spotted and isolated from the rest.

c. Underground storage of root and tuber crops


This is the method of leaving the root or tuber crop underground until
needed and this method is commonly practiced in developing countries
where there is general lack of storage facilities.
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 85

The problem of storing fresh cassava has led to the traditional practice
of root underground until needed; and once harvested they are consumed
or processed immediately. The major advantage of this method is that the
crop can stay for a long period of time. The disadvantage of it is that large
area of land is occupied, and the longer the storage period the more fibrous
and woody the cassava is.

d. Clamp storage of root and tuber crops


The storage of root crops in field clamps for a period up to eight weeks is
possible without serious deteriorations in the crop. The clamp consist of
a layer of straw laid on a dry floor covered with a heap of 300–500 kg of
roots followed by a day layer of straw and finally a layer soil. The clamp
method is cheap because the materials of construction are readily avail-
able within the farmers reach. The disadvantage of the method is that it is
difficult to manage in areas where there is a seasonal variation in climate.

e. Platform storage method of root and tuber crops


Root and Tuber crops can also be stored on raised platforms with vari-
ous designs: A development by an FAO postharvest project in Benin com-
prised of a wooden shed with an elevated floor fitted with rat guards and
covered with a hatch roof.
The Nigerian stored products research institute recommended a struc-
ture similar to the traditional yam barn where the tubers are placed on
single layer on a shelf instead of being tied to a frame (FAO, 1998).

2.2.2 IMPROVED/MODERN STORAGE METHODS OF ROOT


AND TUBER CROPS

More efficient methods of storage are essential if large quantities of root


and Tuber crops are to be stored at regional center. The modern methods
are somehow more sophisticated but cost effective and therefore cannot be
practicable used by peasant farmers. The methods include:
a. Refrigeration method
Refrigerated storage of tuber crops like yams specifically at about 15°C in
combination with the use of fungicides has been successful. The wide spread
use of refrigeration for root and tuber crops is not yet feasible because of the
high capital output, technical support and steady electricity (FAO, 1998).
86 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

b. Irradiation method
The used of gamma irradiation to inhibit sprouting has also been success-
fully used to reduced the losses and prevent sprouting of tubers for a period
of up to eight months. The method has the advantage of keeping the tuber
intact without spoilage for a long period of time but highly sophisticated
and capital intensive. The Nigerian government has an irradiation facility
at SHEDA near Abuja, but the facility is yet to be commercialized.

2.2.3 COMMON HANDLING PRACTICES AND CONDITIONS


AFFECTING POSTHARVEST LIFE AND QUALITY OF ROOT AND
TUBER CROPS

The common handling practices and conditions affecting postharvest life


and quality of root and tuber crops can broadly be divided into pre-harvest
and postharvest factors. The postharvest factors are further subdivided
into different stages of operations. The practices are:
i. Pre-harvest
• Production of high yielding cultivars with short postharvest life or
susceptible to pest and diseases.
• Poor field sanitation leading to infections and insect damage.
• Lack of pest management.
ii. Harvest
• Harvesting at improper stage (immature);
• Use of rough and/or unsanitary field containers;
• Harvesting at hot hours of the day and leaving harvested produce
under direct sunlight;
• Rough handling, dropping or throwing produce;
• Over packing of field and marketing containers.
iii. Curing
• Lack of curing of root and tubers;
• Improper curing.
iv. Packing house operations
• Lack of proper sorting;
• Rough handling;
• Sitting on top of produce during handling and transportation.
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 87

v. Packing and packaging materials


• Use of poorly ventilated packaging;
• Loading of containers or use of too large containers;
• Complete absence of packaging materials in some instances.
vi. Cooling and humidity control
• General lack of any method of cooling produce during packing,
transport, storage and marketing of root and tuber crops.
vii. Storage
• Lack of storage facilities on farm, at wholesale and retail;
• Poor sanitation and inadequate temperature management;
• Over stacking of produce beyond permitted level.
viii. Transportation
• Over loading of transportation vehicles;
• Lack of adequate ventilation during transportation;
• Rough handling during loading and unloading;
• Carrying human passengers on top of produce.
ix. Marketing
• Lack of packaging during marketing;
• Lack of protection from direct sunlight during marketing;
• Poor sanitation in marketing environment;
• Produce is heaped on bare ground during marketing.
(Adapted from Kitinoja (2006). Postharvest CD).

2.2.4 RECOMMENDED STORAGE CONDITIONS OF ROOT


AND TUBER CROPS

Root and tubers are perishable and therefore for longer storage life, they
need to be stored at conditions optimum for their storage. Tropical root
and tubers must be stored at temperatures that will protect the crops from
chilling, since chilling injury can cause internal browning, surface pit-
ting and increased susceptibility to decay (Kitinoja and Kader, 2003).
The recommended storage conditions for root and tuber crops are listed
in Table 2.3.
88 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 2.3 Recommended Storage Conditions for Root and Tuber


S/N Produce Temperature RH(%) Potential
°c °F storage duration

1. Potatoes 4–7 39–45 95–98 10 months


2. Cassava 5–8 41–46 80–90 2–4 weeks
0–5 32–41 85–95 6 months
3. Sweet potatoes 12–14 54–57 85–90 6 months
4. Yam 13–15 55–59 Near 100 6 months
27–30 80–86 60–70 3–5 weeks
5. Taro 13–15 55–59 85–90 4 months
Source: Cauntwell and Kasmire (2002).

KEYWORDS

•• Curing operation
•• Dormancy and Spouting
•• Harvesting indices
•• Postharvest harvest handling
•• Postharvest quality
•• Root and tuber crops

REFERENCES

Adetuyi, F.O., & Ogundahunsi, G.A. (2009). Nutrient composition of cocoyam (colocacia
esculenta) based food. In: Nkama, I. (Ed.). Proceedings of 33rd Annual Conference
of Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology held in Yola 12–16 October,
2009.
Ahmad, M.S., & Siddiqui, M.W. (2015). Postharvest Quality Assurance of Fruits: Practi-
cal Approaches for Developing Countries. Springer, New York. pp. 265.
Contwell, M.I., & Kasmire, R.F. (2009). Postharvest handling systems: underground veg-
etables. In: Kader, A.A. (Ed). Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops. Uni-
versity of California. ANR Publication 3311. 435–443.
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Root and Tubers 89

Dandago, M.A. (2009). Effects of various storage methods on the quality and Nutritional
composition of sweet potatoes (Ipomea batatas L.) Unpublished MTech Postharvest
Technology Degree Thesis, Federal University of Technology Yola, Nigeria.
Eka, O.U. (1998). Roots and Tubers. In: Osagie, A.U., & Eka, O.U. (Eds.). Nutritional
Quality of Plant Foods. Postharvest Research Unit University of Benin Nigeria, pp.
1–31.
FAO (1990). Roots, Tubers, Plantains and Banana in Human Nutrition. Food and Agricul-
tural Organization of United Nations, Rome.
FAO (1998). Storage and Processing of Roots and Tubers in the Tropics. Available at www.
fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x541500.htm 03/02/12.
FAO (2002). Production Year Book. Volume 54. Food and Agricultural organization Rome
Statistics Section.
Ihekoronye, A.I., & Ngoddy, P.O. (1985). Integrated Food Science and Technology for the
Tropics. Macmillan Education Ltd., London, pp. 266–270.
Kays, S.J., & Wang, Y. (2001). Thermally Introduced Flavor Compounds. HortScience
35, 1002.
Kitinoja, L., & Kader, A.A. (2003). Small Scale Postharvest Handling Practices: A Man-
ual for Horticultural Crops. Fourth Edition, p. 257.
NRCRI (2012). Cocoyam Program. Retrieved from www.ncrri.gov.ng/pages/cocoyam.
htm on 3rd March 2012.
Ofoeze, M.O., Ezeama, C.F., & Awa, E. (2011). Effect of fermentation on the Nutritional
and anti-nutritional properties of the flours from two varieties of cocoyam. In: Abu,
J.O. (Ed). Proceedings of Annual Conference of Nigeria Institute of Food Science
and Technology held in Makurdi Nigeria, 10–14th October, 2011.
Okaka, J.C. (2009). Handling, Storage and Processing of Plant Foods. Second Edition,
OCJ Academic Publishers, Enugu Nigeria, pp. 250–262.
Okunade, S.O. (2004). Indigenous knowledge in Irish potato preservation, processing and
utilization. In: Olokesusi, F. (Ed). Indigenous Knowledge in Root and Tuber Crops.
Postharvest Handling. Seminar Proceedings of Nigerian stored products Research
Institute held in Ilorin, Nigeria, 23–25th August, 2004.
Onuoha, O.G., & Alfred, A.H. (2011). Effects of High-pressure – high temperature cook-
ing on the acceptability of Achicha: a cocoyam based product. In: Abu, J.O. (Ed).
Conference Proceedings of Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology held
in Makurdi, Nigeria, 10–14th October, 2011.
Oyebanji, A.O. (2004). Indigenous knowledge in cassava processing, utilization and pres-
ervation. In: Olokesusi, F. (Ed.). Indigenous Knowledge in Root and Tuber Crops.
Postharvest products Research institute held in Ilorin, Nigeria 23–25th August 2004.
Ray, R.C., & Balagopalan, C. (1997). Postharvest Spoilage of Sweet Potato. Technical
Bulletin 23. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute Bulletin, India.
Ray, R.C., & Ravi, V. (2005). Postharvest spoilage of sweet potatoes in Tropics and control
measures. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 45, 623–644.
Sanni, L.O., Adebowale, A.A., Idowu, M.A., Sawi, M.K., Kamara, N.R., Olayiwola, L.O.,
Egunleti, M., Dipeolu, A., Aiye Laagbe, I.O.O., & Fomba, S. (2009). West African
Foods from Root and Tuber Crops: A Brief Review. University of Agriculture Abeo-
kuta Nigeria. AAU/MRCI/08/F07/P033 project.
90 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Siddiqui, M.W. (2015). Postharvest Biology and Technology of Horticultural Crops: Prin-
ciples and Practices for Quality Maintenance. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida,
USA. pp. 550.
Siddiqui, M.W. (2016). Eco-Friendly Technology for Postharvest Produce Quality. Aca-
demic Press, Elsevier Science, USA. pp. 324.
Wang, Y., Horvat, R.J., White, R.A., & Kays, S.J. (1998). Influence of postharvest curing
treatment on the synthesis of the volatile flavor components in sweet potatoes. Acta
Hort. 64, 207.
CHAPTER 3

POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT OF
COMMERCIAL FLOWERS
SUNIL KUMAR,1 KALYAN BARMAN,2 and SWATI SHARMA3
1
Department of Horticulture, North Eastern Hill University, Tura
Campus, West Garo Hills District, Tura – 794002, Meghalaya, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
Department of Horticulture (Fruit and Fruit Technology), Bihar
2

Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur – 813210, Bihar, India


ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi, Mushahari Farm,
3

Mushahari, Muzaffarpur – 842002, Bihar, India

CONTENTS

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................... 93
3.2 Reasons for Decline in Vase Life of Cut Flowers........................... 94
3.3 Factors Affecting Postharvest Life of Commercial Flowers........... 95
3.3.1 Genotype............................................................................. 96
3.3.2 Pre-Harvest Factors............................................................. 96
3.3.3 Temperature......................................................................... 97
3.3.4 Controlled and Modified Atmospheres............................... 97
3.3.5 Chilling Injury..................................................................... 98
3.3.6 Water Relations................................................................... 98
3.3.7 Cut Flowers......................................................................... 99
3.3.8 Desiccation.......................................................................... 99
92 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

  3.3.9 Ethylene and Other Hormones........................................ 100


3.3.9.1 Ethylene........................................................... 100
3.3.9.2 Abscisic Acid................................................... 102
3.3.9.3 Cytokinins........................................................ 103
3.3.9.4 Other Hormones and Regulators...................... 105
3.3.10 Disease............................................................................ 105
3.3.11 Growth and Tropic Responses......................................... 106
3.3.12 Carbohydrate Supply....................................................... 107
3.4 Causes for Decline in Vase Life of Cut Flowers........................... 108
  3.4.1 Cultural Influences.......................................................... 108
  3.4.2 Insufficient Water Uptake............................................... 109
 3.4.3 Ethylene............................................................................110
 3.4.4 Harvest.............................................................................112
3.4.4.1 Stages of Harvest..............................................113
3.4.4.2 Bud Harvesting.................................................113
3.4.4.3 Handling............................................................116
 3.4.5 Conditioning.....................................................................117
  3.4.6 Quality and Grading.........................................................118
3.4.6.1 Quality of Flowers and Ornamental Plants.......119
3.4.6.2 Roses.................................................................119
3.4.6.3 Orchid.............................................................. 120
3.4.6.4 Chrysanthemum............................................... 120
3.4.6.5 For Standard Chrysanthemum......................... 120
3.4.6.6 Gladiolus.......................................................... 120
3.4.6.7 Carnation.......................................................... 121
  3.4.7 Quality Standards............................................................ 121
 3.4.8 Pre-Cooling..................................................................... 123
 3.4.9 Pulsing............................................................................. 123
3.4.9.1 Preservatives for Extending Vase Life............. 125
3.4.10 Vase-Solution.................................................................. 127
3.4.11 Carnation......................................................................... 128
3.4.12 Alstroemeria.................................................................... 128
3.4.13 Packaging........................................................................ 129
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 93

3.4.14 Packing Boxes................................................................. 129


  3.4.14.1 Wet Packing of Flowers................................. 130
  3.4.14.2 Polyethylene Foil as Protective Cover........... 131
  3.4.14.3 Special Care for Exotic Flowers.................... 131
  3.4.14.4 Protection Against Geotropic Bending........... 131
  3.4.14.5 Care for Ethylene Sensitive Flowers.............. 131
3.4.15 Packaging of Different Flowers...................................... 132
 3.4.15.1 Rose................................................................ 132
 3.4.15.2 Chrysanthemum............................................. 132
 3.4.15.3 Carnation........................................................ 133
 3.4.15.4 Gladiolus........................................................ 133
 3.4.15.5 Anthurium...................................................... 133
 3.4.15.6 Gerbera........................................................... 133
 3.4.15.7 Orchid............................................................. 134
3.4.16 Storage of Cut-Flowers................................................... 134
  3.4.16.1 Reason of Storage.......................................... 134
  3.4.16.2 Advantages of Storage.................................... 135
  3.4.16.3 Factors Affecting the Post-Storage
Life of Flowers............................................... 135
3.4.17 Storage Methods.............................................................. 135
  3.4.17.1 Refrigeration with Wet or Dry Storage.......... 135
  3.4.17.2 Refrigerated Storage....................................... 136
  3.4.17.3 Dry Storage.................................................... 137
  3.4.17.4 Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage............ 141
  3.4.17.5 Modified Atmosphere (MA) Storage............. 142
  3.4.17.6 Low Pressure Storage (LPS).......................... 142
Keywords............................................................................................... 144
References.............................................................................................. 144

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A fresh flower is a living specimen even though it has been cut from the
plant. Its maximum potential vase life is very short. Whether we grow
94 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

fresh flowers for the local farmers’ market and retail florist or have a large
operation that sells truckloads to the national wholesale market, growers
need to move product from the field to the consumers in a manner that
ensures a high quality product. Many impinging forces can interact to
reduce vase life of cut-flowers and requires successful postharvest man-
agement for preserving the potential life of fresh flowers (Siddiqui, 2015).
There are various reasons and factors, which influence the postharvest life
of cut flowers.

3.2 REASONS FOR DECLINE IN VASE LIFE OF CUT FLOWERS

• Food depletion;
• Attack by bacteria and fungi;
• Normal maturation and aging;
• Wilting due to water stress and xylem blockage;
• Bruising and crushing;
• Fluctuating temperatures during storage and transit;
• Color change-bluing;
• Accumulation of ethylene;
• Poor water quality;
• Suboptimal cultural practices or conditions.
As a grower, we must be aware of these problems and how to solve
them with good postharvest care. Cold storage and proper attention to
maintaining optimum cold storage temperatures will slow normal matura-
tion and aging, bacterial and fungal growth and bluing of flowers, besides
solving any improper temperature control problems. Consistent use of flo-
ral preservatives, careful handling and good sanitation practices will solve
food depletion, poor water quality, bruising and crushing, wilting, and bac-
terial and fungal attack problems. Ethylene accumulation can be reduced
by using silver thiosulfate (STS), good sanitation practices and good ven-
tilation. Sub-optimal cultural practices and conditions can only produce
substandard flowers and it is difficult to improve the quality of flowers
after harvest. Thus, we need proper postharvest management practices for
cut flowers that include both harvest and handling. Harvest includes the
decisions like when, how and where to cut and the actual act of cutting the
flowers. Handling is everything else involved in preparing the flowers for
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 95

market. Exactly how these steps are done depends on the crop, the mar-
ket and the operation size. Since flowers are delicate, graceful and highly
perishable, it needs some important post-harvest treatments like condition-
ing or hardening, pulsing or loading and pre-cooling etc. These treatments
keep the flowers fresh while under packaging and lengthen the postharvest
life of cut flowers. Also, postharvest qualities of cut flowers are evaluated
on the basis of following criterion:
• Final size and shape of flower;
• Development of florets in spike and of lateral florets or spike;
• Changes in fresh weight of flowers;
• Turgidity and freshness of flowers at the consumer end;
• Objective measurements of changes in petal color;
• Stability of the stem or pedicel;
• Yellowing or browning of foliage or stem;
• Water uptake on day after harvest;
• Finally, “Vase Life” represents the potential useful longevity of the
flowers to the consumer.
Therefore, for proper post-harvest handling and prolonging vase life
of cut flowers, we need several steps to make the commercial floriculture
venture as a profitable trade.

3.3 FACTORS AFFECTING POSTHARVEST LIFE OF


COMMERCIAL FLOWERS

The majority of the commercial flowers have relatively short lives. The
delicate petals of flowers are easily damaged and are often highly sus-
ceptible to diseases. Even under optimum conditions, their biology leads
to early wilting, abscission or both. The post-harvest life of commercial
flowers is affected by physical, environmental and biological factors.
Choice of plant material and pre-harvest factors plays an important role.
After harvest, temperature become dominant and affects plant water rela-
tions, growth of disease, response to physical stresses, carbohydrate status
and the relationship among endogenous and exogenous growth regulators.
The role of these factors and the response of commercial flowers to them
have now been established. Some of the research findings have led to the
96 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

technologies that can greatly improve marketing and postharvest quality


of commercial flowers.

3.3.1 GENOTYPE

The postharvest life of cut flowers varies enormously from the ephemeral
flowers of the daylily to the extremely long-lived flowers of some orchid
genera. Marked variations are also observed within genera and species that
provide a great opportunity for breeders to develop flowers, which remain
fresh for longer duration. Color, form, productivity and disease resistance
continue to be the targets of breeding programs. This can be seen by com-
paring the postharvest life of different cultivars from the same breeder. It
has been observed that Alstroemeria showed variation of more than 100% in
lines in respect of time of petal fall and leaf yellowing. Elibox and Umaharan
(2008) reported vase lives of anthurium cultivars ranging from 14 to 49
days. A simple model, based on abaxial stomatal density and flower color
accurately predicted the relative vase life ranking of different cultivars that
provides an excellent tool for future breeding. Variations in other important
postharvest characteristics have also been reported for ethylene sensitivity
in carnations. Five out of the thirty eight cultivars of carnation tested were
insensitive to ethylene indicating the breeding opportunities not only for
extending vase life but also eliminating the problem of ethylene-induced
senescence and abscission (Woltering and Van Doorn, 1988; Wu et al., 1991;
Reid and Wu, 1992) and in roses a difference in vase life of modern rose
cultivars from 5 to 19 days were noticed (Evans and Reid, 1988; Macnish
et al., 2010c). Mokhtari and Reid (1995) analyzed the difference in vase life
between two rose cultivars and noted several morphological and anatomi-
cal characteristics that correlated with improved water uptake and longer
vase life. Whereas, Clements and Atkins (2001) characterized a single-gene
recessive mutant (Abs) of Lupinus angustifolius L. ‘Danja’ in which no
organs abscise in response to continuous exposure to high concentrations of
ethylene. A long-lived delphinium mutant also showed no ethylene-induced
sepal abscission (Tanase et al., 2009). These mutants indicated the opportu-
nity for a genetic approach to prevent flower abscission and petal abscission
that is a common postharvest problem in cut flowers.
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 97

3.3.2 PRE-HARVEST FACTORS

It seems axiomatic that pre-harvest factors would strongly affect the post-
harvest performance of cut flowers. Marissen and Benninga (2001) stud-
ied a range of pre- and post-harvest factors using multivariate analysis and
regression techniques and demonstrated that mean relative humidity in the
greenhouse was the most important variable determining the differences in
vase life of roses. The number of branches per square meter at harvest time
also influenced the vase life of rose, since it represents alternative sinks.
However, In et al. (2009) accurately predicted the vase life of greenhouse
grown cut roses using a neural network approach with 29 environmental,
morphological and physiological parameters as the input layer.

3.3.3 TEMPERATURE

The marked effects of temperature were first quantified on the vase life
of carnation cut flowers in 1973 (Maxie et al., 1973). Respiration of cut
flowers has a very high Q10 value. The Q10 value observed for narcissus is
more than 7 between 0 and 10°C (Cevallos and Reid, 2001). The close link
between respiration, growth and senescence in these poikilotherms means
that a narcissus flower held at 10°C may lose as much vase life in 1 day as
does a similar flower held for one week at 0°C. For critical measurement
of the effect of temperature on flower respiration, a dynamic system has
been adopted in which the effect of a chosen temperature was measured on
replicate single flowers (Cevallos and Reid, 2000, 2001; Celikel and Reid,
2002, 2005). The cut flower industry is aware of the importance of cool
temperatures in improving long distance marketing of flowers by adoption
of forced air pre-cooling and the use of cool rooms.

3.3.4 CONTROLLED AND MODIFIED ATMOSPHERES

The close association between flower respiration during storage and vase
life after storage suggests the potential usefulness of controlled (CA) or
modified (MA) atmospheres, in which the O2 content of the storage atmo-
sphere is reduced, sometimes with an increase in the CO2 content. The
beneficial effects are attributed to reduced respiration (resulting from low
98 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

internal oxygen concentrations) and reduced ethylene sensitivity (attrib-


uted largely to elevated CO2 levels) (Kader et al., 1989; Kader, 2003). Use
of an inducible silencing system to block glycolysis synthesis or some
other rate limiting process can be important tool for postharvest manage-
ment of commercial flowers. Joyce and Reid (1985) demonstrated that
high levels of CO2 and low levels of O2 could be used in reducing diseases
or killing quarantine insects in cut flower shipments. Hammer et al. (1990)
studied the potential use of high CO2 atmospheres and found a significant
reduction in Botrytis incidence both in naturally inoculated and in artifi-
cially inoculated flowers.

3.3.5 CHILLING INJURY

It is a general recommendation that most of the commercial flowers should


be stored close to the freezing point (0°C) except anthurium, heliconia, poin-
settia, African violet etc. These tropical species must be transported and han-
dled at temperatures above 10°C. Also, summer flowers zinnia, celosia, and
cosmos perform better when stored at temperatures above 0°C (Dole et al.,
2009). Chilling injury causes wilting, necrosis, browning of colored bracts
and petals in the cut flowers during storage and transportation. Harvest time
can have a significant impact on the severity of chilling symptoms. Presence
of intracellular calcium in cytoplasm provides valuable information about
chilling sensitive and insensitive species. Woods et al. (1984a, b) studied
cytoplasmic streaming and structure in hair cells from flowers and other
organs of chilling sensitive and insensitive species to know about the role of
intracellular calcium in the response to chilling stress. They observed that the
immediate cessation of streaming and loss of cytoplasmic structure resulting
from exposure of sensitive cells to chilling temperatures was accompanied
by a change in cytosolic calcium and could be evoked by perturbing cyto-
solic calcium with a calcium ionophore. The dramatic effects of chilling
temperatures on structure and cytoplasmic movement were suggested to be
due to depolymerization of F-actin, all events that would certainly upset
metabolic homeostasis and lead to the accumulation of toxic metabolites
into visible damage to chilled tissues. Such research efforts open a new
arena for the development of chilling resistant commercial flowers.
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 99

3.3.6 WATER RELATIONS

Adequate water relation in cut flowers is an important aspect of their


postharvest management. Water balance is determined by the difference
between water supply and water loss and optimal postharvest handling
includes managing both sides of this relationship. The primary tool in
reducing water loss is temperature control. The water content of saturated
air rises in an exponential fashion (doubling for every 11°C). Therefore,
depending on the humidity, water loss can also rise with temperature in a
similar fashion. Sealed bags or perforated polyethylene wraps can main-
tain higher humidity and thus reduce water loss after harvest. But at higher
temperature, proliferation of disease is greatly accentuated in such pack-
ages due to condensation of moisture.

3.3.7 CUT FLOWERS

Intuitively, providing adequate water to a cut flower is an easy practice to


maintain adequate turgidity into cut flower for their utmost freshness. Since,
the vase solution has direct access to the xylem of cut flower, water uptake
is frequently impeded by the desiccation due to extended dry handling of the
flowers, air emboli that form when the water column in the xylem is broken,
and very commonly by microbial occlusion and/or the formation of physi-
ological plugs, tyloses, and gels (Van Doorn and Reid, 1995). Brodersen et
al. (2010) observed differences among species and varieties of the same spe-
cies in the structure of the xylem, size of emboli and cavitation, embolism
repair ability and colonization of the stem by microbes.

3.3.8 DESICCATION

The floral tissues, devoid of functional stomata’s, relatively lose little


water. However, water loss can occur rapidly through the stomata of
stems and leaves during postharvest handling. It has been observed that
the opening and vase life of flowers in roses (Macnish et al., 2009a) and
gypsophila (Rot and Friedman, 2010) is not affected unless desiccation
is in excess of 15% of the fresh weight. The apoplastic fluorescent dye
100 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

8-hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonic acid (HPTS) were used to measure


water uptake by florets and whole stems. These dye showed positive
effects of anionic detergents (such as Triton X-100) in improving water
uptake in dehydrated flowers (Jones et al., 1993).

3.3.9 ETHYLENE AND OTHER HORMONES

It has long been known that plant hormones and plant growth regulators
can have dramatic effects on floral longevity. The dramatic effects of pol-
lination on orchid flowers (anthocyanin accumulation, wilting) have long
been explained in terms of a response to plant hormones and the interplay
among them (Arditti, 1975). Ethylene is certainly foremost among the hor-
mones affecting flower longevity, but other hormones can affect sensitiv-
ity to ethylene and a large group of flowers is insensitive to ethylene. The
nature of the senescence signal in ethylene-insensitive flowers remains to
be established, but there is evidence that ABA and GA may respectively
play accelerating and retarding roles.

3.3.9.1 Ethylene

Sleepiness of carnations, premature wilting of petals before the flowers


even open was known to be the result of gas leaks in greenhouses long
before the active principle was shown to be ethylene (Crocker, 1913) and
the effects of ethylene on the senescence of flowers and abscission of
flowers and flower parts was well documented in the first half of the 20th
century by researchers at the Boyce Thompson institute and others. The
role of endogenous ethylene in triggering senescence has been well docu-
mented with reports on dynamics of ethylene production, changes in activ-
ity of the biosynthetic enzymes (Bufler, 1984, 1986) and up-regulation of
the genes encoding these enzymes (Woodson et al., 1992). The key role of
ethylene has been corroborated by studies with long-lived carnation cul-
tivars (Wu et al., 1991) and with transgenic or VIGS constructs silencing
the biosynthetic pathway (Savin et al., 1995; Bovy et al., 1999; Chen et al.,
2004). The discovery that the action of ethylene could be inhibited by Agþ
(Beyer, 1976) and the subsequent development of the stable, non-toxic
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 101

silver thiosulfate complex (Veen and Vande Geijn, 1978) has provided an
important commercial tool as silver thiosulfate, still in wide spread use
for preventing ethylene-mediated senescence and abscission in cut flowers
and potted plants. Other inhibitors of ethylene synthesis (amino ethoxyvi-
nyl glycine, aminooxyacetic acid) and action (2,5-norbornadiene) were
also effective to varying degrees, but none is presently being used com-
mercially. Sisler et al. (1984) synthesized diazo-cyclopentadiene (DACP),
a cyclic diolefin with an attached reactive diazo group, and found that it
was very effective in inhibiting ethylene action when dissociated with UV
light after being applied to the tissue. Curiously, the activity only required
exposure to fluorescent light, not the expected shorter wavelength UV
(Sisler and Blankenship, 1993), and DACP treated with fluorescent light
was just as active as DACP itself (Blankenship and Sisler, 1993; Sisler and
Lallu, 1994). Examination of the mixture of breakdown products in the
irradiated DACP revealed the presence of 1-MCP which these researchers
found to be a potent inhibitor of ethylene action (Sisler and Blankenship,
1996). This material has now become a standard treatment for ethylene-
sensitive flowers and potted plants (Serek et al., 1994b, 1995a, b) applied
either as a gas in an enclosed space, or through the use of sachets or nano-
sponges (Seglie et al., 2011) that are placed in boxes prior to transporta-
tion. However, the volatile nature of 1-MCP restricts its application to
an airtight environment. A non-volatile 1-MCP formulation N, N-dipropyl
(1-cyclopropenylmethyl) amine (DPCA) has recently been successfully
tested for improvement of postharvest quality of ornamental crops (Seglie
et al., 2010). Spray application of this new formulation could provide
a major advantage for handling ornamental crops, since they could be
treated prior to harvest in the field or greenhouse. The response of ethyl-
ene-sensitive ornamentals to treatment with 1-MCP varies widely due to
the reason that the inhibitory effects are quickly lost at room temperature
and wears off quite quickly.
Cameron and Reid (2001) studied the ethylene-induced petal abscis-
sion in Pelargonium and measured the response to ethylene by determin-
ing percentage petal abscission from detached flowers after a 2 h ethylene
exposure. The half-life of 1-MCP activity was determined to be 2, 3, and
6 days after 1-MCP treatment at 25, 20, and 12°C, respectively, and there
was no evidence for a residual effect after 4 or 5 days at the two warmer
temperatures. The effects of temperature and perhaps differences among
102 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

species in the persistence of inhibition may reflect differences in the rate of


turnover of the ethylene-binding site. In studies using carnation (Dianthus
caryophyllus L. ‘White Sim’) petals to determine the optimal conditions
for commercial treatment, Reid and Selikel (2008) noted some aspects
of the inhibition response that were not consistent with the competitive
inhibition model of 1-MCP action. They suggested an alternative model in
which 1-MCP binds to a site that is exposed during the allosteric changes
that accompany the enzymatic activities of the binding site in the absence
of ethylene. Using their response to exogenous ethylene, pollination, and
1-MCP, flowers have been broadly classified into two groups ethylene-sen-
sitive and ethylene-insensitive. However, this classification is undoubtedly
too simplistic, since some flowers show an intermediate behavior. In daffo-
dil for example, pollinated flowers, or flowers exposed to ethylene senesce
rapidly, indicating an ethylene-sensitive senescence pattern (Hunter et al.,
2004a). However inhibitors of ethylene action have minimal effect on the
senescence of daffodil flowers held in ethylene-free air indicating that natu-
ral senescence is initiated by regulators other than ethylene. There is still
considerable need for research to identify the role of other hormones in
flower senescence.

3.3.9.2 Abscisic Acid

There is substantial published evidence implicating ABA in the regula-


tion of perianth senescence. Several researchers shown a close association
between petal senescence and increased petal ABA concentrations (Nowak
and Veen, 1982; Hanley and Bramlage, 1989; Onoue et al., 2000) but exog-
enously applied ABA has also been shown to accelerate the senescence of
a number of flowers (Arditti, 1971; Arditti et al., 1971; Mayak and Halevy,
1972; Mayak and Dilley, 1976; Panavas et al., 1998b). Such application
results in many of the same physiological, biochemical, and molecular
events that occur during normal senescence (Panavas et al., 1998b). In eth-
ylene-sensitive flowers such as carnation and roses, ABA-accelerated senes-
cence appears to be mediated through induction of ethylene synthesis, since
it is not seen in flowers that are pretreated with ethylene (Mayak and Dilley,
1976; Ronen and Mayak, 1981; Muller et al., 1999). This is consistent with
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 103

the pattern of endogenous ABA content in rose petals, where the increase
in ABA concentration occurs 2 days after the surge in ethylene production
(Mayak and Halevy, 1972). Also, Daylilies are ethylene-insensitive (Lay-
Yee et al., 1992), ABA presumably induces senescence independently of
ethylene (Panavas et al., 1998b). The fact that ABA accumulates in day-
lily tepals before any increase in activities of hydrolytic enzymes and even
before the flowers has opened was considered evidence that the hormone
may coordinate early events in the transduction of the senescence signal
(Panavas et al., 1998b). Application of ABA to pre-senescent daylily tepals
resulted in a loss of differential membrane permeability, an increase in lipid
peroxidation, increase in the activities of proteases and nucleases, and the
accumulation of senescence-associated mRNAs (Panavas et al., 1998b).
However, during senescence of daffodil flowers, although ABA accumu-
lated in the tepals as they senesced, it did not appear to play a signaling role
in natural senescence (Hunter et al., 2002). The increase in ABA concen-
trations in the tepals occurred after the induction of senescence-associated
genes. They concluded that the increase in ABA content is therefore most
likely a consequence of the cellular stresses that occur during senescence
and suggested that the hormone does not trigger senescence but may help
drive the process to completion.

3.3.9.3 Cytokinins

The striking effects of cytokinins in delaying senescence of leaves were


known (from the effects of benzyl adenine) long before the first isolation
of zeatin. Given the homology between leaves and petals, it is perhaps
not surprising that cytokinins were also found to delay petal senescence
(Mayak and Kofranek, 1976; Eisinger, 1977), an effect that was shown
to be associated both with reducing the sensitivity of the corolla to ethyl-
ene (Mayak and Kofranek, 1976) and with delaying the onset of ethylene
biosynthesis (Mor et al., 1984). Endogenous cytokinins content shows a
pattern consistent with its putative role in delaying senescence buds and
young flowers contain high cytokinins levels, which fall as the flower ages
and commences senescence (Mayak and Halevy, 1970; Van Staden and
Dimalla, 1980; Van Staden et al., 1990). The interplay between cytokinins
104 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

content and senescence in ethylene-sensitive flowers was elegantly dem-


onstrated by Chang et al. (2003), who transformed petunia with a SAG12-
IPT construct designed to increase cytokinins synthesis at the onset of
senescence in leaves (Gan and Amasino, 1995). Cytokinins content of
corollas in the transformed plants increased after pollination, ethylene
synthesis was delayed and flower senescence was delayed 6–10 days. As
in flowers treated with exogenous cytokinins, the flowers from the IPT-
transformed plants were less sensitive to exogenous ethylene and required
longer treatment times to induce endogenous ethylene production and the
symptoms of flower senescence.
Leaf senescence is also an important component of loss of quality in
floricultural crops, particularly members of the Liliaceae. Commercial
pretreatments containing cytokinins and/or gibberellins are recommended
as a prophylaxis in sensitive genera such as Alstroemeria and Lilium. The
non-metabolized cytokinins like thidiazuron (TDZ) have proven very
useful as an amendment in tissue culture and transformation/regenera-
tion media. Ferrante et al. (2001) reasoned that TDZ might be a useful
tool for preventing leaf yellowing in cut flowers. Pulse treatment of cut
Alstroemeria stems with as little as 5 mM TDZ essentially prevented leaf
yellowing in flowers of the cultivar ‘Diamond,’ where yellowing normally
starts after 4–5 days (Ferrante et al., 2001). The flowers of Alstroemeria
are ethylene-insensitive; the TDZ treatment had only a minor effect on
Alstroemeria flower life, although cytokinins have been shown to increase
the life of iris, whose natural senescence is ethylene-independent (Wang
and Baker, 1979; Mutui et al., 2003). In Iris, TDZ treatment at consider-
ably higher concentrations (200–500 mM) significantly improved flower
opening (including the opening of axillary flowers, if present) and flower
life (Macnish et al., 2010b). The treatment was of particular value in that
it reduced the loss of vase life that results from cool storage. While control
iris that were held in cool storage for two weeks had only a very short
display life, those pretreated with TDZ had the same vase life as freshly
harvested controls. Most experiments with TDZ have been conducted with
flowers that are insensitive to ethylene, but in lupins and phlox, TDZ has
been shown to improve flower opening and reduce ethylene-mediated
flower abscission and senescence (Sankhla et al., 2003, 2005) indicating
that TDZ acts like other cytokinins in decreasing ethylene sensitivity and
that this regulator should be tested on a broader range of ornamentals.
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 105

TDZ has also proved to have remarkable effects in improving the post-
harvest life of potted flowering plants. Leaf yellowing is a common post-
harvest problem with potted flowering crops and low concentrations of
TDZ are very effective in preventing this symptom in a wide range of
crops. Researchers showed that the TDZ treatment appears to maintain the
photosynthetic ability of the plants, since fresh and dry weights of TDZ-
treated plants are much higher than those of the controls. After 2 months,
potted cyclamen plants treated with 5 mM TDZ maintained full display
value, while control plants had almost ceased flowering and were showing
obvious etiolation in response to the low light of the display environment.

3.3.9.4 Other Hormones and Regulators

Gibberellins, auxins and other plant hormones and regulators have posi-
tive and negative effects on floral longevity. Auxin is considered an impor-
tant component for the rapid senescence response in orchids and other
flowers to pollination (Arditti, 1975). Several workers observed that plant
growth regulators shows positive response in longevity of the cut flow-
ers. Saks and Staden (1993) showed an increase in longevity of carnation
flowers treated with 0.1 mM gibberellic acid (GA). Commercially, GA
(sometimes in combination with BA) is used in solutions to prevent leaf
yellowing in cut bulb flowers and potted flowering plants. GA treatments
may have the undesirable side effect of increased stem or scape length.
But, floral longevity are largely absent by the use of jasmonic acid, brassi-
nosteroids, and salicylic acid on plant growth, development and responses
to biotic and abiotic stress (Ashraf et al., 2010). Similar to auxins, brassi-
nosteroids stimulate ethylene biosynthesis and their effects on ethylene-
sensitive flowers would be expected to be negative. Jasmonic acid reduced
life of petunias and Dendrobium through stimulation of ethylene produc-
tion (Porat et al., 1993). However, the salicylic acid signaling pathway
has shown response for up-regulation of genes in leaf senescence (Morris
et al., 2000), but the effects of down-regulating this pathway on flower
senescence have not been studied.
106 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

3.3.10 DISEASE

Improper temperature management in the absence of proper pre-cooling


techniques, results in condensation and accelerated growth of pathogens
on delicate petals and other floral parts, particularly when the flowers are
packed under conditions that limit air movement. B. cinerea, a relatively
weak pathogen, is the major pathogen of cut flowers and a range of chemi-
cals have been used for postharvest protection. The push for organic or
sustainable production and the loss of established chemicals has led to an
effort to identify alternative strategies for controlling disease. High CO2
levels provide effective control for species whose leaves (or petals) are
not damaged by the gas. Also, SO2 has shown good control of this patho-
gen, but damages the host (Hammer et al., 1990). Recently, Macnish et al.
(2010d) reported the efficacy of a simple dip in a solution of NaHClO4,
which has excellent performance as well as considered for the commer-
cial fungicides. Methyl jasmonate (MJ), a natural plant growth regulator
has been tested for postharvest control of B. cinerea in cut flowers of a
range of rose cultivars (Meir et al., 1998). Pulse applications of 200–400
mM MJ following either natural or artificial infection seemed to provide
systemic protection. MJ applications significantly reduced lesion size
and appearance of the infection apparently due to inhibition of B. cinerea
spore germination and germ-tube elongation. Effective concentrations of
MJ caused no loss of flower quality or longevity.

3.3.11 GROWTH AND TROPIC RESPONSES

Elongation of many cut flowers occurs in response to environmental


cues, particularly gravity and there has been considerable research effort
devoted to understanding the mechanisms for these responses and to devise
strategies to prevent them. Researchers agreed that the primary driver
for gravitropic responses is the redistribution of auxin in response to its
polar transport, and differential growth in response to that redistribution
(McClure and Guilfoyle, 1989; Vanneste and Friml, 2009). Vanneste and
Friml (2009) also observed the rate-limiting step in changed auxin distri-
bution is the activity of the auxin efflux carriers (called PIN, based on a
mutant phenotype of the gene). Some research has suggested a role for
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 107

ethylene and/or calcium in the response (Philosoph-Hadas et al., 1996;


Friedman et al., 1998). It has been observed that the gravitropic response of
Antirrhinum majus could be avoided by a pretreatment with silver thiosul-
fate. The importance of auxin redistribution in the gravitropic response is
well demonstrated by the impressive effects of pretreatment with naphthyl
phthalamic acid, an auxin transport inhibitor (Teasetal, 1959), but has not
been developed as a commercial pre-treatment for flowers such as antir-
rhinum, gladiolus that have pronounced gravitropic responses. Unwanted
stem elongation can be a problem even for flowers that are held vertical to
prevent gravitropic responses. In some (ethylene insensitive) flowers, this
problem can be overcome by the treatment with ethylene or ethephon. Van
Doorn et al. (2011) noticed that the negative effects of ethylene could be
overcome by simultaneous treatment with GA (to overcome inhibition of
opening and stimulation of leaf yellowing) in tulip, BA (to prevent ethyl-
ene-stimulated tepal abscission), and Caþþ (to prevent BA-induced stem
browning). This has become a standard treatment for flowers transported
from the Netherlands to the United States in refrigerated marine containers.
Clearly a genetic approach that would select for tulips with minimal scape
elongation after floral maturation would be a preferable long-term strategy.

3.3.12 CARBOHYDRATE SUPPLY

The high respiration of flowers and the energy required for flower growth,
bud opening and floral display requires substantial energy reserves in
harvested cut flowers. The primary component in floral preservatives is
a simple sugar like fructose, glucose or sucrose that reflects the profound
effects of added carbohydrates on flower development, opening and dis-
play life. Responses to sugar in the vase solution include improved floral
opening (Doi and Reid, 1995), improved pigmentation and size of the
opening flowers (Choetal, 2001), improved water relations (Acock and
Nichols, 1979) and even reduced sensitivity to ethylene (Nichols, 1973).
In gladiolus, senescing flowers appear to supply carbohydrate to those still
developing. Therefore, removal of senescing florets on gladiolus spikes,
significantly reduced opening and size of florets (Serek et al., 1994a). The
most striking effects of carbohydrate stress in harvested cut flowers is
the blackening of leaves of cut flower proteas (Reid et al., 1989). These
108 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

bird-pollinated flowers produce copious nectar; in the postharvest environ-


ment there is insufficient photosynthate to meet the demands of the flower,
resulting in necrotic death of the leaves. Girdling the stem just below the
flower (Newman et al., 1989), holding the flowers in high light conditions
(Bieleski et al., 1992) or providing supplementary carbohydrate (Newman
et al., 1989) prevents the blackening symptoms. This study highlighted
the importance of the leaves in supplying carbohydrate to the flower. It
appears that sugar in the flower preservative is transported in the xylem to
the leaves, where it enters the symplast and is transported to the flowers
via the phloem (Halevy and Mayak, 1979). The potential benefits of tre-
halose has also been reported to mitigate the damaging effects of ionizing
radiation and to extend the postharvest life of gladiolus flowers (Otsubo
and Iwaya-Inoue, 2000). Trehalose delayed the symptoms of senescence
by protective effect on membranes and associated programmed cell death
events including nuclear fragmentation. One of the remarkable technolo-
gies that have been successful in improving the opening and vase life of
cut flowers is the provision of additional carbohydrate in high concen-
tration or “pulse” pretreatments (Halevy and Mayak, 1979). Pulsing has
shown successful treatment in gladiolus (Mayak et al., 1973), the opening
of Strelitzia flower (Halevy et al., 1978), Eustoma (Halevy and Kofranek,
1984; Cho et al., 2001) and tuberose (Naidu and Reid, 1989; Waithaka et
al., 2001). In lisianthus, the pretreatment greatly improves the color of the
newly opened blooms and in tuberose, it ensures satisfactory bud opening
which normally is inhibited by even brief periods of cool storage.

3.4 CAUSES FOR DECLINE IN VASE LIFE OF CUT FLOWERS

3.4.1 CULTURAL INFLUENCES

Basically, those forces which improve crop quality before and after har-
vest usually improve vase life. Light intensity is very important. A crop
grown under low light, such that light is a limiting factor for photosyn-
thesis, will be low in carbohydrate content. Respiration continues after
the flower is harvested, but little photosynthesis occurs, because light is
limited in the packing house, florist shop, and consumer’s home. When
carbohydrates are low, respiration is very low and flower senescence
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 109

(deterioration) occurs. Optimum light intensity during growth of the crop


is very important to vase life. Temperature also influences photosynthe-
sis and respiration, which in turn influence carbohydrate accumulation.
During hot periods of the year, crops sensitive to high temperatures, have
shorter vase life because flowers contain low carbohydrate levels. When
the temperature is raised to an adversely high level to force earlier flow-
ering, the same problem occurs. Nutrition of the crop likewise has an
effect on flower longevity. Shortages or toxicities of nutrients that retard
photosynthesis will reduce vase life. Deficiency in a number of nutrients,
including nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese, result in a
reduction in the chlorophyll content, which in turn reduces photosynthe-
sis. The net result is a low carbohydrate supply for the flower. High levels
of nitrogen at flowering time can have an adverse effect on keeping qual-
ity. Diseases and insects reduce the vigor of the plant, directly reducing
vase life. Diseases also reduce vase life indirectly: injured tissue releases
large quantities of ethylene gas, which hastens senescence or deterioration
of the flower.
In fact, fresh flowers deteriorate for one or more reasons. Five of the
most common reasons for early senescence are:
1. Inability of stems to absorb water due to blockage;
2. Excessive water loss from the cut flower;
3. A short supply of carbohydrate to support respiration;
4. Diseases;
5. Ethylene gas.

3.4.2 INSUFFICIENT WATER UPTAKE

Inability to absorb water is a very common reason for premature wilting.


The water-conducting tubes in the stem (xylem) become plugged. Bacteria,
yeast, and/or fungi living in the water or on the flower or foliage pro-
liferate in the containers holding the flowers. These microorganisms and
their chemical products plug the stem ends, restricting water absorption.
They continue to multiply inside and eventually block the xylem tubes.
Chemical blockage also can occur. Chemicals present in some stems, upon
cutting, change into a gum like material, which blocks the end of the stem.
110 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Excessive water loss from flowers can lead to wilting and reduction
in quality and vase life. After harvest, flowers should be removed from
the field or greenhouse and refrigerated as soon as possible. Leaving the
flowers out of water, in warm air or in warm drifts such as from a heater,
causes considerable damage. Flowers should be in water and under cool
temperatures as much as possible from the time they are cut until they
reach the final customer.
Low carbohydrates are another reason for flower deterioration. A low
carbohydrate supply can occur as a result of improper storage temperature
and handling. Respiration continues to be governed by temperature after
harvest. Low temperatures reduce respiration and conserve carbohydrates,
thereby prolonging quality and vase life. Each of the many stages in the
marketing channel must be watched. Flowers should be placed in cold
storage as soon after harvesting as possible. They should be refrigerated
during surface transport and during holding periods at the wholesaler and
retailer. Serious damage occurs when flowers are left on a heated loading
dock at the motor or air-freight terminal or when they are left sitting in a
hot warehouse for a day or so.
The harmful effect of ethylene with fruits, especially apples, gives off
large quantities of ethylene gas, making it inadvisable to store contain-
ing flowers in coolers. Ethylene is evolved from plant tissue, particularly
injured and old plant tissue. The cooler should be kept clean of plant
debris such as cut stems and leaves that might accumulate on the floor. Old
unsalable flowers should be discarded. Ethylene gas has many deleterious
effects. Generally it causes premature deterioration of flowers. Ethylene
can cause flower wilting and is generally not reversible.

3.4.3 ETHYLENE

Ethylene, called the ripening, senescence and wound hormone, is a natu-


rally occurring plant hormone. It is important in the reproductive cycle
of plants. It triggers the ripening and senescence of flowers and fruit
and is also produced when plants are wounded. Many decay and disease
organisms also produce ethylene. Ethylene damages some cut flower
species by causing flowers to drop prematurely, flower buds to not open,
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 111

and flower petals to close. There are three strategies to prevent ethylene
damage:
1. Keep ethylene from flowers by preventing ethylene pollution;
2. Remove ethylene from the atmosphere;
3. Inhibit the effect of ethylene on flowers.
Some specific measures to prevent ethylene damage on flowers are:
1. Make sure CO2 generators in greenhouses and oil or gas heaters
in greenhouses and handling areas are working properly and well
vented.
2. Protect plants against pest and diseases.
3. Prevent pollination of flowers.
4. Harvest flowers at optimum stage.
5. Avoid physical injury to flowers during handling.
6. Cool flowers as soon as possible after harvest.
7. Keep storage and handling facilities clean, and remove diseased
and dying plant material.
8. Do not use internal combustion engines in any handling work or
production areas.
9. Have good air circulation and ventilation in handling and storage
areas.
10. No smoking in handling and storage areas.
11. Do not store flowers with ethylene producing fruits and vegetables.
12. Do not store newly harvested flowers in bud stages with fully open
flowers.
13. Use ethylene scrubbers in cold storage area.
14. Use STS treatment on sensitive species.
15. Use other chemical treatments in floral preservatives.
There are various chemicals that can inhibit the effect of ethylene. The
most common is the metal ion silver. It usually is applied to flowers in
the form silver thiosulfate, STS. It acts on both ethylene receptors and
production sites in the flower. This protects the flowers from ethylene in
the environment and it stops the flower from producing ethylene itself.
Other chemicals are 1-MCP (1-methylcyclopropene) a gas which acts
only on receptors, but is not available commercially, and EVB (Pokon and
112 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Chrystal) and Vita Flora which act on the flower’s ethylene production
sites. To treat or pulse flowers with STS, stems are placed in STS solution
for 20 min at 18°C. Floralife sells a two-part solution that makes STS.
Sanitation is of utmost importance in handling fresh cut flowers. The
handling area and cold storage should be cleaned and sanitized after each
use. Equipment, cutting utensils, containers and handling surfaces should
be cleaned and disinfected with a 1:10 bleach solution. Unmarketable
flowers should be disposed of after each harvest. Dirty harvest and hold-
ing containers and cutting utensils spread disease. Dying plant material is
a reservoir for plant disease organisms and produces ethylene. All shorten
the vase life of flowers.

3.4.4 HARVEST

The most important factors for harvest are when, how and where, “when”
the plant material will reach the optimum stage of development and
“when” during the day to harvest. Each plant material has its own best
harvest stage and this can vary depending on the use of, and market for, the
plant material. Materials for preserving usually are harvested more mature
than those for fresh, wholesale markets.
The other “when” is, when the best time of day for harvesting flow-
ers is? The best time is the coolest part of the day and when there is
no surface water from dew or rain on the plants. Also, harvesters need
enough light to see what they are harvesting. This usually is in the cool
of the morning after the dew has dried. Late afternoon or evening also
has possibilities because the plants have stored carbohydrates from the
day, which will provide a food reserve for the plant material. “How” and
“where” go together? Besides knowing at what stage of development to
harvest, where and how to cut the flower on the plant also is important.
This is most important on plants that produce multiple flowers/crops
per season. The growers want to harvest the longest stem possible with-
out sacrificing future production. For this, leave at least two- to five-
nodes (growing points) below cut to ensure new growth. Very vigorous
plants can be cut back to fewer nodes, while less vigorous plants should
have more nodes left. Most stems should be at least 15 to 18 inches
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 113

long. Longer lengths usually are better. It does not matter if the cut is
slanted or squared, but it does matter that one should use sharp, clean
cutting knife/secateur. Sharp cutting knife/secateur will not crush the
xylem and block the flow of water up the stem. Clean knife/secateur
will not introduce harmful microbes to the cut stems. Some shears are
designed to hold the flower after it is cut. Inexperienced harvesters may
find shears less dangerous than knives. Cutting knife/secateur should
be cleaned daily with disinfectant, for example, 1:10 solution of chlo-
rine bleach in water. Flowers with sticky sap require special treatment
immediately after harvest. To prevent the flow of the sticky sap, which
can block the xylem, dip the cut ends in boiling water for 10 sec or sear
with a flame, immediately after harvest. For example, poppies, mignon-
ette and poinsettia.

3.4.4.1 Stages of Harvest

For better vase life and quality, the flowers should be harvested at opti-
mum developmental stage. Flowers harvested at immature stage do not
develop properly in water or vase solution after harvest. If, however, har-
vested late, flowers last only for a short duration. Although, there is no
general rule to decide the optimum stage of harvest of flowers, the stage
for cutting flowers for direct sale varies with the types of flowers and
their varieties. The flowers of gladiolus, lilium, hippeastrum, iris and tulip
should be harvested when their flower buds show color, while the flowers
of cymbidium, cattleya, dendrobium, phalaenopsis, gaillardia, helianthus,
cyclamen, dahlia, calendula and rudbeckia when they are fully opened.

3.4.4.2 Bud Harvesting

Bud harvesting is a procedure that is used infrequently but is fairly well


proven and has a tremendous potential. Carnations and chrysanthemums
can be harvested and shipped in the bud stage, which cuts down greatly on
their volume and hence lowers the cost of shipping. The wholesaler may
then store the buds or open them immediately for resale. Once open, the
114 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 3.1 Optimal Stage of Development for Harvest of Fresh Cut Flowers
Common Name Species Stage of Development
African Marigold Tagetes erecta Fully open flowers
Annual Gaillardia Gaillardia pulchella Fully open flowers
Astilbe Astilbe hybrids One-half florets open
Bachelor’s Button Centaurea spp. Flowers beginning to open
Pot Marigold Calendula officinalis Fully open flowers
Canterbury Bells Campanula spp. One-half florets open
China Aster Callistephus chinensis Fully open flowers
Clarkia Clarkia unquiculata One-half florets open
Glory Lily Gloriosa superba Almost fully open flowers
Cockscomb Celosia argentea var. cristata One-half florets open
Stock Matthiola incana One-half florets open
Tulip Tulipa cvs. Half-colored buds
Foxglove Digitalis purpurea One-half florets open
Sunflower Helianthus annuus Fully open flowers
Coreopsis Coreopsis grandiflora Fully open flowers
Daffodils Narcissus cvs. Goose neck stage
Dahlia Dahlia cvs. Fully open flowers
Daylily Hemerocallis cvs. Half-open flowers
Delphinium Delphinium spp. One-half florets open
Dutch Iris Iris x hollandica Colored buds
English Daisy Bellis perennis Fully open flowers
Freesia Freesia hybrids First bud beginning to open
Gladiolus Gladiolus cultivars 1 to 5 buds showing color
Golden rod Solidago spp. One-half florets open
Amaranth Amaranthus tricolor One-half florets open
Larkspur Consolida ambigua 2 to 5 florets open
Lily-of-the-Valley Convallaria majalis One-half florets open
Lisianthus Eustoma grandiflorum 5 to 6 open flowers
Lupine Lupinus cvs. Russell One-half florets open
Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus Fully open flowers
Pansy Viola x wittrockiana Almost open flowers
Peony Peonia cvs. Colored buds
Perennial Gaillardia Gaillardia x grandiflora Fully open flowers
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 115

TABLE 3.1 Continued


Common Name Species Stage of Development
Baby’s Breath Gypsophila spp. Flowers open but not overly
mature
Snapdragon Antirrhinum majus One-third florets open
Statice or Sea-lavendar Limonium spp. Almost fully open flowers
Garden Phlox Phlox paniculata One-half florets open
Sweet Pea Lathyrus odoratus One-half florets open
Sweet William Dianthus barbatus One-half florets open
Florists Violet Viola odorata Almost open flowers
Lilium Lilium spp. Colored buds
Torch-Lily Kniphofia uvaria Almost all florets are
showing color
Tuberose Polianthes tuberosa Majority of florets open
Yarrow Achillea filipendulina Fully open flowers
Zinnia Zinnia elegans Fully open flowers

flower has at the least the same vase life potential as a flower cut mature
(Table 3.1).
Bud harvesting enables a grower to produce more crops per year in
the greenhouse space. There is a significant increase in net return to the
grower. There are other advantages to this system. Buds are more immune
to handling injuries and ethylene toxicity, making a higher-quality final
product possible. As in the case of mature harvested flowers, buds will
dry store very well, enabling one to build up the inventory for higher-
priced market dates. Bud harvesting is not a new concept for all crops,
since roses, gladiolus, iris, tulips, peony, etc., have always been cut in the
bud stage.
When needed, buds are removed from the storage box, one-half inch
of stem is cut off, and they are placed in a floral preservative solution. The
buckets of buds are held in an opening room at 21–24°C until the buds are
fully open. A low light intensity is provided in the opening room. The open
flowers may be held under refrigeration in the preservative solution or they
may be sold directly. The quality and longevity of these flowers has been
reported to be superior to those harvested at maturity.
116 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Bud harvesting is becoming important. Growers who ship flowers


great distances recognize its value and find it necessary to use this system.
Greater cooperation among growers, wholesalers, and retailers will foster
it even more.
Advantages of harvesting cut flowers in bud stage:
1. Reduction in sensitivity of flowers to drastic condition and C2H4
during handling and transit.
2. Saving space during shipment and storage.
3. Extending the vase life of flowers.
4. Reducing the time, the crop remain in the greenhouse enabling a
‘once over’ harvesting of a crop.
5. Improving the size, opening, color and longevity of cut flower espe-
cially those grown under poor light or high temperature condition.
6. Minimizing the hazard of damage to field grown flower by adverse
external condition.

3.4.4.3 Handling

Once harvested, there are a series of steps or tasks done to prepare the
flowers for market. These are collectively called handling. These handling
steps include:
1. Grading
2. Leaf Removal
3. Bunching
4. Recutting
5. Hydration
6. Special Treatments
7. Packing
8. Precooling
9. Cold Storage
10. Delivery to Market
Not all of these are done to all flowers and whether they are used or not
depends on the market the flowers are going to be sold to. Where and how
the steps are done depends on the market and the facilities of the operation.
Flowers can have all the handling steps performed in the field, only some
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 117

done in the field with the rest in the packaging shed or have all handling
steps done in the packaging shed. Field handling usually is limited to leaf
removal, grading, bunching, hydrating, and packing with immediate trans-
port to market or cold storage for brief holding. Flowers for local retail mar-
kets often are packed this way since they are marketed immediately after
harvest. Flowers also can have these steps performed in the field and then
be transported to a packing shed where re-cutting, special treatments, pre-
cooling and dry packing can be performed. All the handling steps can be
done in a packaging shed. It often makes for a better flow of activities if they
are all done in the same place. Some of the steps can only be feasibly done in
the packaging shed, such as special treatments, pre-cooling, cold storage and
re-cutting. These extra steps usually are done for flowers going to wholesale
markets. The packaging shed may be an ultra modern air-conditioned build-
ing or an open air covered porch. The handling space should:
• Be shaded or covered to keep temperatures lower and prevent direct
sunlight on the flowers.
• Be well lit so you can see well when grading the flowers.
• Have a clean water source for preparing harvest, treatment and hold-
ing solutions, and for use in cleaning the area.
• Have ample space so all handling activities can be performed
smoothly, such that workers are not crossing over each other.
• Have a cold storage or at least a cooler, shaded place to store the
flowers until they are ready for market.
• Have a place to prepare for harvest activities.
Although, the first step after cutting the stem, whether to be handle them in
the field or in the packaging shed, should be to place in water or a harvest solu-
tion. This solution may be acidified (pH 3.5) either with citric acid or a floral
preservative. The harvest containers should be clean and disinfected after each
use. Flowers should never be laid on the bare ground. After the harvest con-
tainer is full of flowers, place them in a cool place until they can be handled or
taken to market. The cool place can be a shady area in the field or a refriger-
ated cold storage. Do not over fill the containers. This will bruise flowers and
cause some to tangle with each other. Leaves should be stripped off from the
stem. If the flowers are being field handled this can be done before they are
placed in the harvest containers or before they are bunched into marketable
bouquets. Usually, leaves are stripped off from the bottom one- third of the
stem or at least the ones that would be in any holding solution.
118 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

3.4.5 CONDITIONING

While handling in the field or in grading room, flowers suffer from water
stress. Conditioning is normally done by saturating the cut flowers with
water, initially with warm water at room temperature and then overnight
in the cool room. When flowers are wilted, turgidity can be restored by
immersing the entire flower in water for 1 h before conditioning. Hydration
is considerably promoted when water is de-aerated or acidified or when
wetting agent is added.
Conditioning of the flowers is required to rehydrate and to overcome slight
wilting. The purpose is to load the flower with water to ensure maximum tur-
gidity at the time of sale and utilization. Steps for proper conditioning:
1. Remove about 5–8 cm or 2–3 inches or more of the stem ends if the
stems have been out of water for a long time.
2. Soak the cut stem ends in warm water (40–43°C, pH 3.5), prefer-
ably in a cool room, until flowers are fully rehydrated.

3.4.6 QUALITY AND GRADING

Grading starts with deciding which flowers to harvest. Only marketable flow-
ers should be harvested. Marketable flowers are free of blemishes, including
both leaves and petals. The flowers can be grouped or graded by stem length
if there are differences and also by developmental stage. More mature ones
should be sold as soon as possible, while others can be held in cold stor-
age for later sales. How the flowers are bunched and packaged depends on
the market, where it is being used. In a local retail market, lot of flexibility
has been seen, but customers has to decide what sells are the best. Mixed
bunches and single type bunches are both popular. Larger flowers such as
lilies, gladiolus and sunflowers often are sold as single stems. Sleeving or
wrapping the bunch helps prevent the different bunches and flowers from
becoming tangled. Columbine, larkspur, delphinium, baby primrose, forget-
me-nots and buddleia are flowers that should be wrapped or sleeved prior to
marketing to prevent tangling. Wholesale markets have a set of guidelines
for the methods of bunching and packaging flowers. Most are bunched by
10’s or 5’s. Some, like roses and carnations, are bunched by 25’s. Lilies-of-
the-Valley are bunched in 25’s and Sweet Violets are bunched in 100’s with
a collar of leaves underneath the flowers. Large, expensive to grow flowers
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 119

can be sold by single stems. Most are boxed and shipped dry. Proper pre-
shipping handling is important in order to get flowers to the market in good
shape. The flowers should be well hydrated but not wet when packed. The
flowers like snapdragons and gladiolus need to be packed upright to prevent
the tips from curving. Special boxes or hampers are made for these types of
flowers. Once bunched, flowers should be hydrated, placed in water for a
while before they are packed dry. The hydrating step should include a step
where, after the flowers are bunched, the stems are recut under water to
eliminate any air bubbles in the xylem that can block the uptake of water.
These air bubbles can occur when the flowers were harvested. Once recut,
the flower can be placed in a general holding solution used to hydrate the
flowers or receive a special treatment such as silver thiosulfate. Flowers
usually are not packed dry into boxes in the field but are in the packing
shed for distant wholesale markets. When flowers are packed into boxes, the
bunch are sleeved or wrapped and then packed tightly so the bunches do not
move or vibrate in transit (causes bruising). The standard flower box is 12 ×
12 × 48 inches. There are smaller sizes, too, called half or quarter boxes that
are 6 × 12 × 48 inches and 6 × 6 × 48 inches, respectively.
1. Sort the flowers according to the following: cultivar, stage of matu-
rity, extent of damage due to pests and diseases, malformed floral
parts and color defects.
2. Grade according to stem length or size.
3. Bunch flowers according to number, cost, susceptibility to injury,
and display quality of individual flower heads.
4. Tie bunches below the flower head, and about two inches from the
cut stem ends. Tying should not be too loose or too tight. Rubber
bands are best, because they can hold the bunch securely. They are
easier to use and cheaper than tape or wire.

3.4.6.1 Quality of Flowers and Ornamental Plants

a. 
Subjective evaluation of flower quality (Qualitative): It includes
color, fragrance, cleanliness and form.
b. 
Objective evaluation of flower quality (Quantitative): It includes
flower diameter, leaf size, stem length, bulb circumference, plant
height and bunch weight.
120 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Normally, flowers should be free from brushing, injury dirt or foreign


materials, nutritional, chemical or mechanical abnormality, free from diseases
and pests or petal discoloration. Sizes of flowers should be the representative
of the required cultivar. Bright, clean and firm flowers and leaves of uniform
stem length must be selected. Cut stem should be straight and strong, capable
of holding the flowers in upright position. Flowers are graded according to
the standards of the society of American florist (SAF) and EEC standards in
Europe. Stem length is considered the most important point for grading:

3.4.6.2 Roses

Stem length is considered the most important point for grading:


Code Difference between shortest and longest
stem (cm)
1. For stem length 0–15<20 cm 2.5 cm
2. For stem length 20–60 cm 5 cm
3. For stem length 60 cm and above 10 cm

3.4.6.3 Orchid

Grading is done mainly on length of the flower spike, flower no. size and
arrangement of flowers on spike.

3.4.6.4 Chrysanthemum

Metric grade specification for spray mum:


Grade Stems per sleeve Specifications
Gold 10 6 flowers or more out and some to come
Silver 15 4 or 5 flowers out and some to come
Bronze 20 3 flowers out and some to come
Make-up (—) All stems not covered above, filling sleeves to some
extent as other grades

3.4.6.5 For Standard Chrysanthemum

Stem length should not be less than 66 cm and those less than 51 cm should
be marked as short. Society of American Florist (SAF) specifications:
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 121

Quality parameters Blue Red Green Yellow grade

Min. stem length (cm) 75 75 60 60


Min. flower diameter (cm) 15 12.5 10.0 _
Stem strength Strong Strong Strong Strong

Pompons are graded into 250–340 g bunches having several stems. For
pot-mums, there is no standard grade. Plants should be bushy with good
growth, 2.0–2.5 times as tall as their pots, having a minimum of 15 flowers
and free from pest and diseases. A plant having 20–25 good quality flow-
ers would be desirable.

3.4.6.6 Gladiolus

Spikes are graded based on overall quality, length of spikes and number of
florets in each spike.
Grade Spike length (cm) Minimum number of florets
Fancy >107 cm 16
Special >96≤ 107 cm 15
Standard >81 to ≤ 96 cm 12
Utility ≤ 81 10

3.4.6.7 Carnation

White and pink standard carnations are in great demand followed by Red,
Yellow, Sky blue and Bicolor. Society of American Florist (SAF) sug-
gested the following inspection standards for cut carnation. Standard spec-
ifications are bright, clean, firm flowers and leaves, fairly tight petals near
the center of the unopened flowers, Symmetrical flower shape and size
characteristics of the cultivar, no split or mended calyx, no lateral bud or
sucker, no decay or damage, straight stem and normal growth.
For standard carnation Grade
Quality parameters Blue Red Green White
Min. flower diameter (cm) 7.0 5.7 _ _
Stem length (cm) 55 42.5–55 25–42.5 any
Stem strength Strong Strong Unrestricted –
122 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

3.4.7 QUALITY STANDARDS

Extra Class
Produce which qualifies for Class I without the aid of any tolerance. This
excludes American Carnations with split calyx.
Class-I
Flowers must be of good quality, characteristics of the species variety.
They must be whole, fresh, unburied, free of animal or vegetables parasites
and resultant damage, free of residues of pesticides and other extraneous
matter affecting appearance and free of development defects. Tolerance
permitted up to 7 per cent.
Class-II
Flowers which do not meet all requirements of Class-I but are whole,
fresh, free of animal parasites. Slight defects such as malformation,
brushing, damage, small marks, weaker and less rigid stems may be
present provided they do not impair appearance. Tolerance permitted
upto 10%.
EC’s standards are generally applicable to all cut flowers – no sepa-
rate standard for different species of cut flowers have been established
with the exception of mimosa. Whereas, the United Nation’s Economic
Commission for Europe has recommended general as well as specified
standards for a number of flowers.
The U.S.A. has no official standards for cut flowers. The society of
America Florists has recommended standards for certain cut flowers which
included carnations. The grades are known as Blue, Red and Green and are
based on flower diameter and length of stem.
The ECE of UN or EEC standards ignore length of stem and flower
diameter in making class selections. Thus, Extra Class may contain classi-
fied flowers with both long and short stems. Nonetheless flowers must be
sorted out according to stem length as given below:
Description Code Minimum and Maximum Stem Length (in cm)
0 Less than 5 cm or flowers marked without stems
5 5–10
10 10–15
15 15–20
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 123

Description Code Minimum and Maximum Stem Length (in cm)


20 20–30
30 30–40
40 40–50
50 50–60
80 80–100
100 100–120
120 120

In any unit of presentation (e.g., bunch, bouquet or box, etc.) the maxi-
mum permitted difference between shortest and largest stem lengths is as
follows:
Description Code Stem length (cm)
For stem lengths 0–15 < 20 cm 2.5
For stem lengths 20–60 5
For stem lengths 60 and over > 60 cm 10

3.4.8 PRE-COOLING

Pre-cooling is a step that rapidly brings the temperature of the flowers


down from the field temperature to a proper storage temperature. A low
temperature slows the respiration rate of the flowers which in turn helps
them last longer. Forced-air-cooling is the best method for flowers; cool
air is actively forced with fans through the bunched flower. This can be
done when the flowers are in a bucket or when they are packed dry into
boxes. The pre-cooling of flowers is a very important step for individuals
selling to a large wholesale market, distant markets and if their crop is to
be stored for a long time such as peonies. Individuals who sell at a local
retail market usually do not need to worry about this step since their flow-
ers will be in the customer’s home the day they are picked.
All flowers should be pre-cooled after harvest as quickly as possible.
Flowers may be pre-cooled by placing them in a cold storage without pack-
ing or in open boxes, until they reach the desired temperature. Pre-cooling
slows down respiration, checks breakdown of nutritional and other stored
materials in the stem, leaves and petals, slows bud opening and inhibit
124 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 3.2 Pre-Cooling Temperature for Various Species and Cultivar


Sl. No. Flowers Pre-cooling temperature
1. Alstroemeria 4°C
2. Anthurium 13°C
3. Cattleya 7–10°C
4. Chrysanthemum –0.5 to 4°C
5. Cymbidium –0.5 to 4°C
6. Paphiopedilum –0.5 to 4°C
7. Dendrobium 5–7°C
8. Carnation 1°C
9. Gerbera 4°C
10. Gladiolus 4–5°C
11. Rose 1–3°C
12. Bird of Paradise 7–8°C

flower senescence. It also prevents rapid water loss and decreases flower
sensitivity to ethylene. The pre-cooled flower should be packed in cold
room to prevent rapid rise of their temperature (Table 3.2).

3.4.9 PULSING

It improves the quality of cut flowers. This is a short-term treatment given


to the cut flowers before packing. Its effect normally lasts for the entire
shelf life of the flower even when the flowers are held in water. The cut
flower may be pulsed with flower preservatives containing sugar, anti-
microbial substances and anti-ethylene substances. The main ingredient of
pulsing solution is however, sugar. Sucrose replaces the depleted endog-
enous carbohydrate utilized during the post-harvest life of flowers. It helps
in continuation of normal metabolic activities after harvest and inhibition
of the process associated with senescence. Excessive concentration of
sugar in floral preservatives may be harmful, whereas, too low concentra-
tion may not produce an optimal response (Table 3.3).
Sugar should be added to the water of flowers at the bud stage or if flow-
ers are to be shipped to distant markets or stored for an extended period.
The stalks should be put in a 10–20% sugar concentration for between
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 125

TABLE 3.3 Percentage of Sucrose for Different Cut Flowers


Sl. No. Flowers Percentage of Sucrose
1. Rose 2–6%
2. Chrysanthemum 2–6%
3. Bird of Paradise 10%
4. GYPSOPHILA 10%
5. CARNATION 10%
6. GLADIOLUS 20%
7. GERBERA 20%

12 and 24 h. Too much sugar may result in leaf yellowing, although there
may be no noticeable injury to the flowers. To acidify the solution, it is
suggested to add a small amount of citric acid as follows:
For soft water, use 0.1 g/L
For medium hard water, use 0.3 g/L
For hard water, use 0.45 g/L

3.4.9.1 Preservatives for Extending Vase Life

Fresh flower preservatives are chemicals added to water to make flow-


ers last longer. They contain a germicide, a food source, a pH adjuster,
water, and sometimes surfactants and hormones. Germicides are used to
control bacteria, yeasts and molds. These microorganisms harm flowers by
producing ethylene, blocking the xylem, producing toxins and increasing
sensitivity to low temperatures. Bacterial counts of 10 to 100 million per
1 mL impairs uptake, while counts of 3 billion per 1 mL causes wilting.
Some common germicides are listed on the following page. 8-HQC is the
most common one used in commercial floral preservatives. Sucrose is the
most common food source used in floral preservatives. It provides energy
to sustain flowers longer and to open flowers in the bud stage. One-to-two
percent sucrose is the standard amount in preservatives. Never use sucrose
without a germicide, as it is the primary food source for microorganisms,
too. Acids or acid salts are added to adjust the pH of the water to 3.5–5.0.
At this pH, less microbes can grow and water is taken up by the flow-
ers more easily. Surfactants and wetting agents like Tween 20 and Triton
126 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

reduces water tension. Water is the most important component of floral


preservatives. pH, temperature, soluble salts, alkalinity and hardness are to
be ensured in normal range before adding floral preservatives. Acidic water
with pH 3.5 to 5.0 is considered best. Water with a low pH is taken up by
the flowers quicker and more easily. The lower pH inhibits the growth of
xylem blocking microbes. Citric acid, an organic acid, usually is used to
acidify water. Warm water has less dissolved gases that enhance the post-
harvest life of commercial flowers than cool water possessing more dis-
solved gas bubbles that can cause blockages in the xylem like microbes.
Fluoride is one specific ion that causes many problems in postharvest
life of cut flowers. It is commonly added to municipal water supplies to
prevent tooth decay in humans. Flowers in the lily family and other mono-
cots are more sensitive to fluoride than others. Fluoride toxicity is more of
a problem at a lower pH, which is best for holding flowers.
Floral preservatives perform three functions:
1. Provide sugar (carbohydrate);
2. Supply a bactericide to prevent microbial growth and blockage of
the water-conductive cells in the stem;
3. Acidify the solution.
The most popular preservatives today contain 8-hydroxyquinoline
citrate (8-HQC) and sucrose (common table sugar). The 8-HQC is a bacte-
ricide and an acidifying agent. Besides suppressing bacterial development
and lowering the pH, 8-HQC also prevents chemical blockage, thus aiding
in the absorption of water. Sucrose taken up by the stem maintains qual-
ity and turgidity and extends vase life by supplementing the carbohydrate
supply.
There are a number of commercial preservatives in the market as
Floralife®, Petalife®, Oasis®, Rogard®, and Everbloom®. These work
well. One can also purchase 8-HQC under the name oxine citrate from
florist companies and add sucrose to make the preservatives.
The bactericide 8-HQC is not totally effective in preventing the build
up of bacteria in floral solutions. Chlorine is a very effective bactericide
but dissipates quickly from solution unless provided in a slow-release
form. Two slow-release forms sold extensively in products includ-
ing bleaches, deodorizers, detergents, dishwashing compounds, and
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 127

swimming-pool additives are DICA (sodium dichloroisocyanurate) and


DDMH (1,3-dichloro-5,5-dimethyhydantoin). Both are highly effective
bactericides for floral preservation. Each is used at a concentration of 300
ppm in the place of 8-HQC. DICA or DDMH is used with sucrose at a
concentration of 2%. These chlorine compounds will bleach stems and
leaves immersed in the preservative solution. They may also injure outer
petals. These disadvantages are outweighed by the superior bactericidal
effects of these materials.
Floral preservatives are very effective in maintaining quality and
extending longevity. On the average, they can double the vase life of cut
flowers when compared to water. Snapdragons with a life expectancy of
5- to 6-days last up to 12 days in preservatives.
Besides the standard floral preservative solutions for holding flowers
there are some specific solutions and treatments that serve different needs.
• A harvesting solution often will simply be water acidified with citric
acid to a pH of 3.5–5.0.
• A conditioning, hardening, or hydrating solution is used to restore
the turgor of wilted flowers and dry packed flowers. It usually is
warm water with a germicide, acidified to pH 3.5–5.0 with citric acid
and a wetting agent, for example, Tween 20 at 0.01–0.1%.
• Impregnation is a treatment that protects stems against the blockage
of water vessels by microbes. Stems are dipped in 1000 ppm silver
nitrate solution for 10 minutes. The stems should not be recut after
treatment.
• Pulsing or loading is a type of treatment used to extend the vase
life of flowers held in water, stored wet or dry for long periods or
shipped long distances. It is called a pulse because it is only done
for a short period of time or called loading because the flowers are
loaded up with food for a long storage period. Stems are placed in
solutions with germicide and a higher concentration of sugar for spe-
cific treatment periods depending on the species. Because the higher
concentration of sugar can act like a soluble salt causing petal and
leaf injury, the treatment is only a few hours or a day. The tempera-
ture should be 18 to 19°C and light intensity should be 2000 lux.
• Bud opening solutions are used to open flowers harvested in a tight
bud stage. Flowers harvested in the tight bud stage will keep lon-
ger in storage and will ship better. Stems are placed in solutions
128 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

containing higher concentrations of sugar, plus a germicide and hor-


monal compounds that facilitate bud growth and development. High
light and humidity, and room temperatures are used. The high sugar
content can injure the flowers and leaves.

3.4.10 VASE-SOLUTION

Several methods have been developed for bud-opening in rose, mum, carna-
tion and gladiolus. It is necessary to select optimal bud stage for each flower
types. Bud smaller than optimum do not open to full size and do not produce
best quality flowers. The bud-opening solutions contain sucrose, germicide
and hormonal compound. These floral preservative solutions have maintained
manifold actions. It maintains turgidity in cut flowers, provides substrate for
continued respiration, prevents vascular blockage in the stem, stimulates
normal flower opening, prevents bacterial growth, and prevents undesirable
changes in petal color. The place for bud-opening should be equipped with
artificial light, humidity, temperature control and proper ventilation.
For bud cut carnation 10% sucrose + 200 ppm 8-HQC + 25 ppm AgNO3 +
75 ppm citric acid is advised. For tight bud rose, vase solution may contain
2% sucrose + 300 ppm 8-HQC. For chrysanthemum, 2% sucrose + 200 ppm
8-HQC + 150 ppm citric acid. Treatment with 200 ppm 8-HQC + 75 ppm cit-
ric acid + 25 ppm AgNO3. Flowers of bird-of-paradise cut at tight bud stage
can be opened successfully in the vase solution of 10% sucrose +250 ppm
8-HQC + 150 ppm citric acid. Treatment with 200 ppm 8-HQC + 5% sucrose
improve the flower quality and vase life of dendrobium, vanda, aranthera,
oncidium and aranchnis. The vase life of cymbidium, phalaenopsis is pro-
longed by using chrysal VB and sucrose. For gladiolus, a solution containing
600 ppm 8-HQC or Al2(SO4)3 (0.1%) + 4% sucrose is effective for extending
postharvest life of flowers. Sucrose at 3–6% in preservative solution of pH3.0
extended the vase life of gladiolus flower. For Dahlia, vase solution contains
10% sucrose + 0.2 mM AgNO3 or 10% sucrose + 0.2 mM AgNO3 + 200 ppm
8-HQS. For Gerbera, solution contains 7% sucrose + 25 ppm AgNO3 + 200
ppm 8-HQC. A pre-shipping dip of anthurium flower stems in solution of
2.25% 7 UP (Carbonated beverage) + 500 ppm benzoic acid/7.3 ppm Sodium
hypochlorite remarkably extended the vase life of anthurium flower.
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 129

3.4.11 CARNATION

Pulsing solution: Sucrose (10%) + STS (2 mM) for 8 hours.


GA3 (10 ppm) + Kinetin (2 ppm) + Alar (900 ppm) + AOA (450 ppm+
Triton–x (1000 ppm) for 6 hours.
Holding solution: 2% sucrose + 50 ppm STS + 50 ppm 8-HQC.

3.4.12 ALSTROEMERIA

Postharvest studies in cvs. of Serena and Aladdin reveals that pulsing


(sucrose 20% + STS 1.0 mM) followed by keeping flowers in holding
solution sucrose 2% + STS 1.0 mM + GA3–50 ppm increasing the vase of
flowers as well other postharvest attributes.

3.4.13 PACKAGING

Cut flowers are packed in rectangular bamboo baskets in India. The sides
and tops of baskets are lined with hessian cloth. Loose flowers are packed
in gunny bags or cloth bags and also in bamboo baskets tapering towards
bottom and lined with newspaper. In such packages flowers are compressed
due to improper size and stacking of the packages cannot absorb the load
weight, fresh flowers are damaged considerably. Therefore, it is necessary
to adopt modern methods of packaging, which can ensure protection of
flowers against physical damages. Water can ensure protection of flowers
against physical damages. Water loss and external condition are detrimen-
tal to the transported flowers. The main principles of packaging towards
long storage life and keeping quality are to lower the rate of transpiration,
resp. and cell division during transportation and storage. Hence, the ideal
packing should be air tight, water proof and strong enough to withstand
handling. For long distance transportation and storage, flowers should be
harvested 1–3 days earlier than those harvested for the direct sale.
1. Place the bunched flowers in sleeves to prevent them from becom-
ing entangled with each other. The sleeves may be made of plastic
sheets, absorbent paper, wax paper or cellophane. Do not close the
top of the sleeve.
130 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

2. Place the flowers in a fiberboard or styrofoam box. Arrange in lay-


ers according to type. Alternate layers of flowers should have the
heads at the same end. Use rolled newspapers placed below the
flower heads to minimize mechanical injury.

3.4.14 PACKING BOXES

The most suitable package material for cut blooms is corrugated fiber
board (CFB) boxes since they have isothermic properties. These boxes
are light in lit and can be made water resistant by using suitable adhesive
or coating with wax or plastic film. The boxes must be strong enough
to support the weight of at least 8 full boxes placed atop one another
under high humidity. The minimum length of the boxes should be about
twice the width and its width about twice the height. The dimension of
the boxes however, depends upon the length of cut flowers stems, type
of flowers to be packed and also on the space available inside standard
refrigerated trucks (Reefer van).
Size of the package should be just sufficient to hold the flowers or
flower holders tightly. If the package is oversized for the contents, the
empty space results in higher transpiration rate of the flowers and too
much space also allows the contents enough room for movement during
transportation, which may damage the flowers.
The boxes must be able to withstand low temperature and high humid-
ity and should preferably be wax coated from inside. Generally, the tests
conducted after conditioning the boxes at 0°C and 100% RH are Drop
test, compression test and vibration test. Small sized boxes are generally
preferred on account of its higher compression strength/unit area. Use of
telescope style boxes made of CFB is ideal.
The boxes /container should have an ISI marking also. For forced air-
cooling of flowers, packing boxes with vents on either side is used. In
such cases, the total vent area should equal to 4–5% of the area of the
end walls of the packing boxes. Excessive number of holes reduces the
strength of the package and increase transpiration loss. Ventilation holes
near the corners are to be avoided. If the cut flowers are wrapped with a
paper or foil, care must be taken that wrapping material do not impede
air-flow through the box.
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 131

3.4.14.1 Wet Packing of Flowers

Since cut flowers like orchid and anthurium are susceptible to damage by
chilling, they should be transported in water. For a prolonged transport, it is
recommended that each individual stalk should be placed in a plastic vial or
rubber balloon filled with water and tied to the flower stem with twine. The
end of flower stem can also be placed in absorbent cotton saturated with
water and enclosed in wax paper or polyethylene foil securing with twine.

3.4.14.2 Polyethylene Foil as Protective Cover

Polyethylene foil is commonly used to protect flowers from water loss. Tight
packing in foil maintains relative humidity (RH) owing to its gas proof nature.
It helps to maintain a high level of CO2 and low level of O2. Such condition
keeps the resp. rate low and increase the longevity of the cut blooms. High
conc. of CO2 may also cause injuries in some flowers. Hence, very thin poly-
ethylene foil, 0.04–0.06 mm thick permits partial gas exchange.

3.4.14.3 Special Care for Exotic Flowers

While packing, special care should be taken for delicate flower buds and
flower heads. These buds or flower heads are protected by wrapping them
in soft paper or plastic mesh or by placing them in specially molded forms
made of plastic or cardboard.
In anthurium, damaged caused by the contact of the petals with the squa-
mon pistil is avoided by covering each blossom with cellulose wood or cellu-
lose acetate (used as plastic sleeve). The flowers heads of Gerbera are specially
protected by transparent PVC covers. In cattleya, shredded wax papers should
be placed around the flowers to prevent physical damage. Also, foil sacks
filled with air or N2 are also used for packing delicate exotic flowers.

3.4.14.4 Protection Against Geotropic Bending

Cut flowers of gladiolus, larkspur, lupin, snapdragon are sensitive to geotropic


bending. These flower spikes must be transported in upright position. Since,
they bend when transported horizontally. Special type of packing boxes that
hold the flowers vertically should be used for transporting these flowers.
132 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

3.4.14.5 Care for Ethylene Sensitive Flowers

Cut flowers of carnation, orchid, alstroemeria, narcissus, lily, snapdragon


and delphinium are highly sensitive to ethylene. Ethylene scrubber con-
taining KMnO4 may be added to package having such flowers. Direct
contact with KMnO4 causes flower injury, so material impregnated with
KMnO4 may be packed separately from flowers.

3.4.15 PACKAGING OF DIFFERENT FLOWERS

3.4.15.1 Rose

Graded flowers are grouped together in bunches of 10, 12, 20 or 25. A


bundle of 20 stems is usually preferred. Each bundle is tied up sufficiently
and the upper half is wrapped with tissue or parchment paper or cello-
phane sleever or grease proof paper. The wrapped bunches are then placed
in appropriate boxes of dimension 100 cm x 6.50 cm (accommodates 80
roses having 65–70 long stem). Size of the carton used depends upon the
length of the rose stem. To avoid mechanical injury, paper pillows should
be placed at the bottom of the flower neck. To prevent the effect of des-
iccation or fluctuation in temperature, shaved or crushed ice should be
placed on the stem. Normally, 4 bundles of roses containing 80 blooms are
accommodated in a standard sized carton. The bundles are placed in two
parallel rows, two in one row and other two in second row. The direction
of buds in two rows should be opposite to each other. Paper shavings are
also used in the interspaces as a cushion and during winter, adequate insu-
lation should be provided in the container to prevent freezing and chill-
ing injury to the flowers. Care should be taken to ensure that the packing
materials do not absorb water from the flowers. Finally the box lid should
be closed under slight pressure and the box is sealed.

3.4.15.2 Chrysanthemum

It requires special attention after harvest since mum start wilting rapidly.
Blooms are packed in bundles of 10–20 flowers, loosely tied with string or
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 133

a rubber band. In a standard sized carton, 400–600 flowers can be accom-


modated. Dimension of packing box for standard mum should be 91 cm ×
43 cm × 15 cm and for spray mum should be 80 cm × 50 cm × 23 cm.
Flowers of standard cultivar are individually packed by covering them
with protective sleeves or sealing them in plastic bags. Different types
of wrapping materials are used to cover blooms in boxes like polysterol,
polypropylene and perforated polypropylene sheet. To prevent crushing or
shattering of florets or breaking of flowers stems, paper pillows are placed
below the flower heads.

3.4.15.3 Carnation

Usually, 600–800 flowers of carnation can be accommodated in Std. carton


box (122 cm × 50 cm × 30 cm). A bundle of 20–25 carnation can be made.
Treating flower with 1200 ppm AgNO3 for 10 min. before packing is benefi-
cial. The pre-cooled flowers are wrapped in paper and then placed in foil bags.

3.4.15.4 Gladiolus

Bundles of 12–20 spikes are made. About 60–100 spikes of gladiolus are
packed in a standard box (120 cm × 60 cm × 30 cm). Absorbent cotton is
placed near the swollen florets to avoid their flattening. Bunches should
be wrapped in paper and packed in gas tight polyethylene bags to protect
flowers from sudden fluctuation in temperature, bruising and moisture loss.
To avoid negative geotropic curvature of cut stems flowers are shipped in
upright position in boxes.

3.4.15.5 Anthurium

Since the flowers are transported wet, hence the cut ends of each flower
stem should be wrapped with cotton pad soaked with water and covered
with wax paper and security tied or stem-ends are fitted in plastic vial
containing water. In one method, spadix is dipped in melted paraffin to
reduced moisture loss and packed in polythene bags and thereafter placed
in carton. In another method, flowers are packed in moist boxes placing
134 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

the soft protective material between the spathe and spadix. They are some-
times fixed to the bottom of the box with tape or separation paper between
the layers. Foam or plastic supports are provided in the box. To maintain
high humidity polythene lining is provided in the box. Usually, 120 anthur-
ium cut spikes are accommodated in Std. sized packing box (21.6 cm ×
50.8 cm × 91.4 cm or 27.9 cm × 43.2 cm × 101.6 cm).

3.4.15.6 Gerbera

Flowers are packed in flat boxes containing protective inserts with holes
for individual flower stem. The stems are taped to the protective inserts
while placing in insulted flat box to protect them from cold or freezing
temperature. The flower heads of gerbera are specially protected by trans-
parent PVC covers, cardboard cups or plastic mini sleeves or plastic coated
metal grids measuring 70 × 50 cm with a mesh size of 2 × 2 cm.

3.4.15.7 Orchid

These flowers are packed either as intact sprays or as individual flower.


Each flower stalk is put into a plastic vial or tube containing moistened
cotton wool. For large delicate orchid flowers a few shreds of the wax
paper are woven between the sepals and petals and around the lip or label-
lum. They are packed in polythene bags. The air containing these bags
provides a protective cushion. The flower stalk along with tube of water is
then laid on a bed of shredded wax paper in the packing box.
When individual flowers of Cymbidium are harvested from spikes,
their peduncles should be immediately placed in a tube of water with a
rubber or plastic cover. Flowers in tubes are packed to groups of 6, 8 or
12. In cattleya, peduncles are dipped in plastic vials containing water.
The vials are taped to the bottom of the box. Flower spikes of aranda are
packed individually and wrapped in tissue paper. Aranthera and oncidium
are bundled together and then enclosed in polyethene bags.
Cut ends of the individual spikes of phalaenopsis, vanda and dendro-
bium are also dipped in the water of the plastic vial or tied with moist-
ened cotton in small plastic bags. They are then kept in polythene bags
and packed, taking sufficient care that no flower or flower part is damaged.
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 135

Normally, 50 flower spikes of these types can be packed in a box 75 cm


× 25 cm × 17.5 cm size. The boxes are lined for better insulation during
winter by several layers of newspaper or other insulating materials. High
RH should be maintained inside the package by using waxed carton or
polythene lining inside the box.

3.4.16 STORAGE OF CUT-FLOWERS

3.4.16.1 Reason of Storage

Some flower shows irregular cycle in the blooming season and to extend-
ing the season and delaying marketing in times of one production.

3.4.16.2 Advantages of Storage

Regulating market flow; reducing loss from demand decline; anticipating


holidays; improving production efficiency; eliminating greenhouse pro-
duction in winter; saving energy; making possible long term shipment.

3.4.16.3 Factors Affecting the Post-Storage Life of Flowers

High flower quality and proper maturity at the time of harvest, lower
respiration rate, decreased water loss, inhibited ethylene production and
action, retarded bacterial and fungal infections are the factors affecting the
postharvest life of cut flowers.

3.4.17 STORAGE METHODS

3.4.17.1 Refrigeration with Wet or Dry Storage

Cold storage is recommended for all flowers that will not be in the market
immediately and any flowers sold wholesale. Low temperatures slow the
respiration rate of the flowers and prolong the vase life of the flowers. In
general, temperatures should be 0–4°C and have a relative humidity of
136 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

85–90%, for most flowers. Flowers should never be stored with fruits and
vegetables. Some fruits and vegetables produce ethylene that can dramati-
cally shorten the life of the flowers. Once flowers are bunched into mar-
ketable units they should be placed in cold storage.
If flowers have to be stored before marketing, a cool place (preferably
a refrigerated cold storage, especially for flowers) should be used. There
are many flowers that are not commonly found in the wholesale market
because they do not store well, ship well or last long. These should only
be used for local markets. These include foxglove, garden phlox, lupine,
clarkia, stevia, common stocks, candytuft, cornflower, feverfew, blue lace
flower, English daisy, calendula, pot marigold, sweet violets and gaillardia.
It is advisable that store the high-quality, disease free and sorted cut
flowers at the lowest temperature as possible. Avoid chilling injury. For
wet storage, keep the cut stem ends in water or flower preservative. For
dry-pack storage, seal flowers inside plastic bags or airtight cylinders
made of either plastic or metal. Gently press the sides of plastic con-
tainers to remove as much air as possible before sealing the bags. Wet
storage is ineffective in inhibiting the biological activity of flowers.
However, iris, gerbera, lily, snapdragon responds well in wet storage.
Plastic bags or boxes are used for dry storage. Flowers that show geotro-
pic bending like gladiolus, snapdragon, larkspur, lupin must be stored at
vertical position.

3.4.17.2 Refrigerated Storage

The most common system for handling harvested flowers is refrigerated


storage, which involves the following steps:
1. Flower stems should be cut with a sharp knife or shears to prevent
crushing of stem and water conduction cells.
2. The cut flowers should be placed in a preservative solution as soon
as possible to prevent wilting. The flowers should not be allowed
to be out of water while they are waiting to be transferred to the
storage or grading rooms. If cut in the field, buckets containing
solution can be brought out on trailers to hold the harvested flow-
ers. Flowers cut in the greenhouse should not be left in the sun
or out of water for more than a few minutes. One person should
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 137

be assigned to carry these flowers to the grading room or storage


cooler immediately.
3. As soon as flowers arrive at the storage room they should be placed in
preservative solution inside the refrigerated storage room. If wilted,
they should be placed in a warm preservative solution at room tem-
perature until turgid. They should then be placed in the cooler.
4. The temperature of the refrigerated room should be 0.5–4.4°C. The
lower the temperature, the better, because the respiration rate falls off
with diminishing temperature. Low respiration rates have an effect
similar to that resulting from adding sucrose to the preservative solu-
tion in that they conserve carbohydrates within the flower. A tempera-
ture range of 0.5–4.5°C is usually encountered in flower coolers.
5. Air should be gently circulated inside the cooler only to the extent
necessary to insure uniform temperatures in all areas. Unprotected
flowers placed in a direct air stream will be desiccated. Flowers
immediately adjacent to a cooling coil may freeze even though the
air temperature is above freezing. Since the coil itself is below the
freezing point, radiant heat is lost from the flower to the coil, and
the flower can be colder than the surrounding air.
6. Potential sources of ethylene gas should be avoided by keeping
fruit and vegetables out of the cooler. Discard old flowers. Wash
the inside of the cooler periodically.
7. Replace the preservative solution at two to seven days’ inter-
vals. The preservative should be checked periodically for bacte-
rial growth, which is apparent when the solution becomes cloudy.
In spite of the bactericides in preservatives, microorganisms will
develop and need to be eliminated periodically. To accomplish this,
wash the buckets with a disinfectant such as bleach.
8. The wholesaler and retailer should hold the flowers under refrig-
eration. Whenever possible, flowers should be transported under
refrigeration. Encourage the wholesaler and retailer to cut one-half
inch from the base of the stems whenever it has been necessary to
leave the flowers out of water for a period of time and then to place
them in warm water at a cool air temperature to avoid the ends of
the stems drying out and restricting water movement. Use a preser-
vative solution throughout the entire marketing channel.
138 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

3.4.17.3 Dry Storage

Flowers can be held in refrigerated storage for one to three weeks, depend-
ing on the species. Refrigerated storage is more generally used as an aid
for maintaining quality as flowers pass through the market channel. Dry
storage is used when flowers must be held for periods longer than one to
five days.
Only the best-quality flowers should be dry stored. Those of poor qual-
ity will have a short vase life when they are removed from storage. Flowers
should be cut and packaged for storage immediately without being placed
in water. Standard cardboard flower boxes are suitable, but a lining of
polyethylene film should be placed in them to cover the flowers and seal
in moisture. Desiccation can be a problem in long-term storage, especially
when an absorbent container such as cardboard is used.
A common problem of dry storage is the presence of free water
on the flowers, which encourages the development of diseases. While
flowers freeze only at temperatures below −1.5°C, the free water will
freeze at 0°C. Resulting ice crystals on the petals can be injurious.
Boxes and flowers packed at warm temperatures develop condensa-
tion (free water) as the plants and air inside are cooled. Because of the
polyethylene barrier, the water cannot escape. Disease, enhanced by
this moisture, is a common cause of failure in dry storage. Boxes of
flowers should be cooled open in a 3.3–4.4°C cooler, then sealed and
placed in a 0.5°C cooler.
Most flowers freeze at −2.8 to −1.7°C, so it is essential that the temper-
ature stay above this point. Flower life expectancy is lessened at 0.5°C and
drops rapidly at temperatures above that point. Many of the failures of this
system have been due to high temperatures or fluctuating temperatures.
Since the dry storage cooler should not be open too often, another cooler
is needed for regular refrigerated storage. The −0.5°C cooler is often built
inside the 1.6–4.4°C cooler to provide for a more uniform temperature.
Space should be left between boxes of flowers when they are placed in
storage initially. Respiration is occurring, and this produces heat. A large
stack of boxes can generate enough heat and provide sufficient insulation
to prevent thorough cooling of the inner flowers. Leave space between
each stack of boxes and between every other box in a stack to permit
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 139

the absorption of heat by circulating cool air. Flowers removed from dry
storage need to be hardened. Cut one-half inch from the bottom of each
stem. Place the flower in a preservative solution inside a 3.3–4.4°C cooler.
Allow the flowers to become fully turgid before marketing them; this will
take 12–24 hours. When properly handled, dry stored flowers should have
reasonable quality and the same longevity as fresh flowers. Poor tempera-
ture control or disease will decrease quality and longevity.
Dry storage is used only to a limited degree by the industry and
works best with chrysanthemums. Chrysanthemums, carnations, and
roses are the crops to which it is primarily applied. Much more potential
exists here than is being realized. The main reason for its low level of
acceptance has probably been failures due to poor handling of the system
(Tables 3.4 and 3.5).
TABLE 3.4 Method, Storage Temperature and Period for Cut Flowers
Flower Method Storage Temperature Period
Anthurium Dry 13°C 4 weeks
Bird of paradise Dry 8°C 4 weeks
Carnation Wet 4°C 4 weeks
Carnation Dry a
0–1°C 4–6 months
Carnation Dry 0.5–0°C 8 weeks
Chrysanthemum Dry 0.5–1°C 3–5 weeks
Cyclamen Dry 0–1°C 3 weeks
Cyclamen Wet 1°C 1 weeks
Daffodils Dry 1°C 14 days
Gerbera Wet 4°C 3–4 weeks
Gladiolus Dry a
2–4°C 4 weeks
Lilium Wet 1°C 4 weeks
Lilium Dry a
0–1°C 6 weeks
Daisy Dry 2°C 2 weeks
Peony Dry (0–1°C) 0.5 3°C 4 weeks
Rose Dry 0–1°C 3 weeks
Rose Wet 2–5°C 5–7 days
Snapdragon Wet 1–4°C 3–8 weeks
Orchid Dry 7–10°C 10–14 days
NOTE: Tight pack creating a modified atmosphere condition.
140 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 3.5 General Storage Temperature Recommendations and Approximate Storage


Life for Fresh Cut Flowers
Flower Scientific Name Storage Storage life
Temperature
recommendation
China Aster Callistephus chinensis 0 to 4°C 7 to 21 days
Calendula Calendula officinalis 4°C 3 to 6 days
Candytuft Iberis umbillata 4°C 3 days
Clarkia Clarkia unquiculata 4°C 3 days
Coreopsis Coreopsis grandiflora 4°C 3 to 4 days
Cornflower Centaurea cyanus 4°C 3 days
Cosmos Cosmos bipinnatus 4°C 3 to 4 days
Dahlia Dahlia variabilis 4°C 3 to 5 days
English Daisy Bellis perennis 4°C 3 days
Delphinium Delphinium majus 4°C 1 to 2 days
Foxglove Digitalis purpurea 4°C 1 to 2 days
Freesia Freesia hybrids 0 to 0.5°C 10 to 14 days
Gaillardia Gaillardia pulchella 4°C 3 days
Gladiolus Gladilous grandiflorus 2 to 5°C 5 to 8 days
Godetia Godetia sp. 10°C 7 days
Gypsophila Gypsophylla paniculata 4°C 7 to 21 days
Iris Iris sp. –0.5 to 0°C 7 to 14 days
Lilium Lilium sp. 0 to 1°C 14 to 21 days
Lily-of-the-valley Convallaria majalis –0.5 to 0°C 14 to 21 days
Lupin Lupinus sp. 4°C 3 days
Marigold Tagetes erecta 4°C 7 to 14 days
Daffodils Narcissus sp. 0 to 0.5°C 7 to 21 days
California Poppy Eschscholzia californica 4°C 3 to 5 days
Peony Peonia sp. 0 to 1°C 14 to 42 days
Phlox Phlox paniculata 4°C 1 to 3 days
Snapdragon Antirrhinum majus 4°C 7 to 14 days
Statice Limonium spp 2 to 4°C 21 to 28 days
Stock Matthiola incana 4°C 3 to 5 days
Strawflower Helichrysum bracteatum 2 to 4°C 21 to 28 days
Sweet pea Lathyrus odoratus –0.5 to 0°C 14 days
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 141

TABLE 3.5 Continued


Flower Scientific Name Storage Storage life
Temperature
recommendation
Sweet William Dianthus barbatus 7°C 3 to 4 days
Tulip Tulipa cvs. –0.5 to 0°C 14 to 21 days
English Violet Viola odorata 1 to 5°C 3 to 7 days
Zinnia Zinnia elegans 4°C 5 to 7 days

3.4.17.4 Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage

It is based on storage at lower concentration of O2 and higher concentration


of CO2 with precise control of atmospheric gasses. It inhibits C2H4 produc-
tion and action by increasing CO2 conc., slows/retards resp. rate and con-
servation of respirable substrates, for example, delays softening’s; inhibit
conversion of ACC (1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid) to C2H4 as
a result of decreased O2 level. CA refers to increased CO2, decreased O2
and high N2 in general as compared to normal atmosphere. All CA condi-
tion involves low temperature to reduce the velocity of enzymatic reaction
ant to retard, resp. (Table 3.6).
Disadvantages of CA storage: High cost of application and inconve-
nience for handling various flowers in such a chamber.

TABLE 3.6 Optimal CA Storage Condition for Certain Flowers


Flower CO2% O2% Temperature (°C) Period
Freesia 10 21 1–2 3 weeks
Carnation 5 1–3 0–1 4 weeks
Gladiolus 5 1–3 1.5 3 weeks
Lily 10–20 21 1 3 weeks
Mimosa 0 7–8 6–8 10 days
Rose 5–10 1–3 0 20–30 days
Tulip 5 21 1 10 days
142 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

3.4.17.5 Modified Atmosphere (MA) Storage

MA condition is a less precise type of CA storage created by sealing plant


material air tight with moisture proof packaging material viz. cellophane,
polyethylene, and other films. It also requires increase in CO2 and N2 and
decrease in O2 but differ only in degree of control and methods of maintain-
ing that control. Cellulose acetate is the most promising film for wrapping of
cut flowers. Proper pre cooling prior to storage may reduce the risk of flower
damage.
In MA condition RH is not essential. High air humidity is created by
flower transpiration into tightly wrapped moisture retentive foil packaged.
Moisture absorbent paper is used to prevent flowers from having contact
with condensed water on the foil.

3.4.17.6 Low Pressure Storage (LPS)

It was described first by Burg and Burg (1966). This method consists
of maintaining a product under constant sub atmospheric pressure
(40–60 mm Hg) combined with low temperature and ventilation with
fresh humid air; reduction in O2, continuous removal of C2H4 by creat-
ing C2H4 free environment; acceleration of the outward diffusion of the
different gases from within the tissue. This system is beneficial for cut-
tings, pet plants, cut flowers viz. carnation, mum, gladiolus, daffodils,
rose, orchid and snapdragon. Maintenance of low air pressure of 40–60
mm Hg in the storage cut flowers; prolongs storage period; improves post
storage life; larger bloom; reduced C2H4 production; reduced blaring and
bent neck in rose, retard growth of botrytis. PS provides a unique system
for creating air atmosphere nearly free from C2H4. Longest LPS period of
9 weeks was noted for carnation (highly susceptible to C2H4) (Tables 3.7
and 3.8).
Disadvantages of LPS:
It incurred high cost of installation, so best for laboratory.
Postharvest Management of Commercial Flowers 143

TABLE 3.7 Flowers Sensitive to Ethylene


Achillea Aconitum Agapanthus
Allium Alstroemeria Anemone
Antirrhinum Aquilegia Asclepias
Astilbe Bouvardia Campanula
Carnation Celosia Centaurea
Chelone Consolida Delphinium
Dianthus Dicentra Digitalis
Eremurus Eustoma Freesia
Godetia Gypsophila Iris
Kniphofia Lathyrus (Sweet Pea) Lavatera
Lilium Limonium Lupinus
Lysimachia Matthiola (Stock) Phlox
Penstemon Physostegia Ranunculus
Rosa Rudbeckia Salvia
Saponaria Scabiosa Sedum
Silene Solidago Thalictrum
Trachelium Tricyrtis Triteleia
Trollius Veronica Veronicastrum
Snapdragons Delphinium Sweet Peas
Freesia Larkspur Alstroemeria

TABLE 3.8 Fluoride Sensitivity for Select Species


Species Sensitivity Concentration
Freesias 1 ppm
Gladiolus 1 ppm
Gerberas 1 ppm
Chrysanthemum 5 ppm
Snapdragon 5 ppm
Roses 5 ppm
144 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

KEYWORDS

•• Cut flower microbiology


•• Cut flowers
•• Flower packaging
•• Flower storage
•• Senescence regulation
•• Vase life
•• Vase solution

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CHAPTER 4

POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT
AND PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
OF MUSHROOMS
M. K. YADAV,1 SANTOSH KUMAR,2 RAM CHANDRA,1
S. K. BISWAS,3 P. K. DHAKAD,1 and MOHAMMED WASIM
SIDDIQUI4
Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of
1

Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005,


Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Department of Plant Pathology, Bihar Agricultural
University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, 813210, Bihar, India,
E-mail: [email protected]
3
Department of Plant Pathology, C.S. Azad University of Agriculture
and Technology, Kanpur, 208002, Uttar Pradesh, India
Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Bihar
4

Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, 813210, Bihar, India

CONTENTS

4.1 Introduction................................................................................... 152


4.2 Nutritional Importance of Mushrooms......................................... 156
4.2.1 Vitamins............................................................................ 156
4.2.2 Proteins.............................................................................. 157
4.2.3 Minerals............................................................................. 158
4.3 Medicinal Mushroom.................................................................... 158
152 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

4.4 Mushroom Processing and Postharvest Technology................... 160


4.5 White Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)........................... 163
 4.5.1 Washing........................................................................... 163
  4.5.2 Packing and Packaging................................................... 164
  4.5.2.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging .................... 165
  4.5.2.2 Modified Humidity Packaging......................... 166
 4.5.3 Storage............................................................................. 167
  4.5.3.1 Optimum Storage Conditions........................... 167
  4.5.3.2 Controlled Atmospheric Storage...................... 167
  4.5.4 Drying of Mushrooms..................................................... 168
 4.5.5 Cooling............................................................................ 169
  4.5.5.1 Pre-Cooling or Refrigeration............................ 169
  4.5.5.2 Vacuum Cooling............................................... 170
  4.5.5.3 Ice-Bank Cooling............................................. 170
  4.5.5.4 Steeping Preservation....................................... 170
  4.5.5.5 Radiation Preservation..................................... 171
 4.5.6 Canning........................................................................... 171
4.6 Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus sp.)............................................... 172
4.7 Milky Mushroom (Calocybe indica).......................................... 174
4.8 Paddy Straw Mushroom (Volvariella volvacea)......................... 174
4.9 Transportation............................................................................. 174
4.10 Diseases and Disorders............................................................... 175
Keywords............................................................................................... 175
References.............................................................................................. 175

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The global food and nutritional security of growing population is a great


challenge, which looks for new crop as source of food and nutrition. In
this context, mushrooms find a favor, which can be grown even by land-
less people, that too on waste material and could be a source for protei-
nous food. Use of mushrooms as food and nutraceutical have been known
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 153

since time immemorial, as is evident from the description in old epics


Vedas and Bible. Earlier civilizations had also valued mushrooms for
delicacy and therapeutic value. In the present time, it is well recognized
that mushroom is not only rich in protein, but also contains vitamins and
minerals, whereas, it lacks cholesterol and has low calories. Furthermore,
it also has high medicinal attributes like immune-modulating, antiviral,
antitumor, antioxidants and hepatoprotective properties. With the grow-
ing awareness for nutritive and quality food by growing health conscious
population, the demand for food including mushrooms is quickly rising
and will continue to rise with increase in global population which will be
8.3 million by 2025 and flexible income (Singh, 2011). The mushroom
cultivation has grown up in almost all the parts of the world and during
last three decades, the world mushroom production achieved the growth
rate of about 10%. Globally, China is the leading producer of mushrooms
with more than 70% of the total global production, which is attributed to
community, based farming as well as diversification of mushrooms. In
India, owing to varied agro-climate and abundance of farm waste, differ-
ent types of temperate, tropical and subtropical mushrooms are cultivated
throughout the country.
Huge quantities of lingo-celluloid crop residues and other organic
wastes are generated annually through the activities of agricultural,
forest and food processing industries. It is estimated that India is gen-
erating 600 million tons of agricultural waste besides, fruit and veg-
etable residue, coir dust, husk, dried leaves, pruning, coffee husk, tea
waste which has potential to be recycled as substrate for mushroom
production leading to nutritious food as well as organic manure for
crops. If even 1% of these crop residues are used to produce mush-
room, India will become a major mushroom producing country in the
world (Tewari and Pandey, 2002). Edible mushroom production rep-
resented an attractive method of improving the nutritional quality of
lingo-celluloid wastes for use as an animal feed stock. Among the vari-
ous physical, chemical and biological methods used for upgrading the
digestibility and nutritive value of agricultural wastes, biodegradation
by using white rot fungi including mushrooms have been found prom-
ising. The species of Pleurotus has ability to excrete hydrolyzing and
oxidizing enzymes (Toyama and Ogawa, 1974; Daugulis and Bone,
154 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

1977), which enables them to grow and flourish over wide range of
natural lingo-celluloid waste materials.
Around 800 million people living in 46 countries are malnourished,
40,000 die every day of hunger and hunger-related diseases (Siddiqui,
2015; Swaminathan, 1995). In this context, mushroom cultivation repre-
sent one of the economically viable processes for the bioconversion mak-
ing it a potent weapon against malnutrition in developing countries like
India which have lowest per capita consumption of protein in the world
(Sohi, 1982; Wood, 1989; Chang and Miles, 1989). It is also consistent
with the emerging view that an ecologically oriented society must use its
wastes and resources rather than discarding them as useless materials.
Even in case that the world population would not increase any more,
there is an enormous amount of waste from field, agro-industry, and wood
industry. Only using 25% of the yearly burned cereal straw in the world
could result in a mushroom yield of 317 million metric tons (317 milliard
kg) of fresh mushroom per year (Chang and Miles, 1989). But on this
moment, the yearly mushroom production is only 6 milliard persons or
1 kg per year or 3 gram per day (Courvoisier, 1999). In fact counting the
early available world waste in agriculture (500 milliard kg) and forestry
(100 milliard kg), we can easily grow 360-milliard kg of fresh mushroom
on the total of 600 milliard kg dry wastes. This would bring us a yearly
mushroom food of 6 kg per head per year containing 4% protein in fresh
mushroom and we know that 30% of the world population is protein defi-
cient. On the other hand, we all know the high risk of further popula-
tion growth with again more need for food (field crops) and wood (forest)
swelling up the already so high mountains of wastes.
More than 2000 mushroom species exist in nature, but only approxi-
mately 22 species are intensively cultivated (Manzi, et al., 2001). Around
20 genera of mushrooms are being cultivated throughout the world, only
four types, viz., white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), oyster mush-
room (Pleurotus spp.), paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) and
milky mushroom (Calocybe indica) are grown commercially in India
with the white button mushroom contributing about 90% of total coun-
try’s production as against its global share of about 40% (Mehta et al.,
2011). Button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) is the most popular variety,
fetches high price, still dominating the Indian and International market.
Mushrooms are now getting significant importance due to their nutritional
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 155

and medicinal value and today their cultivation is being done in about 100
countries. Production and consumption of mushrooms have tremendously
increased in India mainly due to increased in awareness of the commercial
and nutritional significance of this commodity. At present production of
mushrooms has crossed lakh tone with annual growth rate of above 15%
(Sharma and Dhar, 2010). In India, white button mushroom still contrib-
utes more than 85% of the total mushroom production, though its share is
below 40% in the global trade (Prakasam, 2012).
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of macro fungi. They include both
edible/medicinal and poisonous species. However, originally, the word
“mushroom” was used for the edible members of macro fungi and “toad-
stools” for poisonous ones of the “gill” macro fungi. Scientifically the
term “toadstool” has no meaning at all and it has been proposed that the
term is dropped altogether in order to avoid confusion and the terms edi-
ble, medicinal and poisonous mushrooms are used.
Edible mushrooms once called the “Food of the Gods” and still treated
as a garnish or delicacy can be taken regularly as part of the human diet or
be treated as healthy food or as functional food. The extractable products
from medicinal mushrooms, designed to supplement the human diet not
as regular food, but as the enhancement of health and fitness, can be clas-
sified into the category of dietary supplements/mushroom nutriceuticals
(Chang and Buswell, 1996). Food with appropriate nutritional value will
remain the essential and most important need for nutritional security of
the mankind.
Dietary supplements are ingredients extracted from foods, herbs, mush-
rooms and other plants that are taken without further modification for their
presumed health-enhancing benefits. There is an old Chinese saying, which
states that “Medicines and Foods Have a Common Origin.” Mushrooms
are source of quality protein having essential amino acids and high digest-
ibility. No cholesterol and low fat with ergosterol and polyunsaturated fatty
acids: good for heart. Low calorific food with no starch, low sugars: delight
of diabetics. High fiber, low sodium-high potassium diet: anti-hyperten-
sive. Good source of vitamin B-complex and vitamin C; only vegetable
source of vitamin D. Rich in minerals like copper (cardio-protective) and
selenium (anti-cancer), anti-HIV, anti-viral, anti-histaminic, hypo-choles-
terolemic, hepatic- and nephro-protective, anti-oxidant, stamina enhancer,
etc. (Chu et al., 2002).
156 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

4.2 NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF MUSHROOMS

Mushrooms are usually eaten for their culinary properties, providing a


flavoring and garnish for other foods. They are cultivated with special
technique and usually consumed by the rich people because the price of
mushroom is usually much higher than that of the most common vegeta-
bles. This may give one the impression that mushrooms constitute a luxury
food and that their promotion would only benefit relatively rich people.
Actually, mushrooms are rich in protein and contain several vitamins and
mineral salts and should thus be considered as high protein vegetables to
enrich all human diets (Table 4.1).
Mushrooms have been found effective against cancer, cholesterol
reduction, stress, insomnia, asthma, allergies and diabetes (Bahl, 1983).
Due to high amount of proteins, they can be used to bridge the protein
malnutrition gap. Mushrooms as functional foods are used as nutrient sup-
plements to enhance immunity in the form of tablets. Due to low starch
content and low cholesterol, they suit diabetic and heart patients. One third
of the iron in the mushrooms is in available form. Their polysaccharide
content is used as anticancer drug. Even, they have been used to combat
HIV effectively (Namba, 1993; King, 1993).

4.2.1 VITAMINS

Mushrooms are good source of vitamins (Table 4.2) especially Vitamin B


such as vitamin ‘B1’ (Thiamine), vitamin ‘B2’ (Riboflavin), niacin, biotin

TABLE 4.1 Composition of Common Edible Mushrooms (g/100 fresh weight)


Mushroom Moisture Protein Fat Carbohydrate Fiber Ash Calories
A. bisporus 90.1 2.9 0.3 5.0 0.9 0.8 36
V. volvacea 90.1 2.1 1.0 4.7 1.1 1.0 36
P. sajor-caju 90.2 2.5 0.2 5.2 1.3 0.6 35
Cabbage 91.9 1.8 0.1 4.6 1.0 0.6 27
Cauliflower 90.0 2.6 0.4 4.0 1.2 1.0 30
Potato 74.7 1.6 0.1 22.6 0.4 0.6 97
Source: Sohi (1988).
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 157

TABLE 4.2 Vitamin Content of Edible Mushrooms


Mushrooms Content mg/100 g D. wt.

Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Ascorbic acid*

Agaricus bisporus 1.1 5.0 55.7 81.9


Lentinus edodes 7.8 4.9 54.9 0.0
Volvariella volvacea 0.32–0.35 1.63–2.97 64.8 20.2
Pleurotus spp. 1.16–4.8 4.7* 46.1 0.0
*Adapted from Eli V. Crisan and Anne Sands (Chang and Hayes, 1978)
(Source: Chadha and Sharma, 1995).

and vitamin ‘C’ (Ascorbic acid) (Chang and Buswell, 1996; Mattila et al.,
2000). Vitamin content of edible mushrooms has been reported by Esselen
and Fellers (1946), and Litchfield (1964).

4.2.2 PROTEINS

Mushroom contains 20–35% protein (dry weight), which is higher


than those of vegetables and fruits and is of superior quality. The value
of protein is determined by the kinds of amino acids that form protein.
Mushrooms contain all the essential amino acids as well as the most com-
monly occurring non-essential amino acids and amides. Mushrooms are
rich in essential amino acids lysine, which is deficient in cereals. The most
nutritious mushrooms are almost equal in nutritional value to meats and
milk. Protein is the main body building constituent of our food. Protein
content of mushrooms depends on the composition of the substratum, size
of pileus, harvest time and species of mushrooms (Bano and Rajarathnam,
1982).
Verma et al. (1987) reported that mushrooms are very useful for veg-
etarian because they contain some essential amino acids, which are found
in animal proteins. The digestibility of Pleurotus mushrooms proteins is as
that of plants (90%) whereas that of meat is 99% (Bano and Rajarathnam,
1988). Rai and Saxena (1989a) observed decrease in the protein content of
mushroom on storage. The protein conversion efficiency of edible mush-
rooms per unit of land and per unit time is far more superior compared to
animal sources of protein (Table 4.3) (Bano and Rajarathnam, 1988).
158 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 4.3 Essential Amino Acid (% crude protein) in Edible Mushrooms


Amino acid Agaricus bisporus Pleurotus sajor-caju Volvariella volvacea
Leucine 7.5 7.0 4.5
Isoleucine 4.5 4.4 3.4
Valine 2.5 5.3 5.4
Tryptophan 2.0 1.2 1.5
Lysine 9.1 5.7 7.1
Threonine 5.5 5.0 3.5
Phenyl alanine 4. 5.0 2.6
Methionine 0.9 1.8 1.1
Histidine 2.7 2.2 3.8
Sources: Bano and Rajarathnam (1982); Li and Chang (1982).

4.2.3 MINERALS

Mushrooms are also good source of minerals (Table 4.4) such as potas-
sium, phosphorus, sodium, calcium, and contain low but available form of
Iron. Sodium and potassium ratio is very high which idea is for patient of
hypertension.
The fruiting bodies of mushrooms are characterized by a high level of
well-assimilated mineral elements. Major mineral constituents in mush-
rooms are K, P, Na, Ca, Mg and elements like Cu, Zn, Fe, Mo, Cd form
minor constituents (Bano and Rajarathanum, 1982; Bano et al., 1981;
Chang, 1982). K, P, Na and Mg constitute about 56–70% of the total ash
content of the mushrooms (Li and Chang, 1982) while potassium alone
forms 45% of the total ash. Abou-Heilah et al. (1987) found that content
of potassium and sodium in A. bisporous was 300 and 28.2 ppm respec-
tively. A. bisporus ash analysis showed high amount of K, P, Cu and Fe
(Anderson and Fellers, 1942). Varo et al. (1980) reported that A. bisporus
contains Ca (0.04 g), Mg (0.16), P (0.75 g), Fe (7.8 g), Cu (9.4 mg), Mn
(0.833 mg) and Zn (8.6 mg) per kilogram fresh weight.

4.3 MEDICINAL MUSHROOM

Medicinal mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are used as pos-


sible treatments for diseases (Table 4.5). Some mushroom compounds,
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 159

TABLE 4.4 Minerals Content in Button Mushroom


Species K P Mg Na Ca Fe Cd Zn Cu Pb Hg
(mg/100 g. Dry wt.) (ppm)
P. Sajor- 3260 760 221 60 20 12.4 0.3 29 12.2 3.2 0
caju
P. eous 4570 1410 242 78 23 9.0 0.4 82.7 17.8 1.5 0
P. 3760 1550 292 75 24 12.4 0.5 56.6 21.9 1.5 0
flabellatus
P. florida 4660 1850 192 62 24 18.4 0.5 11.5 15.8 1.5 0
Source: Rai (1995).

including polysaccharide, glycoprotein and proteoglycons modulate


immune system responses and inhibit tumor growth. Some medicinal
mushroom isolates that have been identified also show cardiovascu-
lar, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-
diabetic properties. Currently, several extracts have widespread use
in Japan, Korea and China, as adjuncts to radiation treatments and
chemotherapy.
Historically, mushrooms have long had medicinal uses, especially in
traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms have been a subject of mod-
ern medical research since the 1960s, where most modern medical stud-
ies concern the use of mushroom extracts, rather than whole mushrooms.
Only a few specific mushroom extracts have been extensively tested for
efficacy. Polysaccharide-K and lentinan are among the mushroom extracts
with the firmest evidence. The available results for most other extracts
are based on in vitro data, effects on isolated cells in a lab dish, animal
models like mice, or underpowered clinical human trials. Studies show
that glucan-containing mushroom extracts primarily change the function
of the innate and adoptive immune system, functioning as bioresponse
modulator, rather than by directly killing bacteria, viruses, or cancer cells
as cytocidal agents. In some countries, extracts like, Polysaccharide-K
schizophyllan, polysaccharide peptide and lentinan are government-regis-
tered adjuvant cancer therapies.
Pharmaceuticals worth $700 million are produced annually in Japan
from Lentinus, Coriolus, Schizophyllum and Ganoderma. According to
Mizuno et al. (1990) Mushroom extracts have a high amount of retene that
160 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 4.5 Various Pharmaceutical Components Isolated From Several Mushrooms


Pharmacodynamics Component Species
Antibacterial effect Hirsuitic acid Many species
Antibiotic E-B, Methoxyacrylate O. radicata
Antiviral effect Polysoceharid, Protein L. edodes and
Polyporaceal
Cardoic tonic Volvatoxin, Flammutoxin Volvariella,
Flammulina
Decrease cholesterol Eritadenine Collybia velutipes
Decrease blood pressure Triterpene G. lucidum
Decrease level of blood Peptide, glycogen, Ganoderan G. lucidum
Glucon.
Antifrombus 5′ AMP, 5′GMP Psalliota hartensis
Inhibition of PHA r-GHP P. hartensis, L. edodes
Antitumor B-glucan RNA complex Hysizygus marmoreus
etc.
Increase secretion of bile Armillarisia A Armillaria tabescens
Analgestic and Sedetive Marasmic acid Marasmices
effect androsaceus
Source: Chadha and Sharma (1995).

has an antagonistic effect on some form of tumor. Some mushroom extracts


induce formation of interferon, a defense mechanism against viral infec-
tion and have hypo-cholesteroemic activity (lowering cholesterol levels).
Further, compounds extracted from mushroom have antifungal and anti-
bacterial properties. The low fat content and cholesterol free mushroom
diets comfortable for patients of hyperlipemia, blood pressure and hyper-
tension and for diabetes due to lack of sugar in mushroom. Mushroom
diets are also effective against diarrhea patient due to presence of fiber and
its more digestibility and tumors due to some medicinal properties.

4.4 MUSHROOM PROCESSING AND POSTHARVEST


TECHNOLOGY

Fresh mushrooms have very short self-life and hence processing is recom-
mended to increase their shelf-life. Initially, fresh mushrooms are washed
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 161

in cold water and then blanched in boiling water for about 3–4 min. Then
they are dehydrated in a drier and packed. It is advisable to pre-treat
fresh mushrooms in a solution containing brine to prevent discoloration.
Packing is very critical as formation of moisture contaminates mushrooms
very quickly. Yield of dried mushroom depends upon many factors like
moisture content in fresh mushrooms, type of dryer, process employed,
moisture content required in the finished product etc. Hence average yield
is taken at 25%. Plain cans and a brine of 2% salt and 0.2% citric acid are
used for packing. The cans are exhausted at 19°C for 7–8 min, sealed and
processed under pressure for 20–25 min. The flow chart of processing is
given in Figure 4.1.
Mushrooms have very short shelf life – these cannot be stored or trans-
ported for more than 24 h at the ambient conditions prevailing in most
parts of the country. Due to presence of more than 90% moisture content,
mushrooms are highly perishable and start deteriorating immediately after
harvest. They develop brown color on the surface of the cap due the enzy-
matic action of phenol oxidase, this results in shorter shelf life. Loss of
texture, development of off flavor and discoloration results in poor market-
able quality and restricts trade of fresh mushrooms. Browning, veil-open-
ing, weight-loss and microbial spoilage are the most common postharvest
changes in the mushrooms which often result into huge economic losses.
Almost all the mushrooms have very short shelf-life but the paddy straw

FIGURE 4.1 Flow chart of processing.


162 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

mushroom has the shortest (few hours at the ambient) and Milky has very
good shelf-life (3–5 days) if microbial spoilage is taken care of. Most dam-
aging postharvest changes in mushrooms vary with species—it is blacken-
ing in the button mushroom, cap-opening in the paddy straw mushroom
and mucilage in the oyster mushroom, which affect their marketability
significantly. Weight loss is very serious problem in all the mushrooms as
these contain very high moisture (85–90%) and are not protected by the
conventional cuticle. Due to very high moisture and rich nutritive value,
microbial spoilage in mushrooms is also a problem.
Proper, sound and appropriate postharvest practices of storage and pro-
cessing are needed to sustain the budding mushroom farming and industry
in the country. In India, more than 90% of the total mushroom production
is still contributed by the common button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus).
Information about proper postharvest care and processing of such a perish-
able commodity is therefore of vital importance to keep the wheels of this
industry moving at the right speed; with the adoption of proper packaging,
storage and processing technologies, problems in marketing, like seasonal
gluts and distress sales, can also be ameliorated. We have endeavored to
deal with most important postharvest aspects of mushrooms – physiologi-
cal and biochemical changes, packaging and storage of fresh mushrooms,
long-term storage and processing.
The production of mushroom is done throughout the year by the
environmentally controlled units, but the seasonal growers come into
play during the winters and the supply at the local market exceeds
causing less profit due to fall in price and spoilage due to market sur-
plus. Mushrooms are highly consumable and get spoiled due to brown-
ing, flaccid, liquefaction, loss of consistency, flavor, etc., making it
unsalable. Most of the mushrooms, being high in moisture and delicate
in consistency, it cannot be stored for more than 24 h at the ambient
conditions prevailing in the tropics. Researchers, who studied spoilage
of fresh mushrooms, earlier believed the primary cause to be the enzy-
matic reactions in the living tissue. Later, it was suggested that spoil-
age might be caused by the action of bacteria on the mushroom tissue
and browning of mushrooms was due to a combination of auto enzy-
matic and microbial action on the tissue. Sound postharvest practices
have since been developed to extend the shelf life of fresh mushrooms.
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 163

As far as processing technologies are concerned, sun drying of mush-


rooms is one of the simplest and oldest methods followed by the grow-
ers from the time immemorial. Due to the difficulties in drying of some
of the mushrooms, new preservation technologies like canning, pickling,
mechanical and chemical drying (freeze drying, fluidized bed drying,
batch type cabinet drying and osmotic drying) and irradiation treatment of
mushrooms have been developed to improve the shelf life and consump-
tion of mushrooms.
During the recent years, there has been an increased emphasis on the
quality of fresh vegetables including mushrooms, which is reflected in
the price of the produce. In India, the mushroom market is largely the
contribution of small and marginal farmers with limited resources, who
are dependent on local market for the sale of their produce. The rate of
respiration of the harvested mushrooms is high in comparison to the other
horticultural crops and this result in a shorter postharvest life.
Many short-term storage measures are followed to retard the deterio-
ration in quality at the level of mushroom grower till it reaches the con-
sumer. By following proper packing, cooling and transportation, the shelf
life of mushrooms can be extended.

4.5 WHITE BUTTON MUSHROOM (Agaricus bisporus)

White button mushroom still dominates the Indian and International mar-
ket and a lot of work has been done to minimize the loss in quality of the
mushrooms. In case of the button mushroom all the four most deleterious
changes namely, color browning, veil-opening, weight loss and microbial
spoilage ask for the utmost post-harvest care. Needless to say that these
changes are also accompanied by changes in the nutritional and medicinal
attributes of these mushrooms.

4.5.1 WASHING

Washing, is normally done to remove soil particles, however, it leads


to decline in shelf life and spoilage by bacteria. Small growers wash in
solution of reducing agents to retard the browning caused by polyphenol
164 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

oxidases. Hence, various anti-microbial as well as reductant compounds


are used in washing mushrooms to extend the shelf life. Oxine, a stabilized
form of chlorine dioxide, was very effective in controlling bacterial growth
and color deterioration when used at a level of 50 ppm or higher with a
two minute or longer wash period at 12°C. The use of sodium hypochlorite
(100 ppm) and calcium chloride (0.55%) with oxine (100 ppm) resulted
in increased antibacterial effectiveness. Use of calcium chloride and oxine
also resulted in lower cap opening and firmer mushrooms during storage.
Washing fresh mushrooms in water containing sodium sulphite solutions
results in lower bacterial numbers and an improved initial appearance, but
more rapid bacterial growth and browning occurred during subsequent
storage compared to unwashed controls. Mushrooms washed in hard water
(150 ppm calcium carbonate) reduced bacterial growth and there was less
color deterioration during storage. Washing mushrooms in a solution con-
sisting of oxine (50 ppm), sodium erythorbate (0.1%), and calcium chlo-
ride (0.5%) resulted in significantly lower bacterial populations and less
color deterioration during the storage. Based on experiment done at this
organization and its co-coordinating centers, it has been found that wash-
ing of mushrooms in 0.05% potassium metabisulphite improved the ini-
tial whiteness, which lasted longer during the storage. Even though many
farmers are adapting this approach of washing, but selling clean unwashed
properly packed mushroom may be a better option, as many people prefer
mushroom not just because of health benefit, but also considered it a more
chemical free food (Wakchaure, 2011).

4.5.2 PACKING AND PACKAGING

The mushrooms are packed for transporting them to the market. While a
good package sells a product, a mediocre package can interfere with sale of
an otherwise excellent product. For the local markets in India, mushrooms
are packed in retail packs of 200 g or 400 g in simple polythene packs of
less than 100 gauge thickness. Large quantity packing of mushrooms is
done using polythene or pulp-board punnets, which will withstand long
distance transport. Plastic punnets 130 × 130 × 72–0.40, Cardboard chips
305 × 125 × 118–1.82, Plastic tray 330 × 280 × 145–2.30, Expanded poly-
styrene 400 × 333 × 167–4.56. These punnets are over-wrapped with dif-
ferentially permeable PVC or polyaccetate films. These over-wrappings
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 165

help in creating modified atmosphere in punnets with 10% CO2 and 2% O2


and mushrooms maintain their fresh look for 3 days at 18°C.
In the recent years controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) and modi-
fied atmosphere packaging (MAP) are catching up fast for all types of
fruits and vegetables (Siddiqui et al., 2016; Siddiqui, 2016). These pack-
aging techniques have to be effectively used for packing mushrooms to
have improved shelf life. If simple polythene bags are used, it is important
to make desired number of holes for proper humidity control.

4.5.2.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging

Modified atmosphere packaging is a method by which a modified atmo-


sphere is created in a sealed package of a fresh product by respiratory gas
exchange, namely oxygen (O2) intake and carbon dioxide (CO2) evolution.
When the rate of gas permeation through the packaging material equals
respiratory gas exchange, equilibrium concentrations of O2 and CO2 are con-
sequently established. The equilibrium depends on: temperature, respiration
rate of specific product, and product weight O2 and CO2 permeability of the
packaging material, free volume in the package and film area. Thus MAP
helps in extending the shelf life and maintenance of quality of perishable
produce by way of creation of appropriate gaseous atmosphere around the
produce packed in plastic films. In this technique, the natural process of
respiration of the produce in conjunction with the restricted gas exchange
through a polymeric film such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE), normal
and oriented polypropylene (PP) is used to control the in-pack oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Modified atmosphere can be created by two methods: active
and passive modifications. In passive modification, the product is just sealed
in a polymeric package and due to the respiration of the fresh product and
permeation of gases into the package, the atmosphere is modified. In active
modification, air is flushed into the package initially, so that the steady state
atmosphere is reached quickly after packaging. In passive modification, it
takes a long time to reach the steady state conditions within the package.
Pulp board punnet with over wrapped polyethylene sheet MAP of
mushrooms has been shown successfully to delay senescence and main-
tain quality after harvest. Shelf life of mushrooms can be increased by
over wrapping them with PVC films. Thickness of 100-gauge polythene
bags with 0.5% venting area are recommended for packing mushroom in
166 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

case of refrigerated storage. For transporting mushroom to long distance,


polystyrene or pulp-board punnets should be used instead of using poly-
thene bags. The punnets are over-wrapped with differentially permeable
poly vinyl chloride (PVC) or poly acetate films. They create modified
atmosphere in punnets producing an atmosphere of about 10% CO2 and
2% O2. The optimum atmosphere for storage of mushrooms is found to
be 2.5–5% CO2 and 5–10% O2. According to Simon et al. (2005) a modi-
fied atmosphere containing 2.5% CO2 and 10–12% O2 improves improved
the appearance of A. bisporus and reduces the bacterial count. According
to Roy et al. (1995 the storage of mushroom species in a modified atmo-
sphere containing 26% CO2 and decreases weight loss by 3–4.5%.
In modified atmospheric packaging, the packaging material plays a vital
role in modifying the inside atmosphere around the product and the product
quality as well. Among the various packaging materials viz., polyvinylidene
chloride coated, oriented nylon, anti-fogging, wrap or vacuum packing film,
the antifogging film maintained the quality of mushrooms for 24 days. The
best packaging material polyethylene extends the shelf life of fresh mush-
rooms to 15 days under MAP conditions. In modified atmospheric packaging,
the shelf life of the product can further be extended by supplementing some
chemicals in addition to modifying the atmosphere inside the package. The
various supplementary packaging materials viz., activated carbon, sorbitol,
chitosan, potassium permanganate can be used in MAP for maintaining the
quality of oyster mushrooms at ambient temperature. A study was conducted
in Finland about the washing and use of a humidity absorber (Silicagel) in the
packages during the modified atmosphere and it was found that washing in
chlorinated water and incorporation of dehumidifiers decreased the microbial
contamination and increased shelf-life in A. bisporus. Sorbital maintained the
best color in mushroom when it was packed and stored along with fresh mush-
room trays over wrapped with PVC films. Mushrooms treated with honey (0.5
and 1%) for 18 h, air dried to remove surface moisture, packed in 100 gauge
polythene pouches with 0.5% venting area, increased the shelf life by more
than a week over control at 3–5°C and 2–3 days at ambient temperature.

4.5.2.2 Modified Humidity Packaging

Most polymeric films used in conventional packing have lower water


vapor transmission rates relative to transpiration rates of fresh produce.
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 167

This leads to nearly saturated conditions within packages. The high


in-package-relative-humidity (IPRH) can cause condensation of water
vapor within a package and allow microbial growth. This may either
increase or decrease the spoilage depending on the product, depending
on their transpiration coefficients and water potentials (Siddiqui et al.,
2016). To obtain the desired IPRH, there are two possible approaches:
perforation of the package, which precludes the possibility of achieving
modified atmosphere conditions within the package, and use of in-pack-
age water absorbing compounds like calcium chloride, which can main-
tain the required RH. MAP in combination with MHP further improved
the shelf-life of fresh mushrooms. An IPRH of 87–90% is desirable for
best color in mushrooms during storage.

4.5.3 STORAGE

4.5.3.1 Optimum Storage Conditions

The storage condition is very important for maintaining the quality of


fresh mushroom. The best result for storing fresh mushroom in a cool
chamber The most favorable temperature for storage of mushrooms at 0 to
2°C with 95% RH. For the period of 7–9 days upon rapid cooling. Storage
at 2°C (35.6°F) shortens storage-life to 3–5 days by accelerating surface
browning, stipe elongation, and veil opening (Umiecka, 1986). High RH
is essential to prevent desiccation and loss of glossiness. Moisture loss
is correlated with stipe blackening and veil opening. Mushrooms should
be packed in cartons with a perforated over-wrap of polyethylene film to
reduce moisture loss. It is important to avoid water condensation inside
packages. There are no chemical treatments to extend storage-life of
mushrooms intended for fresh consumption.

4.5.3.2 Controlled Atmospheric Storage

In this method, the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations are altered
inside the package and respiration rate gets altered. Controlled atmo-
spheric package reduces brown discoloration (enzymatic browning) and
the shelf life is extended (Ahmad and Siddiqui, 2015).
168 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

4.5.4 DRYING OF MUSHROOMS

Drying is perhaps the oldest technique known to the mankind for preserva-
tion of food commodities for long duration. It is the process of removal
of moisture from the product to such a low level that microbial and bio-
chemical activities are checked due to reduced water activity, which makes
the products suitable for safe storage and protection against the attack by
microorganisms during the storage. Mushrooms contain about 90% mois-
ture at the time of harvesting and are dried to a moisture level down below
10–12%. At a drying temperature of 55–60°C, the insects and microbes
on the mushrooms will be killed in few hours, which gives us the dehy-
drated final product of lower moisture content with longer shelf-life. The
temperature, moisture of the mushroom and humidity of the air affect the
color of the dried product. Dehydrated mushrooms are used as an impor-
tant ingredient in several food formulations including instant soup, pasta,
snack seasonings, casseroles, and meat and rice dishes. Dried mushrooms
can be easily powdered and used in soups, bakery products, etc. Mushroom
dried at higher temperature loose texture, flavor, color along with reduced
rehydrability. Most of the mushrooms except the button mushroom have
been traditionally dried for long-term storage, for example, oyster, shii-
take, paddy straw, milky mushroom, etc. In case of button mushroom, it is
the blackening and irreversible change of texture, which often discourages
the use of this otherwise simple technique of preservation. Recently with
advances in drying technologies, various drying methods such as solar dry-
ing, fluidized bed drying, dehumidified air- cabinet drying, osmo-air drying,
freeze-drying cabinet drying and microwave drying are efficiently used for
almost all types of mushrooms. There are many drying methods such as
sun-drying, freeze-drying, cabinet air drying, osmo-air drying, fluidized-bed
drying and microwave drying. Sun-drying is very oldest, cheapest and very
simple method among various drying methods. Under this method mush-
rooms are spread over the trays or sheets and kept in open under the sun
with 25°C temperature, with less than 50% relative humidity and high wind
velocity. Sun dried product contains more than 10–12% moisture and should
therefore be oven dried at 55–60°C for 4–6 h to further reduce the moisture
to 7–8% to avoid any spoilage during storage. Under freeze drying; removal
of water from a substance by sublimation from the frozen state to the vapor
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 169

state is known as freeze-drying. The product is frozen at −22°C for one min.
The frozen mushrooms are dried to moisture content of 3% in a freeze drier
and packed under vacuum (Kannaiyan and Ramsamy, 1980).

4.5.5 COOLING

4.5.5.1 Pre-Cooling or Refrigeration

The temperature of the button mushroom after picking varies between


15 and 18°C, and it rises steadily during the storage due to respiration
and atmospheric temperature. This heat causes deterioration in quality.
Hence, the heat should be removed immediately after the harvest and the
temperature of mushrooms should be brought down to 4–5°C as quickly
as possible. The choice of the cooling system depends upon the quan-
tity to be handled, which may be a refrigerator for a small grower to a
cold room with all facilities for a commercial grower. Using evapora-
tive cooling, hydro-cooling, forced-chill air, ice bank or vacuum cooling
systems, and mushrooms can be cooled up to 2–4°C. The temperature
of the mushrooms increases through respiration after picking and the
respiratory rate increases with the increase in the storage temperature.
It has been estimated that mushrooms at a temperature of 10°C have
3.5 times higher respiratory capacity than those at temperature of 0°C,
which necessitates immediate shifting of mushrooms to the refrigerated
zone. The size and shape of the packs also play an important role in cool-
ing room. Packs with more than 10 kg mushrooms or with 15 cm thick
layers of mushroom causes problem. Vertical flowing of air is more suit-
able for cooling. The mushrooms should not be stored in the same cooler
along with fruits as the gases produced by fruits, for example, ethylene
cause discoloration of mushrooms. This forced-chill air-cooling system
is time consuming and vacuum cooling is becoming more popular.

4.5.5.2 Vacuum Cooling

In vacuum cooling, the water in cell walls and inter hyphal spaces
of mushrooms is evaporated under low pressure and the evaporative
170 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

cooling lowers the temperature from ambient to 2°C in 15–20 min.


Vacuum cooling is a uniform and faster process, where mushrooms are
subjected to very low pressure and water evaporates giving off the latent
heat of vaporization, thus cooling itself. The vacuum-cooled mush-
rooms have superior color than conventional-cooled mushrooms. The
major drawback of the system is the high capital cost; and an inevitable
loss of fresh weight during the process of cooling. Filling and emptying
the cooling chamber introduces another operation and expenses into the
marketing chain. Air spray moist chillers can also cool the mushrooms
rapidly. The temperature can be lowered by 16–18°C in an hour without
any moisture loss.

4.5.5.3 Ice-Bank Cooling

With a view to reduce the weight loss during the conventional vacuum
cooling, ice bank cooling of mushrooms is now in vogue in some countries
wherein a stack of mushrooms is passed through forced draft of chilled but
humidified air from the ice bank.

4.5.5.4 Steeping Preservation

This method is simple and economical and the mushrooms can be pre-
served for short period by steeping them in solution of salt or acids. The
common practice is that cleaned mushrooms are washed in water or chemi-
cal added water and filled in large plastic containers. Blanching in brine
solution for 5 min is generally done before filling them in cans. Brine solu-
tion is then added into the cans or containers. Steeping of water blanched
mushrooms in 1% potassium meta bisulphite (KMS) along with 2% citric
acid (overnight), before drying improves color, texture and reconstitution
properties. Solution consisting of 2% sodium chloride, 2% citric acid, 2%
sodium bicarbonate and 0.15% KMS is used for steeping preservation of
blanched mushrooms for 8–10 days at 21–28°C. Chemical solution of 2%
salt, 2% sugar, 0.3% citric acid, 0.1% KMS and 1% ascorbic acid is also
used for steeping preservation of mushrooms. It helps to extend shelf life
of mushrooms.
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 171

4.5.5.5 Radiation Preservation

Low doses of gamma radiation can be used to reduce the contamination


and extend the shelf life of mushrooms. Irradiation should be given imme-
diately after harvest for optimum benefits. Irradiation can potentially delay
the maturation, for example, development of cap, stalk, gill and spore and
also reduces the loss of water, color, flavor texture and delays the quality
losses. Cobalt 60 is used as a common source of gamma rays. A dose of
10 KGy (Kilo Gray) will completely destroy microorganisms. An enhance-
ment in shelf-life of Agaricus bisporus upto a period of 10 days can be
achieved by application of gamma ray close to 2 KGy and storage at 10°C.
Irradiation reduces the incident of fungal and bacterial infection. The loss
of flavor components is noticed in irradiated mushrooms. The cap opening
is also delayed by irradiation. Amino acids in fresh mushrooms are pre-
served by gamma irradiation. Irradiation at low levels proved better than
irradiation levels of 1 and 2 KGy. The permissible doses for such preserva-
tion have not been worked out in our country. Even for export, it will be
necessary to follow the standards of importing country.

4.5.6 CANNING

Canning is the technique by which the mushrooms can be stored for lon-
ger periods up to a year and most of the international trade in mushrooms
is done in this form. The caning process can be divided into various unit
operations namely cleaning, blanching, filling, sterilization, cooling,
labeling and packaging. In order to produce good quality canned mush-
rooms, these should be processed as soon as possible after the harvest.
In case a delay is inevitable; mushrooms should be stored at 4–5°C till
processed. The mushrooms with a stem length of one cm are preferred and
are canned whole, sliced and stems and pieces as per demand. Well-graded
fresh mushrooms white in color, without dark marks on either caps or
stems are preferred for canning. Whole mushrooms are washed 3–4 times
in cold running water to remove adhering substances. Use of iron free
water with 0.1% citric acid prevents discoloration. Thereafter blanching
is normally done to inhibit polyphenol oxidase enzymes activity and to
inactivate microorganisms. It also removes the gases from the mushroom
172 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

tissue and reduces bacterial counts. The mushrooms are blanched in stain-
less steel kettles filled with a boiling solution of 0.1% citric acid and 1%
common salt. The blanching time ranges from 5–6 min at 95–100°C. The
mushrooms after blanching are filled in sterilized tin cans (A-2½ and A-1
tall can sizes containing approximately 440 and 220 g drained mushroom
weight, respectively). Brine solution (2% salt with 0.1% citric acid or 100
ppm ascorbic acid) is added to the mushroom-filled cans after bringing its
temperature to 90°C. After filling, the cans are exhausted by passing them
in exhaust box for 10–15 min, so that temperature in the center of cans
reaches up to 85°C. Then the cans are sealed hermetically with double
seamer and kept in upside down position. After exhausting of cans, ster-
ilization of cans is needed. Sterilization is the process of heating the cans
up to 118°C to prevent the spoilage by microorganisms during storage.
The cans cooled immediately after sterilization process to stop the over-
cooking and to prevent stack burning. Cooling can be done by placing the
cans in a cold-water tank. Thereafter the clean and dry cans are labeled
manually or mechanically and packed in strong wooden crates or corru-
gated cardboard cartons. The cans are stored in cool and dry place before
dispatching to market. In a hot country like India, where the ambient tem-
perature is high during the several months in a year, basement stores are
useful, especially during the summer months (Figure 4.2).

4.6 OYSTER MUSHROOM (Pleurotus sp.)

The oyster mushrooms are harvested and the straw adhered to mush-
room is removed and are packed in polythene bags of less than 100 gauge
thickness with perforations having vent area of about 5%. Though these
perforations cause slight reduction in weight during storage, it helps in
maintaining the freshness and firmness of the produce. Rough handling
should be avoided storage of oyster mushroom at very low temperatures
especially in non-perforated polypacks results in condensation of water
with increased sliminess and softening of the texture. Cooling with posi-
tive ventilation is desirable, for example, cold air should be directed
through the packed produce. For transporting ‘dhingri,’ the fruit bodies are
stacked in trays or baskets. Few polypouches containing crushed ice are
kept along with mushrooms. The tray is then covered with thin polythene
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 173

FIGURE 4.2 Flow chart of canning.

sheet with perforation. The prepacked polythene packs with perforations


may also be transported in this way.

4.7 MILKY MUSHROOM (Calocybe indica)

Milky mushroom is the new introduction from India to world and its pro-
duction is catching up fast in different parts of the country during the sum-
mer months and the mushroom has revolutionized the so called off-season
174 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

mushroom growing. Fresh mushroom market is largely catered by sea-


sonal growers who do not have cold-chain storage and transport facilities.
They sell the produce in highly localized market. This mushroom has very
good shelf life of 3–4 days without loss of color and appearance. Washing,
packaging, pre-cooling and refrigeration, transports and storage of fresh
milky mushroom, if needed, are almost same as for the button mushroom.

4.8 PADDY STRAW MUSHROOM (Volvariella volvacea)

This mushroom is packed in polythene bags. As low temperature storage


causes frost injury and deterioration in quality, the best way of storage is
at 10–15°C in polythene bags with perforations. Mushrooms packed in
bamboo baskets with an aeration channel at the center and dry ice wrapped
in paper placed above the mushrooms, is in practice for transportation in
Taiwan. Packing in wooden cases for transport by rail or boat is practiced
in China. In general the shelf life of this mushroom is very less and mush-
rooms are sold on the day of harvest.

4.9 TRANSPORTATION

Obviously, fresh mushrooms need to be properly stored to retard posthar-


vest deterioration till these are consumed. Needless to reiterate that the
refrigeration or cold-storage is the most essential part of the postharvest care
of all the horticultural commodities including mushrooms. Pretreatments,
if any, packing and precooling precede the refrigerated storage in most
cases. The effect of pre-cooling and packing will be partially negated if the
product is later stored and transported in a hot environment. Mushrooms,
therefore, need refrigerated transport. To keep the mushrooms cool during
transport to short distances, the polypacks of mushrooms can be stacked
in small wooden cases or boxes with sufficient crushed ice in polypacks
(over-wrapped in paper). For long distance, transport of large quantities in
refrigerated trucks is essential though it is costlier.

4.10 DISEASES AND DISORDERS

Disease is generally not an important source of postharvest loss in com-


parison with physiological senescence and improper handling or bruising.
Postharvest Management and Processing Technology of Mushrooms 175

All diseased caps must be eliminated at harvest. Bacterial blotch or


Pseudomonas spp. can become a problem during extended storage at
elevated temperatures (Suslow and Cantwell, 1998). Low storage tem-
peratures are needed to reduce continued development of mushrooms that
occurs after harvest. Common disorders include upward bending of caps
and opening of the veil. Mushrooms are easily bruised by rough handling
and develop brown discolored tissue.

KEYWORDS

•• Mushroom
•• Mushroom packaging
•• Mushroom processing
•• Postharvest quality
•• Postharvest Technology
•• Shelf life and storage

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CHAPTER 5

GIBBERELLINS: THE ROLES IN PRE-


AND POSTHARVEST QUALITY OF
HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE
VENKATA SATISH KUCHI,1 J. KABIR,1 and
MOHAMMED WASIM SIDDIQUI2
Department of Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops,
1

Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia,


West Bengal–741252, India
2
Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Bihar
Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar–813210, India,
E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

Abstract.................................................................................................. 181
5.1 Introduction................................................................................... 181
5.2 Chemical Structure........................................................................ 182
5.3 Biosynthesis.................................................................................. 182
5.4 Translocation................................................................................. 183
5.5 Functions....................................................................................... 184
5.6 Commercial Availability............................................................... 185
5.7 Role of Gibberellins in Improving and
Maintaining Postharvest Quality of Fruit Crops........................... 185
5.7.1 Parthenocarpy.................................................................... 185
5.7.1.1 Apple.................................................................. 185
5.7.1.2 Pear..................................................................... 186
180 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.1.3 Mango................................................................ 187


5.7.1.4 Guava................................................................. 187
5.7.1.5 Citrus.................................................................. 188
5.7.1.6 Vegetables........................................................... 189
  5.7.2 Fruit Set........................................................................... 189
  5.7.3 Control of Fruit Drop...................................................... 191
  5.7.4 Fruit Size......................................................................... 191
  5.7.5 Fruit Weight..................................................................... 192
  5.7.6 Physiological Loss in Weight.......................................... 192
  5.7.7 Fruit Volume.................................................................... 193
  5.7.8 Fruit Color....................................................................... 193
  5.7.9 Fruit Firmness................................................................. 194
5.7.10 Fruit Yield....................................................................... 195
5.7.11 TSS.................................................................................. 195
5.7.12 Titrable Acidity................................................................ 196
5.7.13 Sugars.............................................................................. 197
5.7.14 Ascorbic Acid.................................................................. 198
5.7.15 Storage Life..................................................................... 198
5.7.16 Spoilage........................................................................... 199
5.7.17 Organoleptic Rating........................................................ 200
5.7.18 Carotene Content............................................................. 200
5.7.19 Total Phenols................................................................... 200
5.7.20 Enzymatic Activity.......................................................... 201
5.7.21 Mode of Action in Relation to Anti-Ripening
and Delaying Senescence................................................ 201
5.7.22 Effect of Gibberellins on Vegetables............................... 201
5.7.23 Influence of GA on Plant Height and
Internodal Length of Flower Crops................................. 203
5.7.24 Number of Stems............................................................. 203
5.7.25 Flower Bud Emergence and Flower Harvesting............. 204
5.7.26 Quality Attributes............................................................ 204
5.7.27 Length of Stalk................................................................ 207
5.7.28 Flower Length and Diameter.......................................... 208
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 181

5.7.29 Neck Length.................................................................... 209


5.7.30 Flower Yield.................................................................... 209
5.7.31 Vase Life.......................................................................... 213
5.7.32 Bent Neck in Gerbera...................................................... 217
5.7.33 Disease Resistance in Rose............................................. 217
5.7.34 Extra Points..................................................................... 218
Keywords............................................................................................... 219
References.............................................................................................. 219

ABSTRACT

Research in the field of plant hormones is an interesting aspect of physiol-


ogy where new research findings have been established every year. Plant
hormones are synthesized in minute quantities in different plant parts
with specific action on target tissues. They are synthesized artificially and
applied in the horticultural industry to obtain desired results. Authors among
the world had compiled their structure, synthesis, and mode of action.
Literature regarding their utilization for quality produces after harvest is
scanty. In this chapter, a brief introduction about the discovery, structure,
synthesis and functions has been discussed. Interaction of gibberellins with
other plant hormones and its role in maintaining postharvest quality of hor-
ticultural produce has been highlighted under various headings.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Gibberellin (GA) was discovered when the attention of plant pathologists


of Japan was drawn while rice plants were unable to set seed and had
grown excessively tall (named as foolish seedling). They discovered that
it was caused by fungus, Gibberella fujikuroi. Subsequently, they have
extracted in crystal form by culturing the fungus in laboratory and named
it as Gibberellin A in 1926. After three decades, Japanese scientists had
alienated three various forms of Gibberellins namely gibberellin A1 (GA1),
gibberellin A2 (GA2) and gibberellin A3 (GA3) from gibberellins A. So far,
136 gibberellins have been recognized GA1, GA2, GA3, GA4, GA5, etc.
The number is given based on order of their discovery. Gibberellin usually
182 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

represents to the total class of hormones and Gibberellic acid particularly


to GA3, which exists most commonly in commercial form (Taiz and Zeiger,
2006). Naturally occurring GA’s which are active in higher plants are GA1
and GA4. Young leaves, apical buds, elongating shoots, apical regions of
roots and developing fruits and seeds are important sites for synthesis of
GA. Abundant quantities of gibberellins were found in developing seeds
and fruits (Hopkins and Huner, 2008).

5.2 CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

Gibberellins are acidic, tetracyclic, diterepenes with ent-gibberellane


structure (Figure 5.1) with 19 or 20 carbon atoms. GAs with 19 carbon
atoms are biologically active than C-20 GAs (GA3). The structure of most
widely used GAs in research is given in Figure 5.2.

5.3 BIOSYNTHESIS

Gibberellins are synthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP)


which is a multi enzyme pathway (simplified and given in Figure 5.3). In
plastids, four isoprene units assemble to give GGPP (20 carbon molecule).
Ent-kaurene, a tetracyclic is formed with the help of enzymes ent-copalyl-
diphosphate and ent-kaurene synthase. In a multistep process GA12 is formed
from ent-kaurene which is catalyzed by ent-kaurene oxidase and ent-kaure-
noic acid oxidase in endoplasmic reticulum (synthesis of GA up to GA12
same in all plant species). GA-C20 and GA-C19 (including bioactive forms)

FIGURE 5.1 Ent-gibberellane structure of GA (Source: http://www.planthormones.info/


gibberellins.html).
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 183

FIGURE 5.2 (a). GA3 (b). GA4 (c). GA7 (Source; Davies, 2004).

are formed from GA12 through a series of oxidative reactions (Krishna, 2012).
Gibberellin biosynthesis is influenced by light temperature and ratio of bio-
active GA to ABA (abscisic acid) ratio (Taiz and Zeiger, 2006).
It is important to know the biosynthesis of gibberellins to know the
mode of action of growth retardants. High GA content in vegetative tis-
sues interferes with flowering of some of the fruit trees (e.g., Mango).
Growth retardants such as daminozide (Alar), paclobutrazol (Cultar), CCC
(Cycocel), phosphon D block the synthesis of GA’s (Figure 5.3). So, flow-
ering is achieved with reduced intermodal elongation in such trees. Foliar
application (2000 ppm) or soil drenching (10 g/tree) of paclobutrazol can
promote flowering in ‘Alphonso’ mango trees during off year (Rao and
Srihari, 1996).
184 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 5.3 Simplified diagram of biosynthesis of gibberellins.

5.4 TRANSLOCATION

Gibberellins transport is not polar but a velocity up to 1 mm/h had been


reported (Jacobs, 1979). Xylem and phloem can interchange GA while
transporting to target tissues (Pessarakli, 2002). Many researchers con-
ducted experiments with radioactively labeled GA but their translocation
whether they are transported as free hormone or as conjugated form is not
known (Hopkins and Huner, 2008).

5.5 FUNCTIONS

Some physiological processes stimulated by gibberellins are stimulation of


stem elongation by stimulating cell division and cell elongation. Breaking
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 185

seed dormancy and promotion of bolting or flowering in response to long


days, breaking of seed dormancy in some plants, which require stratifica-
tion or light for induction of germination. Stimulation of enzyme produc-
tion (α-amylase) in germinating seeds for mobilization of seed reserves,
induction of maleness in dioecious flowers (sex expression), promotion of
seedlessness during development of fruits and delaying senescence of in
leaves and fruits (Siddiqui et al., 2016).

5.6 COMMERCIAL AVAILABILITY

Commercially available forms of gibberellins are Gibberellic acid or GA3


(C19H22O6) in the trade of Pro-Gibb, RyzUp, Release, Relax and Berelex
(powdered form). It is soluble in water and highly soluble in ethanol, metha-
nol or acetone. A new formulation of GA4+7 is available in commercial form
in the trade name ‘Provide’ which is used in apple fruit growers to minimize
physiological disorders and to improve overall appearance (Arteca, 2015).

5.7 ROLE OF GIBBERELLINS IN IMPROVING AND


MAINTAINING POSTHARVEST QUALITY OF FRUIT CROPS

5.7.1 PARTHENOCARPY

Seedlessness is regarded as a valuable character for commercial purposes and


is considered ideal to the consumer as well as to the producer. In many fruits
like banana, grape and pineapple parthenocarpy is essential while in some fruits
like pomegranate guava and citrus even reduction in seed number would be an
asset. There are some fruits, which normally develop seeds, either by disturb-
ing their genetic construction, by artificial pollination, by growth substances
or by mechanical means (girdling of grape vines). These fruits can be made to
develop without fertilization resulting into seedless fruits. Consumer prefer-
ence towards parthenocarpic fruits was increasing as it saves time, labor, easy
to eat and improves mouth feel attribute. Seedlessness is appreciated by con-
sumers both in fruits for fresh consumption (e.g., grape, citrus, and banana) as
well as in conserved or processed fruits (e.g., frozen eggplant, tomato sauce).
Seedlessness can contribute to increase the quality of the fruits when seeds are
186 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

hard or have a bad taste. Gibberellins promote parthenocarpy by abandoning


fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruits are formed under high expression level of
GA biosynthetic genes such as SlGAox1 (De Jong et al., 2011). Gibberellic
acid is widely employed exogenously in the production of seedless fruits.

5.7.1.1 Apple

Gibberellic acid induced parthenocarpy was reported first time in apple by


Davidson (1960). Dennis and Egerton (1962) obtained parthenocarpic fruit
of apple cultivar McIntosh with the application of potassium salt of 1000
ppm GA. Bukovac (1963) found parthenocarpic fruit development in deli-
cious apple when emasculated flowers were subjected to GA application.
Varga (1966) sprayed different concentrations of gibberellins to emascu-
lated flowers of apple cultivar Golden Delicious and obtained seedless
fruits with 100 ppm GA. Parthenocarpy was induced in Cox’s orange pip-
pin apple by single spray of gibberellins (Schwabe, 1973). Seedless apple
fruits were produced when decapitated blossoms were sprayed with 50
ppm GA4+7 (Modlibowska, 1975). Parthenocarpy was induced up to 60%
in Jonathan apple cultivar with 200 ppm GA4+7 (Taylor, 1975).

5.7.1.2 Pear

Pear fruits set parthenocarpically when flowers were sprayed with potas-
sium salt of GA at 50 ppm (Luckwill, 1953). Gill et al. (1972) devel-
oped parthenocarpic fruits in pear cultivar Winter Neils with bloom
application of 200 ppm GA3; 200 and 50 ppm GA4+7. Similarly, Modic
and Turk (1978) obtained parthenocarpic fruits in pear sprayed with 45
ppm GA3 or GA4+7 at full bloom stage. Large fruits of Forell pear fruits
were found parthenocarpic when treated with Progibb at flowering time
(Honeyborne, 1996).
Other temperate fruits
Crane et al. (1960) obtained parthenocarpic fruits in peaches and apricots
with 50 and 500 ppm potassium salt of GA. Constanin and Crane (1961)
reported parthenocarpic fruit set in cherry with application of 1000 ppm GA
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 187

at full bloom stage. Parthenocarpic fruit development has been observed in


plums (100%) with GA (Webster and Goldwin, 1978). In peaches 500 ppm
GA applied to emasculated flowers resulted in greater percentage of par-
thenocarpic fruits (Stembridge and Gambrell, 1970). Sansavini and Fility
(1972) reported parthenocarpy in peaches with the application of 20 and 40
ppm GA3. Sansavini (1973) further stated that 50% and 80% parthenocar-
pic fruits were obtained when GA was treated during flowering time at 10
days after flowering. 1000 ppm (Marlangeon and Comes, 1974) and 500
ppm (Bengoa and Marlangeon, 1975) of GA3 induced higher percentage of
parthenocarpic fruits applied to emasculated flowers of peach.
Loquat
GA sprayed at 300 ppm to Thames pride and California Advance of loquat
produced seedless fruits (Rao et al., 1960). High percentage of partheno-
carpic fruit development in loquat was reported with the application of GA
before flowering (Zhang et al., 1999).
Grape
Itakura et al. (1965) observed more than 95% parthenocarpy in
Delaware cultivar of grapes when flowers were sprayed with 100 ppm
of GA. Seedlessness in grapes have been reported by Volsoueov (1966),
and Das & Randhawa (1968, 1970) in Anab-e-Shahi, Bhokri and Pusa
Seedless grapes with 75–100 ppm GA. Total seedlessness was achieved
with 100 ppm GA in Delaware grapes (Muranishi and Iwagawa, 1972;
Prasad and Prasad, 1973). GA was proved to be effective than GA4+7
in inducing seedlessness in grapes (Modic and Turk, 1978). Lee et al.
(1986) opined that 25 ppm GA when applied at pre-bloom stage induced
90% seedlessness in Koyoho grapes. GA 100–300 ppm sprayed at late
bloom stage and one week later induced parthenocarpy in grape berry
(Jiang et al., 1997).

5.7.1.3 Mango

Venkataratnam (1949) obtained parthenocarpic fruits in mango cultivar


Langra, Banglora and Banganapalli with GA when applied after emascu-
lation. Similarly, parthenocarpic mangoes were obtained by Chacko and
188 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 5.4 Seedlessness achieved with different GA3 treatments at bud stage (Source:
Kaur, 2003) [A. GA3 (800 ppm); B. GA3 (1000 ppm); C. GA3 (1200 ppm); D. Control].

Singh (1969) with 250 ppm GA; Singh et al. (1977) with 100 ppm of GA
in Langra mangoes, and Kulkarni & Rameshwari (1978) in Thambva vari-
ety of mango with 200 ppm GA.

5.7.1.4 Guava

Potassium salt of gibberellic acid (10,000 ppm) induced parthenocarpy


in guava and reached maturity early (10 days earlier than normal fruits)
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 189

(Teaotia et al., 1961). A 100% parthenocarpic fruits were obtained when


buds of 2.5 cm size were treated with GA3 (1200 ppm) and had 2–4 seeds
but the fruits are misshapen (Figure 5.4) (Kaur, 2003).

5.7.1.5 Citrus

Randhawa et al. (1964) obtained parthenocarpic fruits in grape fruit


and mandarin with application of 25–10,000 ppm GA. Parthenocarpy
was observed in mandarin cultivar ‘Monreal’ subjected to 5–200
ppm GA (Garcia and Garcia, 1979). In valencia oranges, Turnbull
(1989) obtained 100% seedless fruits with the application of GA and
paclobutrazol.

5.7.1.6 Vegetables

Active gibberellins (GA1 or GA3) are able to induce fruit set in several horti-
cultural species and in the model species A. thaliana (Gillaspy et al., 1993).
However, tomato gibberellin induced fruits are smaller than seeded fruits sug-
gesting that other signals are required for tomato fruit growth and development
(de Jong et al., 2009). Increased levels of gibberellin have been detected in pol-
linated ovary together with an increased expression of GA biosynthetic genes
(Serrani et al., 2007). The role of gibberellins in fruit set was also supported by
the analysis of the parthenocarpic tomato mutans pat, pat2 and pat3/4. These
mutants show increased level of GA’s and an enhanced expression of GA bio-
synthetic genes (Fos et al., 2000; Olimpieri et al., 2007). Auxin and gibberellin
may act in parallel or in a sequential way on fruit set. A synergistic effect of
auxin and gibberellin on fruit growth has been observed in pea and tomato sug-
gesting that the two phytohormones interact in regulating fruit development
(Ozga, 1999). Data recently obtained in A. thaliana and in tomato suggest a
hierarchical scheme of interaction where GA acts downstream of auxin. In
tomato, auxin-induced fruit initiation is mediated by GAs and in ovaries treated
with auxins GA biosynthetic genes are induced (shown in Figure 5.5 and 5.6)
(Serrani et al., 2007). Similar results were obtained in A. thaliana where fer-
tilization triggers an increase in auxin response in the ovules and the activa-
tion of GA synthesis. The depletion of SlDELLA proteins which are negative
190 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 5.5 Effect of different doses of 2,4-D and GA3 on the size of the fruit of tomato
(Serrani et al., 2007).

FIGURE 5.6 Cross section of tomato fruit treated with GA3, 2,4-D and the combination
(Source: Serrani et al., 2007).
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 191

regulators of GA signal transduction pathway, allowed to overcome the growth


arrest normally imposed on the ovary at anthesis (Marti et al., 2007). Antisense
SlDELLA engineered tomato fruits were seedless, but smaller in size and
elongated in shape compared with pollinated fruits. Cell number estimations
showed that fruit set, resulting from reduced SlDELLA expression, arose from
activated cell elongation at the longitudinal and lateral axes of the fruit pericarp.
Interestingly also the quadruple-DELLA loss-of-function mutant of A. thaliana
displays the parthenocarpic phenotype (Dorcey et al., 2009).

5.7.2 FRUIT SET

In the investigations of Phuangchik (1994), the application NAA


10 ppm + GA3–20 ppm + Fulmet 20 ppm (1.63%) resulted in maximum
fruit set in mango cv. Nam Dok Mai Tawai. Bankar and Prasad (1990)
sprayed GA3 and NAA 10, 20 and 30 ppm on eight-year-old trees of
ber cv. Gola at flowering and again 15 days later at fruit set and revealed
that the fruit retention was increased by all the treatments, compared with
water-sprayed controls. Pandey (1999) reported that the application of
NAA 20 ppm and GA3–15 ppm resulted in the greatest fruit retention in
ber cv. Banarasi Karaka. No beneficial effect of GA3 on fruit retention was
observed (Ghosh et al., 2008). Wangbin et al. (2008) examined the effects of
molybdenum (Mo) foliar sprays on fruiting of jujube ‘Dongzao’ (Zizyphus
jujuba Mill). Two treatments (Mo 50 ppm + girdling + GA3–15 ppm and
Mo 100 ppm + girdling + GA3–15 ppm) applied during flowering period
increased the fruit set significantly as compared to other treatments.

5.7.3 CONTROL OF FRUIT DROP

Pramanik and Bose (1974) studied the effect of varying doses of GA3
and NOXA on fruit drop of ber cv. Banarasi Karaka and concluded that
both GA3 and NOXA 10 ppm decreased the fruit drop considerably.
GA3–60 ppm accounted for the lowest fruit drop and highest fruit set in
Umran Ber (Singh and Randhawa 2001). Ram et al. (2005) implicated that
application of GA3–15 and 25 ppm decreased the fruit drop and improved
the fruit retention in ber cv. Banarasi Karaka.
192 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.4 FRUIT SIZE

Dhillon and Singh (1968) reported that 75 ppm GA3 increased the fruit
diameter significantly in Dandan variety of ber as compared to control.
Patil and Patil (1979) concluded that CCC 250 ppm reduced the size
of fruit in ber. They further reported that application of 10 ppm NAA
and 10 ppm GA3 increased the fruit size. The results were again con-
firmed by Patil (1981). Pandey (1999) reported that the application of
NAA 20 ppm and GA3–15 ppm resulted in increased fruit size (length x
breadth) in ber cv. Banarasi Karaka. Kale et al. (2000) studied the effect
of plant growth regulators on fruit characters of ber and reported that the
fruit size increased appreciably with GA3–20 ppm. Gibberellic acid (Pro-
Gibb 4%) applied 3 weeks beforeharvest delayed maturity from 3 to 7 days
in cherries (Willemsen, 2000) and gave larger fruit with storage life. They
further reported that the lightly cropped trees required lower doses of GA3.

5.7.5 FRUIT WEIGHT

Banker and Prasad (1990) reported that fruit weight in ber cv. Gola was
significantly increased by application of GA3 (30 ppm) and NAA (30 ppm).
Pandey (1999) reported that GA3–15 ppm and NAA 10, 15 or 20 ppm
increased the fruit weight in Banarasi Karaka cultivar of ber. Seven year old
Umran ber trees were sprayed with gibberellic acid (GA3) and NAA (10 and
20 ppm) alone and in combination up to 60 days after full bloom by Kale et
al. (2000). The fruit weight was found significantly improved by higher con-
centration of GA3 and NAA. However, the combination of GA3 and NAA
were not much effective. In Peach cvs. Springtime and Early Red, Engin et
al. (2007) reported that application of GA3 coupled with irrigation at final
swell of the fruits resulted in increase in fruit weight as compared to control.
Dhillon et al. (1982) observed a progressive decrease in loss in weight
of Flordasum peach with the increase in Gibberellin, concentration.

5.7.6 PHYSIOLOGICAL LOSS IN WEIGHT

Randhawa et al. (1980) recorded minimum loss in weight of pear treated


with 4% CaCl2 followed by GA3 at 50 ppm concentration. Subtropical
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 193

peaches showed the minimum loss in weight, less than 1000 ppm GA3.
However the loss in weight in Sharbati peach was not affected with the
increasing concentration of GA3. Parmar and Chundawat (1988) indicated
significant variability in cumulative physiological weight loss during
storage under various treatments in mango cv. Kesar. Kinetin (75 ppm)
in combination with bavistin (1000 ppm) and GA3 (150 ppm) recorded
significantly low percentage of physiological weight loss (PLW). Sindhu
and Singhrot (1993) reported minimum PLW in lemon cv. Baramasi
when treated with GA3 (200 ppm) as pre-harvest application. Bhanja and
Lenka (1994) found that combined pre-harvest spray with calcium chlo-
ride, calcium nitrate and GA3 one month before harvesting on sapota fruits
and postharvest dip in GA3 @100 ppm revealed reduced PLW. Sudhavani
and Shankar (2002) concluded that physiological loss in weight was
reduced in GA3 treated mango cv. ‘Baneshan’ fruits. It has also been
reported for other fruits like Nagpur mandarin, Clementine mandarin and
Washington Navel Oranges (El-Otmani and Coggins, 1991; Ladaniya,
1997), and banana (Osman and Abu-Goukh, 2008). The reduced loss in
weight in GA3 treated fruits could be attributed to their increased affinity
to water. For that reason fruit retain more water against the force of evapo-
transpiration, resulting in lesser weight loss during storage. Other contrib-
uting factors might be changes in some of the proteinaceous constituents
of cell (Yadav and Shukla, 2009), as well as inhibition of respiration.

5.7.7 FRUIT VOLUME

Rani and Brahmachari (2004) reported that mango cv. Amarpalli when
sprayed with GA3–200 ppm produced fruits with the greatest volume.
Masalkar and Wavhal (1991) studied the influence of GA3, NAA, chlor-
mequat and ethephon, alone and in various combinations on fruit volume
in ber. The highest fruit volume was obtained with GA3–10 and 20 ppm.
Pandey (1999) conducted trials on ber cv. Banarasi Karaka, by spraying
with NAA 5, 10, 15 and 20 ppm and GA3–5, 10 and 15 ppm at the pea-
stage. The GA3–15 ppm and NAA 10, 15 and 20 ppm increased the fruit
volume significantly as compared to control.
Ranjan et al. (2005) reported that the postharvest application of calcium
salts and GA3 during storage resulted in the gradual reduction in specific
gravity of Langra mango although the effect of treatments was marginal.
194 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.8 FRUIT COLOR

Color retainment of ber fruit can be achieved by dipping in GA3 (60 ppm)
and calcium chloride (2.0%) for 5 minutes up to 20 days of storage
(Jawanda and Randhawa 2008). Balasubramaniam and Agnew (1990)
investigated the effect of gibberellic acid sprays on quality of cherry and
reported that GA3 reduced average skin color. The cv. Rainier of cherry did
not develop the pink blush, but turned a medium straw color.
In peach cv. Rubiduox, the effects of pre-harvest spraying of gibberel-
lic acid (GA3) and aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) were investigated by
Amarante et al. (2005). They found that the treatment with GA3 (100 mg/L)
and AVG (75 and 150 mg/L) resulted in better retention of skin background
color. In addition, GA3 reduced the number of fruits with skin splitting and
decay and reduced the incidence of flesh browning after cold storage.

5.7.9 FRUIT FIRMNESS

Sankhla et al. (2006b) conducted a study to gain an insight into the effect
of CEPA, 1-MCP and gibberellic acid (GA3) on postharvest ripening, qual-
ity and shelf life of ber fruits. They implicated that application of GA3
delayed decrease in fruit firmness towards ripening. In combination, GA3
and 1-MCP exhibited additive effects on fruit firmness. Ozkaya et al.
(2006) opined that the application of GA3–10 ppm decreased the loss of
fruit firmness and maintained the surface brightness in sweet cherry. The
preharvest spray of 50 ppm GA3 with postharvest dipping of calcium chlo-
ride along with bavistin recorded maximum firmness in sapota cv. PKM-1
(Sudha et al., 2006). Sudha et al. (2007) reported that preharvest applica-
tion of potassium chloride (1%) sapota cv. PKM-1 recorded least firmness
(2.7 kg/cm2) as compared to GA3 (3.45 kg/cm2) treatment.
Kappel and MacDonald (2007) reported that a single spray of 20 ppm
GA3 at the straw-yellow stage of fruit development of ‘Sweetheart’ sweet
cherry increased the fruit firmness by 15 per cent. The attractiveness of
fruit surface responded linearly to the GA3 applications. Randhawa et al.
(1980) reported that the firmness of the pear fruits decreased during stor-
age, but this decrease was minimum under 100 ppm GA3, followed by the
50 ppm GA3 treated fruits. Rathore et al. (2009) Mango fruits CV. Chausa
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 195

treated with GA3 showed uniform texture and maximum firmness of fruits
after 19 days of storage.
Delay in softening by GA3 during on tree-storage of grapefruit and
tight skin oranges is reported by Ferguson et al. (1982). It has an antago-
nistic effect on the biosynthesis of endogenous ethylene, the compound
that at threshold level triggers the ripening process in climacteric fruits
(Burg and Burg, 1962; Ben-Arie et al., 1996; Ben-Arie et al., 1986). The
mechanism of delaying softening and other degradative changes due to
GA3 application is also supported by Lewis et al. (1967) in the studies on
Navel Orange peel involving calcium metabolism in cell wall and vegeta-
tive tissue, sites responsive to GA3’s effects (Jona et al., 1989; Ben-Arie
et al., 1996). Because cellulose micro fibrils provide the structure and sup-
port for all the components of plant cell walls (Greve and Labavitch, 1991;
Carpita and Gibeaut, 1993), the increase in cellulose would increase fruit
firmness. Ben-Arie et al. (1996) suggested that the greater firmness of GA3
treated fruit accounts for the 37% higher cellulose content in the cell walls
of the treated fruit. Both factors, such as cellulose synthesis and hydrolytic
activity, probably affect fruit firmness as determined by GA3 treatment.

5.7.10 FRUIT YIELD

Hassan et al. (2005) applied boron, GA3 and active dry yeast at different
concentrations alone or in their combinations on ‘Canino’ apricot trees.
The results showed that combined application of boric acid 400 ppm,
GA3–40 ppm and active dry yeast 2% at full bloom stage caused a remarked
promotion of fruit yield. Webster et al. (2006) reported that the yield of
sweet cherry could be improved by foliar sprays of gibberellic acid (GA3)
or aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) applied post blossoming stage.

5.7.11 TSS

In Gola cv. of ber, Bankar and Parsad (1990) found that TSS was apprecia-
bly influenced by application of GA3 but not by NAA. Kale et al. (2000)
studied the effect of plant growth regulators on quality of ber and reported
the application of GA3–20 ppm was the most effective in inducing high-
est increase in total soluble solids as compared with other treatments.
196 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Balasubramaniam and Agnew (1990) investigated the effect of gibberel-


lic acid sprays on quality of cherry and concluded that the application
of GA3 at the beginning of stage three of fruit growth (approximately
three weeks before harvest) significantly improved the total soluble sol-
ids of cherries. Kappel and MacDonald (2007) reported that TSS content
of ‘Sweetheart’ sweet cherry fruit could be increased by repeated appli-
cation of 20 ppm GA3. The response was the greatest in cultivar Bing,
followed by cultivars Rainier, Stella and Dawson. GA3–10 ppm was as
effective as GA3–20 ppm in improving overall cherry quality. Kumar and
Singh (1993) found that the pre-harvest sprays of GA3 (50 or 75 ppm) or
ethephon 500 ppm on mango cv. Amarpalli significantly improved fruit
total soluble solids content. Sarkar and Ghosh (2005) studied the effect of
growth regulators (2,4-D, NAA, GA3 and Planofix) on the biochemical
composition of mango cv. Amrapalli. They reported that GA3–20 ppm
gave the highest total soluble solids content (21.22 degrees Brix). Sandhu
et al. (1983) observed maximum TSS (13%) in Kinnow mandarin treated
with 30 ppm GA3 and covered with sugarcane trash followed by control.
According to Ghosh and Sen (1984) the total soluble solids were higher m
sweet orange fruits treated with GA and stored m room temperature and
lower in fruits kept at 10°C.

5.7.12 TITRABLE ACIDITY

Khader (1991) observed that preharvest application of GA3 (300 or 400


ppm) increased the total acidity in ‘Dashehari’ mango fruits. Masalkar and
Wavhal (1991) recorded the highest percentage of acidity with foliar appli-
cation of GA3 coupled with NAA treatments in fruits of ber cv. Umran.
Kale et al. (2000) sprayed seven-year-old Ber cv. Umran with gibberellic
acid and NAA (10 and 20 ppm) alone and in combination up to 60 days after
full bloom. There was significant decrease in acidity of fruits with higher
concentration of GA3 and NAA. Kaur et al. (2004) reported that applica-
tion of GA3–20 and 50 ppm, NAA 10 and 20 ppm, 2,4-D 4 and 8 ppm and
2,4,5-T 10 and 20 ppm decreased acid content of fruits of plum cv. Satluj
Purple. Amarante et al. (2005) reported that in peach cv. Rubiduox, the
treatments with GA3 (100 mg/L) and AVG (75 and 150 mg/L) resulted in
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 197

the least increase of acidity. Benjawan et al. (2006) reported that applica-
tion of GA3 increased the acidity of the fruits of Kaew mango cv. Srisaket.
Shrivastava and Jain (2006) reported that the acidity in mango cv. Langra
decreased with foliar applications of urea and GA3. The minimum acid-
ity was observed with urea 2% and GA3–100 ppm (0.229%) whereas, the
unsprayed control trees had maximum acidity (0.289%).
Kotecha et al. (1993) reported that total sugar content in banana fruits
treated with either GA3 or Kinetin increased progressively through the rip-
ening, but had significantly lower values of total sugars than control.

5.7.13 SUGARS

Masalkar and Wavhal (1991) sprayed ber trees with GA3 (10 and 20 ppm),
NAA (10 and 20 ppm), chlormequat (250 ppm) and ethephon (400 ppm),
alone and in various combinations. The maximum increase in non-reducing
sugars was obtained with application of GA3 alone. Kale et al. (1999 and
2000) reported that reducing sugar and total sugars of Umran ber increased
with GA3 and NAA 10 and 20 ppm alone. The combination of GA3 and
NAA were not much effective. Kumar and Singh (1993) found that the pre-
harvest sprays of GA3 (50 or 75 ppm) or ethephon 500 ppm on mango
cv. Amarpalli significantly improved the total sugar content of the fruits.
In Flordasun cv. of peach, Babu and Yadav (2004) compared efficacy of
various thinning agents and found that the application of GA3–100 ppm as
thinning agent resulted in maximum total sugars (6.15%). The application of
GA3–20 ppm produced Amrapalli mango fruits with maximum total sugars
(16.77%) and reducing sugars (7.00%) in the studies of Sarkar and Ghosh
(2005). Shrivastava and Jain (2006) found that application of GA3–100 ppm
to mango cv. Langra produced the maximum reducing (12.24%) and total
sugars (17.90%). Singh (1988) observed that in both cultivars Zardalu and
Langra of mango reducing sugar of the fruits increased gradually in all the
treatments as the storage period advanced. Treatment with 2000 ppm captan
followed by wrapped in perforated polyethylene bag effectively increased
and maintained maximum reducing sugar (3.74%) in Zardalu cultivar
whereas 50 ppm GA3 in combination with perforated polyethylene bags
effectively increased and maintained maximum (3.31%) reducing sugar
198 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

in Langra cultivar. Randhawa et al. (1980) obtained the maximum amount


of total sugar in pear under GA 100 ppm and CCC 1000 ppm closely fol-
lowed by GA3–50 ppm and untreated fruits during storage. Saini et al. (1982)
noticed that the total sugars in peaches were also increased during storage
but the maximum total sugars were recorded (4.80–5.10%) in fruits treated
with 100 ppm GA3 as compared to (4.55–4.75%) fruits under control.

5.7.14 ASCORBIC ACID

Dhillon and Singh (1968) found that GA3 (25 and 75 ppm) and 2,4,5-T (5
and 15 ppm) increased the ascorbic acid content in Dandan cultivar of ber.
In Kaithali cultivar both GA3 and 2,4,5-T were equally effective. Wavhal
(1991) applied chemicals like GA3 (10 and 20 ppm), NAA (10 and 20 ppm),
Chlormequat (250 ppm) and ethephon (400 ppm) alone and in various com-
binations. The highest ascorbic acid content was obtained with GA3 alone.
Pandey (1999) concluded that the application of NAA 20 ppm and GA3–15 ppm
resulted in enhancing the ascorbic acid content of ber cv. Banarasi Karaka.
Jiang et al. (2004) studied the role of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) and
GA3 in fruit ripening of Chinese jujube during storage in relation to quality.
The treatment with 1-MCP or GA3 delayed the decrease in vitamin C content
of fruits. Kumar and Singh (1993) found that the pre-harvest sprays of GA3
(50 or 75 ppm) or ethephon 500 ppm on mango cv. Amarpalli significantly
improved the ascorbic acid content of fruits. Babu and Yadav (2004) impli-
cated that in Flordasun cv. of peach, the application of GA3–100 ppm as thin-
ning agent resulted in maximum vitamin C content in fruits (212.30 mg/100
g). Singh (1988) observed that the ascorbic acid content of fruits decreased
gradually in both Zardalu and Langra mango fruits during storage under all
the treatments. Treatment with 50 ppm GA3 and kept in perforated polyethyl-
ene was found most effective in minimizing the loss of ascorbic acid in both
the cultivars, for example, Zardalu and Langra. Singh (1996) also recorded
similar results in case of mango fruits under storage.

5.7.15 STORAGE LIFE

Use of growth regulators became an important orchard practices to


enhance quality and shelf life of fruits. In this aspect needs a precise
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 199

knowledge of growth regulators, their action and practical application.


Growth regulators like gibberellic acid are known to promote the shelf
life of fruits. The prolongation of fruit life due to growth regulators
was probably due to effectiveness of these chemicals in retaining of
green pigments, retardation of ripening and senescence (Huang, 1974).
The preharvest spray of GA3–100 ppm significantly suppresses the suc-
cinate activity of malate-dehydrogenase during postharvest ripening of
papaya and thus delay ripening. Ahmed and Singh (1999) stated that
‘Amrapali’ mango fruits recorded maximum economic life of 11 days
when treated with GA3 (50 ppm). Preharvest application of GA3 (40
ppm) has enhanced the postharvest life of peaches when compared to
untreated fruits when stored at 0–1°C and 90–95% relative humidity
Figure 5.7 (Kaur, 2012).
Investigations conducted by Singh and Singh (1993) to ascertain the
efficiency of various treatments on extending the post-harvest life of
Zardalu and Langra cultivar of mango fruits at room temperature showed
that spoilage reduced to greater extent when fruits were treated with 50
ppm GA3. This treatment extended the economic storage life of fruits
by 3–5 days. Treatment with 100 ppm GA3 could be a useful method to
extend postharvest life and availability of ‘Himsagar’ mango with appre-
ciable quality (Siddiqui et al., 2013).

FIGURE 5.7 Pre-harvest application of GA3 on Peach (cv. Shan-I-Punjab) fruits stored at
0–1°C and 90–95% RH after 35 days of storage (Source: Kaur, 2012).
200 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.16 SPOILAGE

Preharvest application of calcium nitrate (2%) + NAA (100 ppm) + GA3


(50 ppm) has reduced rot percentage of Allahabad Safeda guava during
storage (Singh, 1988). Khader (1991) reported that pre-harvest application
of GA (300 or 400 ppm) has reduced the decay loss in mango fruits cv.
Dashehari. Application of GA3 (50 ppm) has reduced decay loss in sapota
by 10, 30 and 70% on 3rd, 6th and 9th day, respectively (Banik et al., 1988).
Fruits of ber cv. Umran treated with CaCl2 (2%) registered minimum rot-
ting followed by GA3–60 ppm treatment (Jawandha et al., 2009).
Singh (1988) observed that the postharvest application of calcium
nitrate (1%) and GA3 (40 ppm) was effective in reducing rot percentage
and finally maintained the edible quality and marketability of fruits of
guva cv. Allahabad Safeda for more than 6 days during storage.

5.7.17 ORGANOLEPTIC RATING

Fruits of Umran ber after 30 days of storage, the maximum palatability


rating was recorded in CaCl2 (2%) followed by GA3–60 ppm treatment
(Jawandha et al., 2009). Similar results were obtained by Kumar et al.
(1992) in ‘Baramasi Pawandi’ fruits. Kumar (1998) reported that mango
fruits cv. Sipia showed maximum organoleptic score (7.8 out of 9) when
treated with GA3 (250 ppm) alone and along with 500 ppm bavistin
retained the consumer acceptability for a long time.

5.7.18 CAROTENE CONTENT

Kumar and Singh (1993) studied the effect of GA3 and ethrel on quality of
mango cv. Amrapali and they found that pre-harvest spray of GA3 (50 and
75 ppm) or ethrel (500 ppm) significantly improved carotene concentra-
tion in fruit.

5.7.19 TOTAL PHENOLS

Phenols are one of the most important stable secondary metabolites


(Dewich and Haslam, 1969). They are synthesized through Shikimmic
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 201

pathway (Kefeli et al., 2003). Phenols help in determining color and fla-
vor (especially astringent flavor) in most of the fruits (Van Buren, 1970).
Aly and Ismail (2000) reported that the pre-harvest treatment of ‘Balady’
guava with GA3 (150 ppm) decreased fruit skin browning and polyphenol
oxidase activity compared with control and boron treated fruits.

5.7.20 ENZYMATIC ACTIVITY

Pectin methyl esterase (PME) is an endogenous enzyme in plants that cata-


lyzes desertification of carboxyl groups in pectin molecules, yielding galact-
uronic acid and methanol. The resulting galacturonic units in pectin molecules
are potentially substrates for polygalacturonase (PG). PG is also an endog-
enous enzyme that catalyzes hydrolytic cleavage of α-1,4 glycoside bonds
between galacturonic acid residues, resulting in tissue softening of fruits.
The changes in cell wall composition which accompany softening of
ripening fruit apparently result from the action of enzymes produced by
the fruit. Prominent enzymes such as PME and PG bring about striking
changes in cell wall pectin content in ripening fruit (Seymour et al., 1993).
Gibberellins treatment proved to be highly effective in reducing enzymatic
activity. Pre-harvest spray of GA3–50 ppm reduced the activities of soften-
ing enzymes (PME and PG) in the fruits of Cape gooseberry by protecting
stiff pectin macromolecules against demethylation or reduced depolyma-
rization of 2 olygalacturonase (Majumder and Majumder, 2001). Mehta
et al. (1986) reported that GA3 (100 ppm) significantly suppresses the suc-
cinate activities of malate-dehydrogenase in papaya and cellulose activity
in ber (Jawandha et al., 2009) during post-harvest ripening thus increasing
shelf life.

5.7.21 MODE OF ACTION IN RELATION TO ANTI-RIPENING


AND DELAYING SENESCENCE

Gibberellin is generally regarded as a stimulant of vegetative growth, yet it


can have the reverse effect on reproductive tissue and it may even inhibit
fruit growth (Ben-Arie et al., 1986). This, however, could be reconciled
with its effect of delaying fruit senescence, thereby maintaining fruit at a
more juvenile stage.
202 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.22 EFFECT OF GIBBERELLINS ON VEGETABLES

There are various effects of gibberellins on vegetables, which are as follows:


Use in induction of flowering:
Flowering was induced by GA3 treatments replacing the cold requirement
for flowering. In pepper, spraying of GA3 at 25 ppm 3 times during veg-
etative growth caused flowering 18 days later than control (La Red and
Cucchi, 1966).
Regulation of sex expression:
In cucumber, GA3 at 5–10 ppm promote greater number of female flowers
(Choudhury, 1966 and 1967). GA3 at 25 ppm to watermelon were most
effective in lowering the male: female ratio setting additional fruit and
higher yield (Arora et al., 1985). In Momordica charantia at low concentra-
tion of GA3– increased the number of female flowers and the ratio female:
male flowers (Wang and Zeng 1997). In pumpkin it however tended to
increase the ratio of staminate to pistillate flower (Das and Das, 1995).
Use in fruit set and development:
Higher concentration of GA3 (100–1000 ppm) has been found to increase
the fruit number and size of tomato (Kaushik et al., 1974, Shittu and
Adeleke, 1999).
Development of seedless fruits (parthenocarpy):
GA3 promote parthenocarpic fruit development. It inhibits abscission and
also retains fruit for longer. GA3 has been found to be effective in tomato
and brinjal (Mukherjee and Dutta, 1962) in production of parthenocarpic
fruits.
Postharvest treatment:
Postharvest treatment of GA3 at 200 ppm reduced the physiological loss
in weight and significantly increased the shelf-life of chili and retained
higher oleoresin content (Arora et al., 1998).
Other Uses:
GA3 is useful in increasing the yield. Multiple application of mixture of
gibberellins i.e., GA4+7 (80 mg/L) resulted in larger diameter of cauliflower
curd (Booij, 1989). GA3 at 10 ppm and 20 ppm improved vine growth and
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 203

seed content in pumpkin.(Arora et al., 1989). At 100 ppm it produced most


compact plants and highest fruit yields in pumpkin (Das and Das, 1996).
Gibberellic acid improves yield and quality of ornamental plants via
plant growth incitation and stem elongation (Fathipour and Esmaellpour,
2000). It enhances plant growth and internode length by increasing the
cell division and enlargement. It also increases cell size, stem height, stem
thickness and number of leaves. Other studies on the effect of GA3 on
ornamental plants showed that, GA3 accelerated flowering and enhanced
plant height (Gul et al., 2006).

5.7.23 INFLUENCE OF GA ON PLANT HEIGHT AND


INTERNODAL LENGTH OF FLOWER CROPS

Mastalerz (1960) stated that 3 to 13 weekly application of GA3 at concentra-


tion upto 100 ppm may result in marked increase in stem length in various
plants such as rose, dwarf dahlia, chrysanthemum, snap dragon and datura.
Internodal length was significantly increased due to GA sprays. Maximum
length of internode in rose was recorded at GA 500 ppm (4.83 cm), whereas;
control recorded least (2.50 cm) (Nanjan and Muthuswamy, 1975). Gowda
(1980) noticed increased stem length in rose cultivar Super Star with GA3
at 100–250 ppm when applied in rose cultivar Queen Elizabeth, all the
applications increased stem length and intermodal length.
Maharana and Pani (1982) reported increased plant height in rose
cultivar. Celebration when the plants were sprayed with GA3 at 200 ppm
one month after pruning. Banker and Mukhopadhya (1982) reported that
applying GA at 250 ppm recorded maximum intermodal length (6.16 m)
compared to control (3.49 cm) in rose cv. ‘Queen Elizabeth.’ Venkatesh
and Nagarajaiah (1986) reported that GA at 50 ppm produced maximum
intermodal length (4.10 cm) in rose cv. ‘Queen Elizabeth’ whereas; least
was recorded by control (2.53 cm). Gowda (1988) observed increased
stem length and neck length in rose cv. American Heritage with GA3 spray
at 300 and 350 ppm. The length and diameter of shoot were also increased
with the application of GA3 at 45 ppm in rose cv. Super Star. Sadanand
et al. (2000) reported increased plant height, shoot length and maximum
number of leaves per plant were recorded with the application of GA3 at
200 ppm in rose cv. First Red.
204 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.24 NUMBER OF STEMS

Gowda (1985) reported increase number of primary and secondary shoots


with GA3 at 100 and 200 ppm in rose plant with the spray of GA3 at 45 ppm
compared to control (10.50) in rose cv. Super Star. There was a marked
increase in lateral branching by spraying of NAA at 500 ppm or GA3 at 100
ppm in carnation cv. Margherite Crimson (Mukhopadhyay, 1990). Geetha
et al. (2000) reported that in China aster GA and IAA were responsible for
more number of branches per plant. The effect of plant growth regulators
on vegetative growth and flower earliness of damask rose (Rosa dama-
scena) was investigated. Treatments comprised three levels of gibberellic
acid (GA3; 50, 100 and 200 ppm), CCC (Chlormequat) (500, 1000 and
2000 ppm), and Ethrel (Ethephon) (0.02, 0.04 and 0.06%), and distilled
water spray as control. Plants sprayed with GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the
maximum vegetative growth and earliest flowering. The application of
GA3 at 200 ppm resulted in the maximum number of branches in China
aster cv. Shashank (Kumar et al., 2003).

5.7.25 FLOWER BUD EMERGENCE AND FLOWER HARVESTING

Shaul et al. (1995) proposed a hypothesis of a dual effect of GA3 in suppres-


sion of Botrytis in rose cut flowers. Firstly, it may inhibit senescence related
malfunction of cell membranes. Secondly, GA3 may stimulate formation of
endogenous compounds inhibiting Botrytis blight development in the petals.
Nanjan and Muthuswamy (1975) reported that GA at 200 ppm significantly
minimized the days for flower bud emergence and flower harvesting in
Edward rose (Rosa bourboniana). Parwal et al. (1994) reported that applica-
tion of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded early flowering in Damask rose.
Roberts et al. (1999) reported that in rose cv. Felicite Perpetue, floral
initiation occurred when concentrations of GA3 were low and was inhib-
ited when concentrations of GA3 were high. Padmapriya and Chezhilyan
(2003) reported that in chrysanthemum GA3 was found to increase the
IAA oxidase activity, which is responsible for early flowering. Similarly
earliness in flowering and harvesting could be attributed to the fact that,
GA3 increased the cell division and cell elongation influencing floral mor-
phogenesis. Hence, rendering early maturity in plants and also could be
due to quick availability of optimum level of nutrients.
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 205

5.7.26 QUALITY ATTRIBUTES

GA3 decreased flower oil content compared to the control and also showed
the shortest flowering period among treatments (Saffari et al., 2004).
Senescence is one of the most puzzling events in plant life. From
seed germination to maturation, the plant undergoes several changes.
Senescence shows accumulation of hazardous substance. Growth pro-
moters delay the deteriorative process as well as accumulation of hazard-
ous substance. Studies were carried out to determine the effect of plant
growth regulators like gibberellic acid (GA3) at 10, 20, 50 and 100 ppm,
on abscission and senescence of leaves of (Rosa indica) and (Rosa chi-
nensis) (Sharma and Tomar, 2008). Bio-chemical contents of leaf viz.
chlorophyll-α, chlorophyll-β, reducing and non-reducing sugar and protein
reduced during the course of development. Exogenous application of GA3
reduced the reduction of this content in attached and deattached condition
while Abscisic Acid (ABA) and Etheophon (ETH) enhance the reduction.
Perhaps, GA3 delay the production of hydrolytic enzyme, where as ABA
and ETH not only promote the production of hydrolytic enzyme but also
reduced the production of growth promoter (Sharma and Tomar, 2009).
Pre-harvest spraying of plants with gibberellic acid at a concentration of
100 mg x dm–3 has a positive effect on the content of photosynthetically
active pigments in the leaves of A. europaeum cultivated in an unheated
plastic tunnel (Pogroszewska et al., 2014). Exogenously applied GA3
accumulate endogenous gibberellic acid which stimulates the production
pigments. The growth of chlorophyll content is influenced by the phyto-
hormone during the transformation of etioplasts into chloroplasts on the
(Ouzounidou and Illias, 2005). Gibberellic acid also inhibits degradation
of the discussed pigments by controlling the process of starch and sucrose
hydrolysis into fructose and glucose, which indirectly affects the content of
chlorophyll a and b in leaves (Emongor, 2004). GA3 stimulates the vegeta-
tive growth, as mentioned previously and hence high accumulation rate
of metabolic components especially carbohydrates such as chlorophyll
and carotene. Gibberellin reduce the occurrence of leaf chlorosis all three
cultivars (Table 5.1). Although both GA3 and GA4+7 prevents leaf yellow-
ing, at a given concentration (100 ppm), GA4+7 was more effective than
GA3 in lilies of cold-stored stems and non- cold-stored stems (Ranwala and
206 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 5.1 Influence of Different Concentrations of GA3 and GA4+7 on Longevity of


Different Varieties of Lily
Preharvest spray application Vermeer Vivaldi Marselli
GA3–500 ppm 11.4 14.1 13.8
GA4+7–100 ppm 12.8 14.1 14.4
Control 8.5 10.9 10.9
Source: Ranwala and Miller, 2002.

Miller, 2002). GA3 at 100 ppm recorded the highest total chlorophyll con-
tent (1.826 mg g–1) in case of cut rose cv. ‘First Red’ (Kumar et al., 2012).
The reduction rates of anthocyanin contents were alleviated by GA
treated tulip flowers (Mohammadi et al., 2012). GA3 application at a
concentration of 600 mg per dm3 led to the accumulation of the greatest
amount of anthocyanins in the leaves of A. europaeum cultivated both in
an unheated plastic tunnel and in the field (Pogroszewska et al., 2014).
There will be an increase in the content of anthocyanin pigments after
treatment of plants with gibberellic acid. The phenomenon behind this is
the effect that gibberellins had on the synthesis of phenylalanine ammonia
lyase (PAL) and tyrosine ammonia lyase (TAL), the key enzymes of fla-
vonoid and anthocyanin synthesis. Phenylalanine ammonialyase catalyzes
spontaneous, non- oxidative deamination of L-phenylalanine to trans-
cinnamic acid which, in the process of further metabolic changes, can be
transformed into flavonoids (Kwack et al., 1997). After foliar application
of GA3 solutions, an increased amount of anthocyanins was also found in
the leaves of Hibiscus sabdariffa (Rafia et al., 2005) and Ajuga reptans
(Kwack et al., 1997).
Improved anthocyanin (1.72 mg/g) and total carotenoid (4.25 mg/g)
content was observed in pre-soaking and foliar spray of gibberellic
acid 100 ppm in case of tuberose cv. Jessica (Kumar and Gupta, 2014).
Enhanced pigmentation in petal might be due to higher concentration of
pelargonidin (Davies et al., 1993). The induction of anthocyanin synthesis
requires the presence of sugar in the medium and sugars may serve as
specific signals for the activation of specific genes, as cellular osmotic
regulators, or as general energy source of carbon metabolism in the devel-
oping flower (Delila et al., 1997). Gibberellic acid application at 100 ppm
recorded the maximum anthocyanin content findings are in agreement
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 207

with reports of Dahab et al. (1987) in chrysanthemum, Goyal and Gupta


(1994); Arun (1999) and Ramalingam (2008) in rose.
The induction of anthocyanin synthesis and anthocyanin biosynthetic
gene expression in detached petunia (Petunia hybrida) corollas by gib-
berellic acid (GA3) requires sucrose for activation of anthocyanin biosyn-
thetic gene (Moalum-Beno et al., 1997).
Senescence is considered as a genetically programmed process with cul-
minates the development and differentiations of plant structure and which
serve to specific function in the plant. Physiological senescence is definitely
followed by death while non-physiological not be followed. It is due to defi-
ciency of any essential mineral. The senescence process allows for the ter-
mination of cells, tissues, organs or even organisms in a controlled process.
Senescence is age dependent and under the control by hormonal, molecular,
and genetical processes. It is controlled by several factor, hormones are one
of them. The hormonal regulation is an important aspect of the mechanism
of the senescence but not an isolated aspect. Hormones act by controlling
the development of the senescence program. Gibberellins delay the senes-
cence. Gibberellin is a powerful retardant (Sharma et al., 2011).

5.7.27 LENGTH OF STALK

In celebration Rose, GA3 sprayed at 200 ppm accelerated the stem length
(Maharana and Pani, 1982). Foliar applications of GA3–200 ppm twice
(20 and 30 days after pruning) on ‘Queen Elizabeth’ cut roses increased
length of the internode and shoot (Nagarajaiah and Reddy, 1986). Spraying
with gibersol (GA3) every two weeks throughout the season increased
length of flower stalk when flowers were harvested either continuously or
in the autumn (Wisniewska and Treder, 1989).
GA3 sprayed @ 100 and 200 ppm concentration of each on Rosa hyb-
rida cv. Super Star three weeks after pruning increased stalk length BA
(Anon, 1993). Foliar spray of GA3 @ 50 to 500 ppm in field increased
plant growth in Gladiolus (Bhattacharjee, 1984). In the rose cv. Super
Star shoot length was maximum (37.71 cm) when compared to con-
trol (25.25) by applying GA at 45 ppm, Goyal and Gupta (1994). Patel
and Patil (1998) reported that application of 300 ppm GA increases
the length of cut flower stalk in rose. Arun et al. (2000) observed that
208 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

rose cut flower stalk length was greatest by applying GA3 (300 ppm).
Maximum increase in stem length (55.22 cm) compared to control
(32.79 cm) was found in rose cv. Queen Elizabeth by spraying GA (250
ppm) (Banker and Mukhopadhya, 1982). The effect of gibberellic acid
at 100 ppm showed improved plant heights (70.50 cm) as compared to
untreated ones (62.33 cm) in carnation cv. Improved Margherite (Jana
and Jahangir, 1987). Application of GA3 twice in carnation significantly
increased plant height (65.94 cm) and stem length (58.25 cm) (Verma et
al., 2000). Maximum stalk length (74.60 cm) was produced in rose cv.
First Red by applying GA3 at 300 ppm, whereas; control recorded least
(45.92 cm) (Dhekney et al., 2000). Highest flower stalk length (57.60
cm) was recorded by application of GA3 (200 ppm) along with water-
soluble fertilizer @ 75% in chinaster (Kore et al., 2003). Application of
200 ppm of GA3 in carnation significantly increased plant height (88.24
cm) (Ramesh and Singh, 2003).

5.7.28 FLOWER LENGTH AND DIAMETER

Garrod and Harris (1974) reported that additional petals could be


promoted by application of GA3 to the shoot tip during flower initiation.
Banker and Mukhopadhyay (1982) stated that GA3–100 ppm produced
good diameter of bud in rose cv. Queen Elizabeth. Gowda (1988) noted
more number of petals per flower with GA spray at 250 to 350 ppm in
rose cv. American Heritage. Bud diameter improved with all the concen-
trations of GA3 spray used in carnation (Amitabh, 1990). The maximum
size of flower (6.4 cm) associated with longer stalk length (14.84 cm) was
produced by applying GA @ 150 ppm. The minimum size was recorded
in MH-1000 ppm (4.13 cm) whereas, control recorded 4.85 cm in case
of chrysanthemum (Jyoti, et al., 1995). Goyal and Gupta (1996) recorded
the highest flower diameter (9.55 cm) and weight of flower (13.91 g)
with the foliar spray of GA3 at 45 ppm compared with control (9.05 cm
and 10.15 g, respectively) in rose cv. Super Star. Sadanand et al. (2000)
recorded that increased bud length and bud diameter was reported with
GA3 application and the highest length and diameter were obtained in
case of bud with GA3 at 200 ppm in rose cv. First Red. Dhekney et al.
(2000) reported that GA at 200 ppm resulted in increase in bud length,
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 209

bud circumference and flower diameter. Verma et al. (2000) stated that
applying Nitrogen (500 ppm) and GA3 (50 ppm) per week were found
to be effective in increasing the flower diameter and flower length in
carnation. Chakradhar (2002) reported that the flower quality attributes
such as length and diameter of flower bud, number of petals per flower,
flower longevity and weight of flower improved with the application
of GA3–60 ppm in rose cv. Gladiator. Chakradhar et al. (2003) reported
that flower bud length and diameter were maximum with application of
GA3 at 60 ppm and minimum with BA at 100 ppm in rose cv. Gladiator.
Significantly maximum flower diameter (7.09 cm) was recorded at GA3–
100 ppm in China aster as compared to control (4.87 cm) (Kore et al.,
2003). Increase in flower diameter was observed by GA3 (100 ppm) in
case of cut rose cv. ‘First Red’ (Kumar et al., 2012). Similar increase in
flower diameter was obtained by Baskaran and Misra (2007) in gladiolus
and Sainath (2009) in chrysanthemum. GA3 seems to affect the flower
diameter by forming sink in a position where it accumulates and draws
the available photosynthates to this site.
The petal development in Gerbera hybrida, the petal size is mainly
determined by cell expansion, and not by cell division (Zhang et al., 2012).
GA and ABA have antagonistic effects on petal growth by modulation of
cell elongation at the basal region and petal/cell elongation is enhanced
by GA but repressed by ABA when each phytohormone is applied alone
(Figures 5.8 and 5.9). The increase in petal length by GA and the reduction
in petal length by ABA are attenuated by the co-application of ABA and
GA, respectively (Figure 5.10; Li et al., 2015).

5.7.29 NECK LENGTH

The GA has been reported to increase the neck length in cut roses
(Figure 5.11). The length of the pedicle (neck) was increased mark-
edly by GA values than untreated plants (Nanjan and Muthuswamy,
1975). Banker and Mukhopadhya (1982) reported that applying GA at
250 ppm produced maximum neck length (14.93 cm) compared to con-
trol (9.00 cm) in rose cv. Queen Elizabeth. Maximum flower neck length
(9.073 cm) was produced in rose cv. First Red by application of 300 ppm
GA3 (Dhekney et al., 2000).
210 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 5.8 Gerbera flower treated with Gibberellins and ABA (Source: Li et al., 2015).

FIGURE 5.9 Petal cell elongation from different regions (Source: Li et al., 2015).
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 211

FIGURE 5.10 Graphical illustration showing the influence of GA3, ABA and (GA3 +
ABA) on length of the ray petal (Source: Li et al., 2015).

FIGURE 5.11 GA3 treated roses in vase solution (Source: Rajesh, 2012).
212 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.30 FLOWER YIELD

Obtaining higher yield with enhanced quality is the final objective of any
crop regulation practice. Increased yield with high quality finally contrib-
utes to the net returns. When flower crops are grown under protected con-
ditions, increased yield per plant and improved quality are very critical to
justify the cultivation of the crop under protected condition since a great
amount of investment is involved in this type of cultivation. The number
of flowers per plant is the major yield-contributing factor in cut flowers.
GA @ 200 ppm recorded maximum yield (205 flowers) in Edward
rose compared to control (168 flowers) (Nanjan and Muthuswamy, 1975).
El-Shafie et al. (1980) obtained highest number of flowers with GA3 at
250 ppm in Queen Elizabeth and Baccara rose varieties. Application of
GA3 (10–100 ppm) twice after pruning in ‘Queen Elizabeth’ rose cul-
tivar increased number of flowers (Bankar and Mukhopadhyay, 1982).
In ‘Celebration’ rose, GA3 spray (200 ppm) advanced flowering and
accelerated stem (Maharana and Pani, 1982). Foliar spray of GA3 at
50 to 500 ppm in field grown ‘Raktgandha’ roses increased number of
flowers per plant and petals per flower (Bhattacharjee and Singh, 1983).
Gowda (1985) enhanced the flower yield in rose cv. Super Star with the
foliar spray of GA at 200 ppm. Nagarajaiah and Reddy (1986) obtained
similar results in rose cv. Queen Elizabeth with GA3 at 10 to 100 ppm
applied twice after pruning. Dhekney et al. (2000) reported that apply-
ing GA3 at 200 ppm produced maximum number of flowers (38.610)
per m² compared to control (18.22). Kewte (1991) obtained highest
number of flowers per plant with GA at 300 and 200 ppm (28.75 and
25.25, respectively) compared to control (14.50) in rose cv. Paradise.
Goyal and Gupta (1996) recorded 19.50 flowers per plant with GA at
30 ppm compared to 16.00 flowers per plant with control in Rose cv.
Super Star. Kewte and Sable (1997) recorded highest number of A and
B grade cut flowers from plants treated with GA3 at 300 ppm com-
pared with control in rose cv. Paradise. Gowda (1988) reported that the
numbers of marketable flowers were increased in rose cv. American
Heritage with GA3 at 300 and 350 ppm. Sadanand et al. (2000) recorded
more number of flowers per meter square with GA3 @ 200 ppm as
compared with other treatments in rose cv. First Red. Arun et al. (2000)
reported that applying GA3 at 200 ppm recorded more number of flowers/
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 213

m² in rose cv. First Red. Rosa hybrida cv. Sntrix plants grown under
greenhouse conditions were sprayed with 250 ppm gibberellic acid
(GA3) alone or combined with foliar fertilizer Sangral. The highest val-
ues of vegetative and flowering parameters were obtained with spraying
the plants with 0.40% foliar fertilizer and 250 ppm GA3. Moreover, the
total carbohydrate and mineral contents in the leaves were increased as
a result of spraying the plants with GA3 and foliar fertilizer (Al-Humaid,
2001). The number of flowers and yield (67.33, 192.59 g) per plant per
m² per annum were highest with GA @ 200 ppm while lowest with con-
trol (26.00 flowers and 76.8 g yield of flowers) in China aster cv. Kamini
(Kumar et al., 2003). Maximum yield (49.60 q ha–1) was recorded by
application of GA3 (200 ppm) along with water-soluble fertilizer in
China aster (Kore et al., 2003). Increase in yield of the flowers is due
to the effect of GA3 on increase in the internodal length (Roberts et al.,
1999) in Roses. But there was a decrease in yield with higher concentra-
tions of GA3 (300 ppm) up to 11–20% reported in ‘Raktagandha’ rose by
Bhattacharjee and Singh (1995) and reduced yield was also observed in
cut rose ‘Poison.’
Application of 0, 10, 25 and 50 mg l-1 GA3 on Aquilegia × hybrida
showed that the most yield was obtained in 10 mg l-1 GA3, while 50 mg
l-1 GA3 caused to diminishing of cut flowers (Barzegarfallah, 2006).
Also, showed that 300 mg l-1 GA3 decreased yield of rose ‘Raktagandha’
to 11–20%. In current study, 300 mg l-1 GA3 reduced yield of cut rose
‘Poison.’

5.7.31 VASE LIFE

Postharvest pulsing for 20 h with solutions containing 20 to 40 mg GA3


per liter extended the vase life and promoted bud opening of unstored and
stored flowers of the rose cv. Mercedes. While continuous treatment with
GA3 was detrimental (Goszczynska et al., 1990). GA3 stimulates active
sucrose uptake in GA3 per sucrose-dependent rose petals (Kuiper et al.,
1991). Barthe et al. (1991) reported foliar spraying with GA3 in Rosa hyb-
rida cv. Royalty the petal area progressively increased. Goyal and Gupta
(1994) observed increased vase life of 141.62 hours with GA3 @ 45 ppm
compared to 125.25 hours with control in rose cv. Super Star. Lee and Kim
214 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

(1995) reported that flowers kept in distilled water with GA showed high
chlorophyll contents (Rosa hybrida L. cv. Red Sandra). Foliar application
of GA3 (300 ppm) on the rose cv. Paradise gave highest number of A and
B grade cut flowers and longest vase life (Kewte and Sable, 1997).
An investigation was carried out on “Eiffel Tower” cut roses to deter-
mine the most effective growth regulating chemical and its concentration
in the holding solution for improving postharvest life and quality. GA
showed beneficial effects on vase life, flower diameter, water uptake and
fresh weight. Among the chemicals, GA3 (150 ppm) was effective in terms
of effectiveness in increasing postharvest life (Bhattacharjee, 2000).
The longevity of harvested rose (Rosa hybrida) flowers of cv.
Mercedes, has been promoted by application of GA3. The leakage of
electrolytes from the GA treated petals of was lower in comparison
with untreated ones (Agbaria et al., 2001). Chakradhar (2002) recorded
that maximum vase life of cut flowers (8.90 days) was recorded with
GA3 (60 ppm) compared to other treatments in rose cv. Gladiator. GA3
treated petal discs of ‘Febesa’ roses could increase the activity of cell
wall bound and vacuolar invertase (Horibe et al., 2010). Pulsing with a
solution of sucrose at lower concentrations along with GA3 (10 mg/L)
was promising in increasing vase life of cut roses ‘Red One’ (Gholami
et al., 2011).
Gibberellic acid delayed the flower senescence in gerbera cut flow-
ers and postponed bent neck disorder in gerbera cut flowers by supplying
respirable substrates, especially in petals, thus promoting respiration and
extending the vase life of gerbera flowers. It has been reported that the
main effect of applied sugar in extending cut flower vase life was to main-
tain mitochondrial structure and functions. However, the effect of sugars
on mitochondria may not be a specific effect and may stem from its gen-
eral protective effect on membrane integrity (Emongor, 2004). GA signal-
ing is crucial to petal growth. As a versatile regulator, abscisic acid (ABA)
has been shown to act antagonistically to the function of GA in a variety
of developmental processes, including florral transition. Li et al. (2015),
applied RNA sequencing technique and established that GA and ABA act
antagonistically in the petal growth of gerbera. The possible reasons they
suggested are that both GA and ABA target the same genes thus biosynthe-
sis or signaling pathways were affected.
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 215

GA3 at 100 ppm recorded the maximum vase life of 2.6 days in cut
rose cv. First Red in distilled water. An increase in vase life of cut roses
due to spray of GA3 may be attributed to the fact that retardation of senes-
cence by GA3 is associated with the maintenance of a higher level of RNA
in petals and leaves (Goszczynska and Rudnicki, 1988). Similar findings
of increase in the vase life of flowers with GA3 application was reported
by Delvadia et al. (2009) in gaillardia, Kazaz and Karaguzel (2010) in
golden rod, cut flowers of anthurium cv. Xavia by 15 days (Sahare and
Singh, 2015) and Rao (2010) in chrysanthemum. Spraying cut flowers of
Anemone coronaria with GA3 (50 ppm) a day beforeharvest or spraying
cut flowers with 50 ppm GA3 after harvest extended vase life 8 days and
had better preservation of cut flower quality (Sharifani et al., 2005). The
GA3 application pre-harvest significantly increased vase life of Solidago
inflorescence in comparison with the control and the peak at 100 ppm
GA3 (11 days) then declined at higher concentration and the longest vase
life was observed (12 days) by combination GA3 at 100 ppm (Osman,
A.R. and Sewedan, 2014). Improving the postharvest quality of Solidago
inflorescence by using GA3 could be explained through the role of GA3
Improving water balance, fresh weight (EL-Saka et al., 2002) and hence
high accumulation of carbohydrates in stem and leaves which conse-
quently increased the vase life (Hassan et al., 2003).
Longevity of the cut-flowers of tuberose cv. Jessica was significantly
increased by pre-soaking and foliar spray of gibberellic acid 100 ppm
(16.70 days) over control (12.28 days) (Kumar and Gupta, 2014). Saeed
et al. (2014) concluded that gibberellic acid applied at lower concentra-
tions renders greater beneficial effects on vase life quality, membrane
stability and antioxidant activities in gladiolus cut spike and higher
application rates cause no improvement in the flower longevity. Bharathi
and Kumar (2009) reported the similar findings for prolonging vase life
of cut tuberose spikes and Umrao et al. (2007) for spike durability in
gladiolus. Thus, Waters (1966) indicated that gladiolus longevity and
other quality can be measured as and the effect of gibberellic acid on
senescence as well as extended vase life and delayed senescence may
result from direct effect of gibberellic acid on cell senescence associ-
ated process which may prevent membrane permeability and subsequent
leakage of electrolytes.
216 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 5.2 Influence of GA3 at Different Concentrations on Vase Life in Floricultural


Crops
Name of the Concentration of GA3 v
Vase life Source
ornamental plant (Days)/
L
Longevity
(Days)
Gladiolus Pre-soaking with GA3–100 15.32L Kumar and Gupta
grandiflorus L. cv. ppm (2014)
Jessica Pre-Soaking and Foliar 16.34L Kumar and Gupta
Spray of GA3–100 ppm (2014)
Foliar Spray of GA3–100 16.70L Kumar and Gupta
ppm (2014)
Rosa hybrida cv. First Pre-harvest Spray 6.94v Rakesh, 2012
Red application of GA3–250 (Figure 5.11)
ppm
Pre-harvest Spray 2.6v Kumar et al. (2012)
application of GA3–100
ppm
Rosa hybrida cv. Pre-harvest Spray 7.61v Rakesh (2012)
Noblesse application of GA3–250
ppm
Rosa hybrida cv. Pre-harvest Spray 7.5v Rakesh (2012)
Gold Strike application of GA3–250 (Figure 5.11)
ppm
Rosa hybrida cv. First Pre-harvest Spray 6.54v Rakesh (2012)
Red cv. Grand Gala application of GA3–250
ppm
Anthurium cv. Xavia GA3–10 ppm in vase 15.67v Sahare and Singh
solution (2015)
Solidago canadensis GA3–100 ppm as foliar 11.00v Osman and
cv. Tara spray Sewedan (2014)
GA3–200 ppm as foliar 10.00v Osman and
spray Sewedan (2014)
Croton (Codiaeum GA3–100 ppm in vase 16.00v Kumara et al.
variegatum) cv. solution (2007)
Mariana
Croton (Codiaeum GA3–100 ppm in vase 18.00v Kumara et al.
variegatum) cv. Batik solution (2007)
Croton (Codiaeum GA3–100 ppm in vase 17.00v Kumara et al.
variegatum) cv. solution (2007)
Aucubaefolia
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 217

Gibberelic acid at 100 ppm significantly increased the vase-life of


vars. Mariana, Batik and Aucubaefolia of croton (Codiaeum variegatum)
upto 16, 18 and 17 days, respectively (while the control was 7, 11 and 14
days, respectively) (Kumara et al., 2007). GA4+7 was effective than GA3
in prolonging inflorescence longevity at a given concentration, especially
in cold-stored stems of lilies. The increased inflorescence longevity was
because of both by the delayed bud opening and increased longevity of
individual flowers (Ranwala and Miller, 2002).
Postharvest spray treatment of GA (100 ppm) effectively increased
water uptake and retained fresh weight of cut inflorescence, there by
increasing (by almost twofold) vase life stabilizing absolute integrity of
cell membrane leading to a delay in bract cell death in heliconia cv. Golden
Torch inflorescence (Mangave, 2013). The effect of GA3 on the vase life of
different flowers was given in Table 5.2.

5.7.32 BENT NECK IN GERBERA

The reduction in water uptake, coupled with continuous transportation,


leads to water deficit and reduced turgidity in the cut flowers. This may
cause the stem to bend under the weight of the flower. The bending occurs
often below the flower, a phenomenon known as bent neck (Burdett, 1970).
Bending resistance depends on the development of secondary thickening
and lignification of the vascular elements in the peduncle area subtending
the flower head. GA3 significantly reduces the number of gerbere cut flower
stems with bent neck because GA3 minimizes water loss and increases
water uptake, therefore improving the water balance and mechanical
strength of the stems due to turgidity Table 5.3 (Emongor, 2004).

TABLE 5.3 Effect of GA3 on the Bent of Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii cv. Ida Red) Stems
GA3 concentration (ppm) No. of stems with bent neck after
7 days 14 days
0.0 3.25 6.00
2.5 1.00 4.25
5.0 2.00 3.25
7.5 1.50 3.00
Source: Emongor (2004).
218 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

5.7.33 DISEASE RESISTANCE IN ROSE

The development of Botrytis blight was suppressed by spraying flower buds


with a 1 mM solution of GA3, although the effect of GA3 was limited by
flower petal senescence. Application of GA3 either prior to or after conidial
inoculation suppressed development of Botrytis blight. GA3 application
suppressed Botrytis blight development even after the flowers were kept in
cold-storage conditions (Shaul et al., 1995). GA3 suppression of blight was
due to protective function associated with the GA imposed inhibition of cell
membrane disruption in rose petals (Sabehat and Zieslin, 1995) and forma-
tion of endogenous compounds, such as various phenolics (Verhoeff, 1980),
which could be inhibitory to the development of B. cinerea. This possibil-
ity is inferred from the inhibition of Botrytis blight with GAs applied after
the fungal infection (Figure 5.12). GA3 could be a more environmentally-
friendly alternative to conventional fungicides (Shaul et al., 1995).

FIGURE 5.12 Effect of time between GAs application and the inoculation with conidia
suspension on the development of Botrytis blight in harvested flowers of rose cv. Mercedes.
The extent of the disease was evaluated six days after inoculation (Source: Shaul et al.
(1995) a: Control; b: GA3 Treated flowers).
Gibberellins: The Roles in Pre- and Postharvest Quality 219

5.7.34 EXTRA POINTS

• Highest amounts of superoxide dismutase enzyme and decreasing


rates of relative fresh weight of tulip cut flowers were found in GA3
treated flowers (Mohammadi et al., 2012).
• No effect of foliar GA3 application on dry mass content in the
leaves of Iris nigricans was found by (Al-Khassawneh et al., 2006),
A. Europaeum (Pogroszewska et al., 2014).
• Flowering branches length inflorescence increases significantly by
increasing GA3 concentration compared to control then decreased at
higher concentration (Roberts et al., 1999).
• GA3 enhances plant growth by increasing the cell division, cell elon-
gation and cell size which agreement with Gul et al. (2006).
• Gibberellic acid prevented leaf chlorosis, which was the major post-
harvest disorder in many cut flowers such as Santonia cv. Golden
light flowers (Eason et al., 2001).
• Gibberellic acid did not delay leaf senescence in most plant spe-
cies and its content in tissues was not correlated with senescence
(Burdett, 1970).
• GA accelerates flower formation. Changes in GA levels occur when
plant switches from vegetative phase to reproductive phase.

KEYWORDS

•• Gibberellic acid
•• Postharvest quality
•• Postharvest shelf life
•• Preharvest spray
•• Senescence regulation
•• Storage and packaging
•• Vase life
220 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

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CHAPTER 6

ADVANCES IN PACKAGING OF
FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
ALEMWATI PONGENER1 and B. V. C. MAHAJAN2
1
ICAR-National Research Centre on Litchi, Mushahari, Muzaffarpur,
842002, Bihar, India, E-mail: [email protected]
2
Punjab Horticultural Postharvest Technology Centre, PAU,
Ludhiana, 141004, Punjab, India

CONTENTS

6.1 Introduction................................................................................... 232


6.2 History of Fruit and Vegetable Packaging.................................... 233
6.3 Functions of Packaging................................................................. 233
6.3.1 Containment of Produce.................................................... 234
6.3.2 Protection of Content........................................................ 234
6.3.3 Convenience...................................................................... 234
6.3.4 Communication................................................................. 235
6.4 Packaging Requirements for Fruits and Vegetables...................... 236
6.4.1 Respiration........................................................................ 238
6.4.2 Moisture Loss (Dehydration)............................................ 239
6.4.3 Temperature....................................................................... 239
6.4.4 Gas Composition............................................................... 240
6.5 Kinds of Packaging Material........................................................ 241
6.5.1 Natural Materials............................................................... 241
6.5.2 Wood................................................................................. 242
232 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

6.5.3 Cardboard (Fiberboard)..................................................... 242


6.5.4 Molded Plastics................................................................. 243
6.5.5 Paper or Plastic Film......................................................... 243
6.6 Modified Atmosphere Packaging.................................................. 244
6.7 Intelligent Packaging and Smart Packaging................................. 245
6.7.1 Sensors.............................................................................. 248
6.7.2 Time-Temperature Indicators............................................ 250
6.7.3 Gas Indicators.................................................................... 252
6.7.4 Electronic Nose................................................................. 252
6.7.5 RFID and Wireless Sensing Technology........................... 254
6.8 Future Directives........................................................................... 255
Keywords............................................................................................... 257
References.............................................................................................. 257

6.1 INTRODUCTION

With increasing complexity of society, there is continuous demand for


innovative and creative packaging from stakeholders (producers, proces-
sors, transporters, whole-sellers, retailers, and consumers) to guarantee
food quality, safety, and traceability. Studies commissioned by the Food
and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations estimates that about
45% of fresh fruits and vegetables constitute food loss in the postharvest
chain (FAO, 2014). Despite globally recognized solutions in reducing
food loss along the supply chain, postharvest loss remains a persistent
challenge (Ahmad and Siddiqui, 2015). The reasons for these huge losses
can be assigned to:
• lack of awareness about postharvest handling of fruits and
vegetables;
• use of traditional packaging;
• abusive use of packages by labor;
• poor infrastructure for storage of horticulture produce;
• absence of cold chain for perishable produce.
Packaging is one of the most important steps in the complicated jour-
ney of fruits and vegetables from growers to consumers. The Packaging
Institute International defines packaging as the enclosure of products, items
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 233

or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle, or
other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: con-
tainment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance
(Siddiqui, 2015). Therefore, packaging not only contains and protects dur-
ing handling, storage, transportation, and distribution, but also serves as a
symbol of value-addition and assurance of quality. It is also an important
tool for marketing fresh produce as it provides for ease of handling and
counted containers of uniform size. Standard-size packages reduce the need
for repeated weighing. Several types of package are commonly used in the
fresh produce industry, and include packages fabricated from paper and
paper products (compressed cardboard, corrugated cardboard or fiberboard),
wood and wood products, and plastics. The choice of each type depends on
the utility, capacity to enhance value to produce, and cost factor.

6.2 HISTORY OF FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PACKAGING

Wooden crates and boxes have been the traditional mode of packaging. The
history of modern packaging dates back to the mid-19th century with the
concept of transforming flimsy sheets of paper into a rigid, stackable, and
cushioning form of packaging. These were used for packaging of delicate
goods such as bottles and glass lamp chimneys. First patents for making
corrugated paper were granted in England in 1856. More than a decade later
in 1871, patents were granted to Albert Jones in the USA for single-phase
corrugated board. In 1874, Oliver Lang invented the corrugated board with
liner sheet on both sides. Invention of corrugated box in 1890 is credited to
the Scottish born Robert Gair. By the advent of the 20th century corrugated
boxes began to replace wooden crates and boxes. Initially limited to pack-
aging fragile goods like glass and pottery items, the corrugated boxes found
extensive usage in enabling fruit and produce to be brought from farm to
retail without bruise or damage. The introduction of corrugated boxes dra-
matically improved returns to the producers and opened up export markets.

6.3 FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING

According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission food is packaged to pre-


serve its quality and freshness, add appeal to consumers and to facilitate
234 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

storage and distribution. Selecting packaging material for horticultural pro-


duce should take into account the functions the packaging is intended to
perform. The functions of packaging are well defined and inter-related: con-
tainment, protection, convenience, and communication (Robertson, 2006).

6.3.1 CONTAINMENT OF PRODUCE

The most basic function of packaging is that of containment. Any produce


should be contained within a package before it can be moved along the sup-
ply chain. Containment allows for convenience in handling and storage,
reduces losses and makes large-scale transportation and marketing possi-
ble. Packaging helps to define portion sizes, and packaged food and bever-
age products normally are eaten in a single sitting and thus considered an
‘individual serving’ (Pomeranz and Miller, 2014). With increase in living
standards internationally, portion sizes have also increased over the years.
This has implications on consumption behavior of individuals. Containment
function of packaging, therefore, has that important role of containing the
right amount/size of produce or product that can lead to healthy eating habit.

6.3.2 PROTECTION OF CONTENT

Food packaging keeps food products in a limited volume, prevents it to leak


or break-up, and protects it against possible contaminations and changes
(Vanderroost et al., 2014). Packaging protects the contents from physical
or mechanical injuries, cuts, tears, bruises, etc. Packaging acts as a barrier
between the contents and the environment. It protects the contents from
outside environmental effects like microorganisms, gases, odors, tempera-
ture abuse, dust, vibrations, compressions, and shocks. Interestingly, pack-
aging also protects the outside environment from the contents.

6.3.3 CONVENIENCE

Packaging meets the demands of different stakeholders for convenience.


Packaging provides convenience in storage, transportation, and distribu-
tion of horticultural produce. Food packaging allows for consumers to
enjoy food they want, at their convenience. This holds greater meaning in
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 235

the present era of increasing inter-dependence among nations for food and
services. Over the years, modernization and industrialization have resulted
in ever-increasing single-person-households and percentage of women in
the workforce. This has resulted in drastic lifestyle changes with increas-
ing demand for convenience food, which includes pre-prepared foods,
fresh-cut, and minimally processed fruits and vegetables.

6.3.4 COMMUNICATION

Food packaging communicates important information about contained


product and its nutritional content, together with guidelines about prepa-
ration. Packaging improves sales, and makes advertising and large-scale
distribution possible. As mentioned earlier, packaging can act as a symbol
of value addition and quality assurance. It communicates the quality of the
content and the satisfaction a product offers. Modern scanning equipment
at retail outlets rely on barcodes or UPC imprinted on packages. Packages
communicate to the consumers about the nutritional value of contents and
how best they can be made use of. Nutritional information on packages
can help consumers make informed, healthful choices, thereby improving
sales (Freedman and Connors, 2011).
Another important consideration before designing any package is
the package environment. Packaging performs its function under three
different environments: Physical, Ambient, and Human environment.
Physical environment includes shocks, drops, falls, vibrations, compres-
sion, crushing, and all the physical damage that can happen to the prod-
uct. Ambient environment is the one that surrounds the package. Factors
such as gases, temperature, water and water vapor, light, microorganisms,
insects, rodents, etc. make up the ambient condition that can cause damage
to the product. The human environment takes into account the variability
of intended consumers. Consideration of human environment in design-
ing packages involves understanding specific consumer needs like conve-
nience, portion size, nutritional information, content of the package etc. In
order to make sure that the cost of packaging does not upset profits from
any horticulture venture, a fine balance has to be struck between protect-
ing the contents and the cost of the package. Currently, plastic crates and
fiberboard boxes are commonly used by growers and traders. However,
236 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

due to the cost involved, plastic crates are used for distribution in the
local market. Plastic crates also offer the benefit of return to the owner
after delivery. For transportation to distant markets cheaper disposable
packages are preferred. If selected after careful and proper consideration
fiberboard boxes measures up to most of these requirements. Polymers or
plastics exhibit many desirable features like transparency, softness, heat-
seal ability, and good strength to weight ratio with high tear and tensile
strength. Efficient mechanical properties, good barrier to oxygen, and low
cost make up the reasons for the extensive use of polymers for packaging.

6.4 PACKAGING REQUIREMENTS FOR FRUITS AND


VEGETABLES

Fresh fruits and vegetables are very important components of human diet.
They are rich sources of essential nutrients and vitamins, compounds that
cannot be synthesized by the human body. Fresh produce has always been
known and marketed as healthy. Consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables
modifies the risk of many non-communicable diseases including cancer,
stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes, and coronary heart disease (WHO,
2004). Maintaining freshness or harvest quality of produce has been one
of the biggest challenges in the agri-food sector. An important event in the
life of horticultural produce is the time of harvesting. Harvesting detaches
the fruit or vegetable from the parent plant, and removes it from its source
of food, water, and nutrients. Therefore, harvested produce has to rely on
internal reserves to continue aerobic respiration, active metabolism, and
maintain cellular integrity. In other words, fruits and vegetables are perish-
able. The rate of deterioration of any harvested produce is determined by
how efficiently the internal reserves are used up. The quality of fruits and
vegetables is determined by factors such as color, size, taste, flavor, texture
etc. Quality is said to have deteriorated when one or more of these factors
are said to be below the desirable level. Consumers want produce to be
fresh, typified by the quality at harvest. Packaging plays an important role
in protecting the fresh produce and delaying the process of deterioration.
Individual fruits and vegetables differ in rate of respiratory metabolism
(Table 6.1), transpiration or water loss, response to ethylene (Table 6.2),
and storage environment (Tables 6.3 and 6.4). It is, therefore, important to
understand the factors that determine the rate of produce deterioration.
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 237

TABLE 6.1 Classification of Vegetables According to Respiration Intensity


Class Respiration Intensity at Commodities
10°C (mg CO2 kg–1h–1)
Very low Below 10 Onions
Cabbage, cucumber, melons, tomatoes,
Low 10–20
turnips
Carrots, celery, gherkins, leeks, peppers,
Moderate 20–40
rhubarb
Asparagus (blanched), eggplant, fennel,
High 40–70
lettuce, radishes
Beans, Brussels sprouts, mushrooms,
Very high 70–100
savoy, cabbage, spinach
Extremely high Above 100 Broccoli, peas, sweet corn
Adapted from Weichmann (1987).

TABLE 6.2 Classification of Fruits According to Their Maximum Ethylene Production Rate
Ethylene production rate Fruits
µL kg–1 h–1 at 20°C
Very low (0.01–0.1) Cherries, citrus, grapes, pomegranates, strawberries
Blueberries, kiwifruit, peppers, persimmon,
Low (0.1–1.0)
pineapples, raspberries
Moderate (1.0–10.0) Bananas, figs, honeydew melons, mango, tomatoes
Apples, apricots, avocados, plums, cantaloupe,
High (10.0–100.0)
nectarines, papaya, peaches, pears
Very high (>100.0) Cherimoya, mammy apples, passion fruit, sapota
Source: Kader (1980).

TABLE 6.3 Classification of Fruits and Vegetables According to Their Tolerance to Low
O2 Concentrations
Minimum O2 Commodities
concentration
tolerated (%)
0.5 Tree nuts, dried fruits and vegetables
1.0 Some cultivars of apples and pears, broccoli, mushrooms, garlic,
onions, most cut or sliced (minimally processed) fruits and vegetables
2.0 Most cultivars of apples and pears, kiwifruit, apricots, cherries,
nectarine, peaches, plums, strawberries, papaya, pineapple, olives,
cantaloupe, sweet corn, green beans, celery, lettuce, cabbage,
cauliflower, Brussel sprouts
238 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 6.3 Continued


Minimum O2 Commodities
concentration
tolerated (%)
3.0 Avocados, persimmon, tomatoes, peppers, cucumber, artichoke
5.0 Citrus fruits, green peas, asparagus, potatoes, sweet potatoes
Source: Kader et al. (1989).

TABLE 6.4 Classification of Fruits and Vegetables According to Their Tolerance to


Elevated CO2 Concentrations
Minimum CO2 Commodities
concentration
tolerated (%)
Golden Delicious apples, Asian pears, European pears, apricots,
2 grapes, olives, tomatoes, peppers (sweet), lettuce, endive, Chinese
cabbage, celery, artichoke, sweet potatoes
Apples (most cultivars), peaches, nectarines, plums, oranges,
avocados, bananas, mango, papaya, kiwifruit, cranberries, peas,
5
peppers (chili), eggplant, cauliflower, cabbage, Brussels sprouts,
radishes, carrots
Grapefruit, lemons, lime, persimmon, pineapple, cucumber, summer
10 squash, snap beans, okra, asparagus, broccoli, parsley, leeks, green
onions, dry onions, garlic, potatoes
Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, cherries, figs,
15
cantaloupe, sweet corn, mushrooms, spinach, kale, Swiss chard
Source: Kader et al. (1989).

6.4.1 RESPIRATION

Respiration is a process in which energy-rich substrates are broken down


into simpler molecules along with production of energy. Respiration rate
is often a good indicator of storage life of horticultural produce, sharing
an inverse correlation: lower the rate, longer the potential storage life, and
vice versa (Siddiqui, 2016). The rate of respiration is specific to a particu-
lar harvested organ within species and variety, but may differ on maturity.
Climacteric fruits exhibit a rise in respiration rate and ethylene evolu-
tion rate during ripening. Mechanical stress due to peeling, slicing, and
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 239

de-stoning can accelerate the rate of respiration manifold. Such mechani-


cal stresses can result in enzymatic changes in fresh produce such as
browning and increase microbial spoilage (Watada and Qi, 1999).

6.4.2 MOISTURE LOSS (DEHYDRATION)

Moisture vapor is produced in association with aerobic respiration.


Moisture loss occurs from the fruit surface through natural diffusion
from a region of high concentration (fruit tissue) to a region of low
concentration (atmosphere surrounding fruit). The rate of dehydra-
tion depends on factors such as temperature, surface area, air velocity
around the fruit, and the extent of moisture saturation (relative humid-
ity) within the vicinity of fruit. Fresh fruits and vegetables contain
around 90% of water, and visually noticeable changes take place when
more than 5% moisture loss occurs. Further loss of weight and mois-
ture results in wilting, shriveling or wrinkling. Such produce not only
lose their consumer appeal and marketability, but even a reduction in
nutritional content is observed, especially those of water-soluble com-
ponents (Siddiqui, 2016). Dehydrated produce are more susceptible to
chilling injury and loses aroma and flavor. Moisture loss is detrimental
to maintenance of membrane integrity due to loss in turgor pressure
and results in oxidative damage and lipid peroxidation – hallmarks of
senescence and cell death. Dehydration can also trigger acceleration in
climacteric. Although undesirable in excess, some moderate dehydra-
tion may be beneficial to certain vegetables such as onions, garlic, or
common mushrooms.

6.4.3 TEMPERATURE

The temperature at which most physiological processes go on normally


in plants ranges from 0–40°C. Within this range, the rate of respiration
in fresh fruits and vegetables increases 2 to 3-fold for every 10°C rise in
temperature. Decreasing the storage temperature slows down enzymatic
reactions and respiration according to Arrhenius relationship. Providing
optimal ranges of temperature and relative humidity (RH) is the most
important tool for maintaining quality and safety of intact and fresh-cut
240 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

fruits and vegetables. Thus, increased precision in temperature and RH


management is indispensable for quality maintenance from harvest to
final consumption. Although refrigeration is the most appropriate method
for preservation of fresh produce, not all fresh produce may benefit from
refrigerated storage. Tropical fruits are prone to chilling and freezing inju-
ries, and refrigerated storage may instead accelerate respiration and other
deteriorative processes. Most products undergo irreversible damage at
temperatures below −1°C. There is no substitute to maintaining the cool
chain throughout the postharvest handling system for maintaining quality
and safety of horticultural perishables.

6.4.4 GAS COMPOSITION

Gas composition surrounding the produce is another factor that determines


postharvest quality and shelf life of fruits and vegetables. Modified or con-
trolled atmosphere packaging/storage has been conceptualized based on this
principle of response of fruits and vegetables to modifications in gaseous
composition (Siddiqui et al., 2016). Lowering the oxygen level is effective
in reducing respiration rate. Similarly, elevating the CO2 level also reduces
the respiration rate and can limit the production of ethylene. High CO2 levels
also act against aerobic microorganisms, although it may trigger develop-
ment of anaerobic flora. However, lowering O2 to levels below its tolerance
limit may induce a shift to anaerobic respiration or anoxia leading to pro-
duction of off-flavors and off-odors. Similarly, high CO2 levels may cause
tissue damage leading to an increase in the rate of respiration. Physiological
disorders also result when fruits and vegetables are stored in an atmosphere
with CO2 levels more than the tolerance limit. Thus, maintaining the opti-
mum gas composition, no matter how desirable, becomes a challenge, and
depends on product respiration and sensitivity to CO2. Packaging materials
must, therefore, be properly chosen for each product. The permeability of
some commonly-used polymeric films are summarized in Table 6.5.
All these factors make it clear that besides the traditional functions,
modern packaging designs must also take into account the conditions that
spoil or preserve fresh produce. It must perform several desirable func-
tions such as prevention of mechanical damage, monitoring temperature,
reduction in enzymatic reactions, respiration rate and tissue metabolism,
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 241

TABLE 6.5 Permeability Data of Some Polymeric Films, Air and Water
Permeability x 10¹¹ Activation energy Permeability
[mL(STP) cm cm–2 (kJ mol–1) ratio (β)
sec–1 (cm Hg)–1] CO2/O2
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
Polyethylene (density
30.0 131.6 42.4 38.9 4.39
0.914)
Polypropylene 17.4 75.5 47.7 38.1 4.34
Poly(vinyl chloride) 0.47 1.64 55.6 56.9 3.49
Poly(vinylidene chloride) 0.055 0.31 66.5 51.4 5.64
Air 2.5 x 108 1.9 x 108 3.6 3.60 0.76
Water 9.0 x 10² 2.1 x 104 15.8 15.8 23.33
Source: Kader et al. (1998).

reduction in excessive moisture loss from produce, and maintain critical


gaseous composition.

6.5 KINDS OF PACKAGING MATERIAL

Packages of all kinds are used in different parts of the world for packaging
and transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables.

6.5.1 NATURAL MATERIALS

In many developing markets, baskets and containers made of natural mate-


rials such as bamboo, straw, palm leaves, etc. constitute commonly used
packages. Natural fibers such as jute, sisal, coconut coir, etc., are also used
to prepare sacks or bags, either woven to a closed texture or as nets. These
are mostly used for packaging produce that are less easily damaged, such
as potato and onions. Natural materials are normally low in cost – both raw
material and labor involved, and also offer the advantage of re-usability.
However, disadvantages weigh more than the benefits in that,
• they lack rigidity and bend out of shape when stacked for long
distances;
242 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

• they don’t come in uniform shape and pose difficulty in loading;


• they often have sharp edges which usually cause cuts and puncture
damages;
• they cause pressure damage when tightly filled.

6.5.2 WOOD

Wooden containers are still being commonly used in the form of reus-
able boxes or crates. They not only offer the benefits of strength and
reusability, wooden boxes when made to a standard size stack well
on trucks or storage rooms. Wooden boxes are now gradually being
replaced by less expensive alternatives. The disadvantages of wooden
containers are:
• they are not environment friendly as their usage leads to felling of
trees;
• obtaining uniformity of weight is a problem;
• they are heavy and costly to transport;
• they may cause compression and vibration injuries if contents are
over- or under-packed;
• they often have sharp edges, splinters, and nails, etc., which can eas-
ily cause damage to contents.

6.5.3 CARDBOARD (FIBERBOARD)

Nowadays, most containers are made from solid or corrugated card-


board. Containers closing with either fold over or telescopic (i.e., sepa-
rate) tops are called boxes or cases, while shallower and open topped
ones are called trays. Corrugated fiberboard boxes (CFB) are supplied
in collapsed form and are usually set up by the user. This set up opera-
tion usually requires tapping, gluing, stapling, or fixing of interlocking
tabs. Cardboard boxes are light and clean, and can readily and easily be
printed upon with nutritional information, weight, amount, etc. Some
CFB boxes may be collapsed and re-used. Besides, they are available
in a wide range of sizes, designs, and strength. Because of its relatively
low cost and versatility, it remains the dominant package container for
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 243

fruits and vegetables. Most CFB boxes are made of three or more layers
of paperboard manufactured by the Kraft process. The cardboard boxes
may easily collapse when empty if multiple use is intended. They are
seriously weakened if exposed to moisture and easily damaged by care-
less handling and stacking.

6.5.4 MOLDED PLASTICS

Molded plastics are strong, rigid, smooth, and are reusable. They are
usually molded, to almost any specification, from high-density poly-
thene and find wide application and usage in transportation of produce
in many countries. Packages with a top and bottom that are heat-formed
from one or two pieces of plastic are known as clamshells. Clamshells
are gaining wide popularity for their versatility, low cost, and for pro-
viding excellent protection to the produce. They also present a very
pleasing consumer package. Another advantage of molded plastic box
is that they can easily stack when full of produce and nest when empty,
thereby conserving storage space. However, they deteriorate rapidly on
exposure to sunlight and require treatment with a UV inhibitor, thus,
adding to the cost.

6.5.5 PAPER OR PLASTIC FILM

Paper or plastic film liners are usually used in packing boxes to reduce
water loss from contents and prevent friction damage. Plastic film bags
are widely used in fruit and vegetable industry. Owing to their low cost
they are commonly used in consumer-convenient packs. They provide a
clear view of the contents and allows for visual inspection of the content
by the user. However, under conditions with no control over tempera-
ture plastic bags can lead to heavy build-up of water vapor and aggra-
vates decay. Temperature can rise inside the polythene bags on exposure
to sunlight and, along with water vapor, result in rapid deterioration.
Therefore, consumer packs wrapped in plastic are not recommended
under tropical environmental conditions except when/where refrigerated
storage is available.
244 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Choice of packaging material has been made to avoid unwanted


interactions with product or content. Despite the contribution of tradi-
tional packaging materials towards early development of food distribu-
tion, growing complexity of human society with ever-increasing needs
has brought insufficiency and insatiateness in modern packaging. Novel
innovative packaging designs and methods are in constant demand among
consumers and popular among researchers and industry alike. This is in
large due to growing consumer demand for convenience food, increased
regulatory requirements, market globalization, concern for food safety,
and recent threat of food bioterrorism (Yam et al., 2005).

6.6 MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING

Modified atmosphere packaging may be described as the use of an atmo-


sphere composition surrounding the product, which is different from that
of normal air, usually consisting of reduced oxygen and increased carbon
dioxide concentrations. Each product has a specific atmosphere composi-
tion that, in most cases combined with a low temperature, maximizes the
product shelf-life. Atmosphere modification can be done in one of two
ways: flushing the package with a gas having the required composition
when the product is packed or relying on naturally occurring processes
that tend to modify the composition over time. The first case is usually
referred to as active packaging and is commonly used for meat products,
bakery and dry foods, while the second is called passive packaging and
it may be used for fresh and minimally processed fruits and vegetables
(Siddiqui, 2016).
Use of polymeric films is very pronounced in packaging of fruits with
a purpose to extend their storage life. Storing fruits in plastic films creates
modified atmospheric conditions around the produce inside the package
allowing lower degree of control of gases and can interplay with physi-
ological processes of commodity resulting in reduced rate of respiration,
transpiration and other metabolic processes of fruits (Zagory and Kader,
1988). The modified atmosphere conditions within the film packages
can significantly reduce the rates of ripening and senescence primarily
by reducing the synthesis and perception of ethylene (Burg and Burg,
1967; Abeles et al., 1992). Changes in respiration and starch, sugars,
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 245

chlorophyll, and cell wall constituents during ripening and/or senescence


can be delayed, and in some cases nearly arrested. Besides, modified
atmospheric packaging (MAP) vastly improves moisture retention, which
can have a greater influence on preserving quality. The composition of the
atmosphere within a package results from the interaction of a number of
factors that include the permeability characteristics of the package, the
respiratory behavior of the produce, and the environment. Furthermore,
packaging isolates the product from the external environment and helps
to ensure conditions that, if not sterile, at least reduce exposure to patho-
gens and contaminants.
Polymeric films for creating MA conditions have been improvised
through micro-perforation using laser beam, which allows for control
of gas permeability of the film. Incorporation of anti-fogging, humid-
ity buffering, and liquid water removal systems into polymeric film
packaging alleviates the damage caused by moisture accumulation
inside packages. Further improvements in MAP have been made, for
example, through the use of temperature compensating films or breath-
able materials (BreatheWayTM) which assist in maintaining optimum
atmosphere composition within limits even in situations of temperature
abuse. Therefore, changes in the respiration rate caused by tempera-
ture fluctuation tend to be compensated for by changes in the film gases
transmission rate, avoiding anoxic conditions. Micro-perforating the
package film with laser creates patterns with precise round holes, and
extends the shelf life by improving the atmosphere and optimizing the
amount of O2, CO2, and moisture inside the package. Such a technology
(e.g., Lasersharp®) also helps in reduction of condensation and bacte-
rial growth while keeping the product fresh. Other means of obtaining
optimum modified atmospheres include incorporation of oxygen and/or
ethylene scavengers inside package. Commonly used oxygen scavengers
are iron or ascorbic acid based, while ethylene scavengers make use of
potassium permanganate activated carbon, or activated earth. Modified
atmosphere packaging has been beneficially exploited for extending
shelf life and maintaining freshness and quality of fruits and vegetables
(Table 6.6). Summary of commercialized active packaging technology
for enhancement of shelf life and maintenance of quality is presented in
Table 6.7 (Figure 6.1).
246 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 6.6 Modified Atmosphere Packaging to Maintain Quality and Extend Storage
Life of Fruits and Vegetables
Crop Film/coating Altered physiology Reference
Apple LDPE Extended shelf life Geeson et al. (1994)
Avocado Methyl cellulose Reduced respiration rate, Maftoonazad and
maintained color and firmness Ramaswamy (2005)
Capsicum Polypropylene Reduced respiration rate and Singh et al. (2014)
extended shelf life upto 49 days
Carrot Chitosan Delayed microbial spoilage, Leceta et al. (2015)
and maintained color and
texture
Cucumber LDPE bags Alleviated chilling injury, and Wang and Qi (1997)
reduced weight loss
Fig Microperforated Minimized weight loss, decay, Villalobos et al.
film and extended shelf life (2014)
Grape Oriented PP Prevented fruit decay and Costa et al. (2011)
extended shelf life
Litchi PropaFreshTM Maintained physiological and Somboonlaew and
PFAM biochemical properties of fruit Terry (2010)
Mango Microperforated Alleviated chilling injury Pesis et al. (2000)
PE
Papaya Chitosan + Extended shelf life and quality Brazil et al. (2012)
Pectin of fresh-cut papaya
Snap peas Microperforated Maintained higher chlorophyll, Elwan et al. (2015)
polypropylene vitamin C, SSC, and extended
bag storage life
Sweet LDPE Fruits remained acceptable for Meheriuk et al.
Cherry 4–6 weeks (1995)

TABLE 6.7 Commercial Active Packaging Systems


Trade name Manufacturer Type
Ageless Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co. Ltd, Japan Iron based O2 scavenger
Freshmax Multisorb Technologies, USA Iron based O2 scavenger
Bioca Bioka Ltd., Finland Enzyme based O2
scavenger
Tenderpac® SEALPAC, Germany Moisture absorber
Agion® Life Materials Technology Ltd., USA Antimicrobial packing
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 247

TABLE 6.7 Continued


Trade name Manufacturer Type
Biomaster® Addmaster Ltd., USA Antimicrobial packing
Peakfresh Peakfresh Products Ltd., Australia Ethylene scavenger
Evert-Fresh Evert-Fresh Corporations, USA Ethylene scavenger
Adapted from Biji et al. (2015).

6.7 INTELLIGENT PACKAGING AND SMART PACKAGING

With fast-changing business requirements, strict quality standards for


imported fruits and vegetables, along with technology development, the
boundaries of traditional functions of packaging have expanded into devel-
opment of dynamic packaging systems that are capable of carrying out
intelligent functions (Ahmad and Siddiqui, 2015). Intelligent packaging is
a system that provides reliable and correct information regarding the con-
dition of the contained food product, the environment, or the integrity of
packaging. According to the legal definition of EU (EC, 2009), intelligent
packaging contains a component that enables the monitoring of the con-
dition of packaged food or the environment surrounding the food during
transport and storage. Therefore, it can be said that intelligent packaging
is an extension of the communication function of packaging, and com-
municates to the user useful information based on ability to sense, record,
or detect changes (desirable and/or undesirable) in the product or environ-
ment. These facilitate decision making to extend shelf-life, enhance safety,

FIGURE 6.1 Modified atmosphere packaging of peach, kinnow, and capsicum.


248 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

improve quality, provide information and warn about possible problems


(Todorovic et al., 2014). Intelligent packaging should, however, not be
confused with active packaging, which is an extension of the protection
function of packaging. Active packaging is designed such that it contains a
component that enables the release or absorption of substances into or from
the packaged food or the environment surrounding the food (EC, 2009).
Thus, active packaging refers to a system where the product, package,
and the environment interact to extend shelf-life and improve the qual-
ity of the content, that otherwise cannot be achieved (Miltz et al., 1995).
Smart packaging is the realization of synergistic association between intel-
ligent packaging and active packaging; monitoring changes in the product
and environment, and acting upon these changes to bring about desirable
product quality and storability. Until now technologies that qualify for
intelligent packaging include time-temperature indicators, gas indicators,
sensors, indicators, nose systems, and radio frequency identification sys-
tems (Kerry et al., 2006).

6.7.1 SENSORS

As stated before, fruits and vegetables are living biological products and
freshness of produce after harvest is affected by time, handling, environ-
mental conditions, and metabolic processes. Fruits and vegetables also
undergo various operations postharvest: pre-cooling, sorting, grading,
washing, packaging, storage, transportation, and retail. Consumers expect
produce to be fresh and safe. Quality sensing, therefore, becomes neces-
sary at different stages of production or supply chain. Packaged produce
in transit is prone to undesirable vagaries like physical injury, tempera-
ture abuse, microbial infection, etc. This is where sensors come into the
picture helping users to detect and record changes in product, package,
or environment. Also, these factors can have profound effect on fresh-
ness and quality of the produce (Siddiqui, 2015). There has been increas-
ing research on sensor technology in the domain of fruit and vegetable.
Quality attributes and disorders in fruits and vegetables studied through
non-invasive computer vision technologies like nuclear magnetic reso-
nance (NMR) relaxometry (MRR), NMR spectroscopy (MRS), ear infra-
red (NIR), mid infra-red (MIR), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 249

TABLE 6.8 Use of NMR Relaxometry (MRR), NMR Spectroscopy (MRS), and MRI
Techniques in Sensing Quality and Disorders in Fruit and Vegetable Crops
Crop Maturity/ Bruises/ Tissue Heat Chill/ Infections
Sugar Voids/ breakdown injury freeze
seeds injury
Apple MRR/MRI MRI MRI/MRR
Avocado MRS/MRI
Banana MRR
Cherimoya MRR/MRI
Cherry MRR/MRS MRI
Cucumber MRI MRI
Durian MRS/MRI MRI
Grape MRS/MRR MRI
Kiwifruit MRR MRI/ MRI
MRR
Mandarin MRR MRI
Mango MRS/MRR MRI MRI
Mangosteen MRI MRI
Melon MRS MRI MRI
Nectarine MRI MRR
Onion MRI
Orange MRS/MRR MRI MRI
Papaya MRR
Peach MRI MRR/
MRI
Pear MRI MRR/MRI
Persimon MRI
Pineapple MRR/MRI
Potato MRR/MRI MRI MRI MRI
Strawberry MRI
Tomato MRR/MRI
Adapted from Ruiz-Altisent et al. (2010).

techniques are summarized in Tables 6.8 and 6.9. Physical injuries and
wounds are of common occurrence during transportation of fruit and veg-
etable crops. Impact sensors are based on force versus time measurements
250 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 6.9 Application of NIR-MIR Spectroscopy in Fruit and Vegetables


Sensor Detection Reference
NIR Dry matter content of onions Birth et al. (1985)
Acidity and soluble solids content of apples Lammertyn et al. (1998)
Water content in mushroom Roy et al. (1993)
Brown heart in apples Clark et al. (2003)
Sensory attributes of apple Mehinagic et al. (2004)
Sugar and firmness of apple Peng and Lu (2007)
Softening in Nectarine Zerbini et al. (2006)
MIR Sugar and acids in tomato Beullens et al. (2006)
Changes in macromolecular constituents of Dogan et al. (2007)
hazelnut
Olive oil acidity Inon et al. (2003)
Adapted from Ruiz-Altisent et al. (2010).

and can be effectively used to ascertain the physical condition of produce


(Chen and Ruiz-Altisent, 1996; Garcia-Ramos et al., 2003). Other than
research prototypes, manufacturers have also entered this domain and
impact sensors (Acoustic firmness sensor by Aweta, Intelligent firmness
detector by Greefa, and Sinclair iQ firmness tester for example) have suc-
cessfully been tested in fruits such as apples, avocadoes, citrus, kiwifruit,
plums, nectarines, peaches, etc. (Howarth and Ioannides, 2002).
Biosensors are also increasingly being used in postharvest management
of fruit and vegetables, with applications ranging from detection of pesti-
cide residues through quality control in package atmospheres to detection
of foodborne pathogens and toxins in fruits and vegetables. Low oxygen
injury is common in postharvest systems like modified atmosphere packag-
ing. The extent of low-O2 injury can be ascertained by detection of etha-
nol using ethanol sensors (Velasco-Garcia and Mottram, 2003), the most
advanced of which are bienzymatic sensors based on co-immobilization of
alcohol oxidase with horseradish peroxidase (Azevedo et al., 2005). One of
the greatest applications of biosensors is in detection of foodborne patho-
gens and toxins. Biosensors not only have the potential in toxicity detection
but also act as indicators for freshness and spoilage of fruits and vegetables
(Saaid et al., 2009; Velusamy et al., 2010). Summary on use of biosensors
in supply chain of fresh fruits and vegetables is given in Table 6.10.
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 251

TABLE 6.10 Biosensors in Postharvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables


Crop Biosensor Detection Reference
Fresh cut Ethanol biosensor Detection of Smyth et al. (1999)
lettuce, ethanol in low
cauliflower, oxygen injury in
broccoli, MAP
cabbage and
carrot
Guava Bromophenol blue Detects freshness Kuswandi et al. (2013)
immobilized onto of guava
bacterial cellulose through sensing
of package
headspace pH
Kimchi Irreversible chitosan- Monitors package Meng et al. (2015)
based ripeness indicator headspace CO2
concentration
Orange juice Cytochrome c-based Determination Cortina-Puig et al.
of antioxidant (2009)
capacity
Fruits and Laccase-based Polyphenol Gomes and Rebelo
vegetables biosensor determination (2003)
Apple and High-throughput Measurement of Vermeir et al. (2005)
Tomato enzymatic biosensor sugars and organic
array system acids

6.7.2 TIME-TEMPERATURE INDICATORS

Time-temperature indicators (TTIs) are small devices, typically self-


adhesives, attached to the package, and provide a visual indication in
response to temperature history within the package during the course of
shipment to the end user.. The visual indication can be a result of enzy-
matic change, polymerization, melting point, diffusion, or pH change
due to microbial growth. However, TTIs are because regardless of the
mechanism of the indicator, the rate of visual change should be tempera-
ture-dependent. Also, TTIs can be of three basic types: full history TTIs
that start integration immediately once activated, partial history TTIs
that start integration on achieving a certain temperature threshold, and
abuse indicator TTIs that show a visual change on achieving a certain
temperature. Abuse indicator TTIs, therefore, do not indicate or respond
252 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

to the time duration to which the product has been exposed. The mecha-
nism of visually detectable indication include change in enzymatic reac-
tions triggering a pH and color change, polymerization of a polymer that
usually becomes darker at a temperature dependent rate, and melting or
diffusion of substances that triggers a change in color in the indicator
window. TTIs are now available commercially, for example, Monitor®,
Checkpoint®, Fresh-Check®, OnVuTM, eO®, TT SensorTM (Poças et al.,
2008). Time monitoring is also very important to judge the time that has
elapsed since a package has been opened or activation of a label. Such
an integration of time-temperature component would also reveal visual
change in the indicator when a product has been exposed to temperature
abuse for a specific duration, thus indicating suitability/unsuitability of
the product for consumption.

6.7.3 GAS INDICATORS

Gas indicators are based on detection of volatile metabolites produced


during food deterioration. Initially based on detection of oxygen and car-
bon dioxide for judging the freshness of food, the domain of gas indicators
are now based on detection of metabolites like diacetyl, amines, ammonia,
ethanol, and hydrogen sulfide. A fine example of commercial gas indicator
is the RipeSense® sensor label developed by Jenkins group, New Zealand.
RipeSense® is a ripeness indicator developed specifically for pears. The
label consists of a sensor that detects the emitted natural aroma causing a
change in color. The sensor changes in color from red through orange to
yellow, indicating the ripeness level. Thus, consumers are able to make
purchasing decisions by matching the color with their eating preferences.

6.7.4 ELECTRONIC NOSE

Gas measurement systems used with a particular methodology are some-


times referred to as ‘Electronic noses’ (Boeker, 2014). In other words, an
electronic nose is any instrument that is capable of recognizing simple or
complex odors. It comprises an array of electronic chemical sensors with
partial specificity and an appropriate pattern recognition system (Gardner
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 253

and Bartlett, 1994), and is based on the fact that aroma, odor, and volatiles
are recognized through the sense of smell. A nose system mimics or exceeds
the human sense of smell or taste by generating a unique response to each
flavor or odor. The sensors evaluate the complex volatile mixture and col-
lectively assemble the constituents via a transducer to form a digital pat-
tern that is referred to as Electronic Aroma Signature Pattern (EASP). EASP
is highly unique and specific to the particular gas mixture being analyzed
(Baietto and Wilson, 2015). Aroma or odor is an important component of
fruits and vegetables, and is a function of flavor and sensory quality that
is so important from consumer’s perspective. Some of the most important
changes in fruit aroma take place during postharvest storage or shelf-life
period. Aroma volatiles not only indicate the stage of ripeness of the fruit but
also the physiological state of the fruit. Electronic nose technology incor-
porated into packaging can ascertain the state of ripeness, or if the produce
inside has rotten or got spoiled. Electronic noses can, therefore, be used to

TABLE 6.11 Electronic Noses and Their Varied Applications in Postharvest


Management of Horticultural Produce
Produce Parameter detected Reference
Apple Quality of fruit during postharvest storage; Brezmes et al. (2001);
Harvest date determination; detection of Saevels et al. (2003);
mealiness Li et al. (2007a)
Apple Aroma profile during deteriorative shelf life Li et al. (2007b)
Apple Prediction of storage time Hui et al. (2013)
Apricot Ripening after harvest Defilippi et al. (2009)
Banana Monitoring ripeness Sanaeifar et al. (2014)
Bell pepper Quality assessment Rosso et al. (2012)
Blueberry Ripening stage and quality control Simon et al. (1996)
Blueberry Fruit disease detection Li et al. (2010)
Grape Postharvest treatments Zoecklein et al. (2011)
Mandarin Harvest date determination Gomez et al. (2006)
Mango Harvest date determination Lebrun et al. (2008)
Mango Determination of fruit ripeness Salim et al. (2005)
Muskmelon Determination of harvest date Benady et al. (1995)
Orange Detection of freeze injury Tan et al. (2005)
Orange Shelf life determination Di Natale et al. (2001)
254 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 6.11 Continued


Produce Parameter detected Reference
Pear Prediction of acidity, soluble solids and pH Zhang et al. (2008)
Peach Volatile compounds and quality changes Rizzolo et al. (2013)
during cold storage
Persimon Determination of harvest time and shelf life Li et al. (2013)
Pineapple Determination of shelf life Torri et al. (2010)
Strawberry Detection of fruit maturity Du et al. (2010)
Tomato Monitoring fruit with different storage time Gomez et al. (2008)
Tomato Determination of fruit maturity and shelf life Wang and Zhou (2007)

develop consistent and reproducible non-destructive techniques to evaluate


fruit quality inside packaged produce. Aroma analysis has been intensely
researched for its potential as a non-destructive tool to evaluate produce
quality (Table 6.11). Electronic noses offer many advantages over other
methods including rapid and real-time detection of volatiles, lower costs,
and ease of automation.

6.7.5 RFID AND WIRELESS SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Radiofrequency identification or RFID is a system for automated data acqui-


sition based on tags that contain transponders emitting messages that are
readable by RFID readers (Todorovic et al., 2014). RFID technology has
found vast applications in a variety of fields such as development of bio-
metric passports, social security cards, livestock identification, prescription
drugs, food and beverages industry, access control, patient identification and
hospital management, car immobilization, airline luggage management, traf-
fic and toll control, archiving and aviation management, library and docu-
ment management, logistics, retail and trade, and many more (Vlcek, 2006).
An RFID tag attached to a fruit and vegetable package can be used to track
its progress through the supply chain. RFID technology in conjunction with
integrated sensors offers promise of a system designed to assess the status
of content within a package without having to open it. Existing standards
require that produce is clean, correctly labeled, and of marketable quality. In
addition, tracking and tracing has become a critical part of trade practices.
In order to comply with legislation and meet the standard requirements of
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 255

food safety and quality, adoption of internal traceability system becomes an


integral part (Bosona and Gebresenbet, 2013). RF technologies have been
proposed to offer solutions to traceability in agro-food supply chain, but
insufficiency exists in implementation of gapless traceability (Barchetti et al.,
2009). Thus, RFID in conjunction with a continuous monitoring technology
has evolved as solution to achieve gapless traceability (Mainetti et al., 2013).
Wireless sensing technologies have opened up vast possibilities offering not
just sensing but communication as well. This has been possible through the
development of low-cost, low-power, sensor nodes, which enable environ-
ment sensing along with data processing. Sensor nodes are able to network
with other sensor systems and exchange information and data with external
users. Most of the wireless sensing technology applications makes use of
IEEE 802.15.4/ZigBee protocol (IEEE 2003; van Tuijl et al., 2008). In this
way, the environmental parameters like temperature, relative humidity, vibra-
tion, shock, light, gases composition, and microbial population can be sensed
and detected within the package. Thus, a huge benefit of wireless sensing
technology in packaging science is the feasibility of installation it brings
within every package. Wireless sensing technology offers high potential in
monitoring fruit and vegetable containers and storage facilities (Ruiz-Garcia
et al., 2008). This technology assumes high significance in offering the pos-
sibility of monitoring quality, freshness, senescence, or spoilage of packaged
fruit and vegetable during transport (Figure 6.2). Some applications of wire-
less sensing have been demonstrated for fruits and vegetables (Table 6.12).

FIGURE 6.2 Schematic representation of intelligent packing through integration of


RFID and sensors.
256 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 6.12 Summary on Use of RFID and WSN in Fruit and Vegetable Packaging and
Supply Chain
Crop/Application RFID or WSN application Reference
Apple Monitoring fruit quality and Vergara et al. (2007)
conservation stage of fruit
Durian WSN for monitoring maturity stage of Krairiksh et al. (2011)
fruit
Pineapple Use of RFID for temperature mapping Amador et al. (2009)
in supply chain
Fresh ready-to-eat Gapless traceability system using RF Mainetti et al. (2013)
(RTE) vegetable technologies and EPC global standard
products
Fresh produce Application of 2G-RFID system to Chen et al. (2014)
Smart cold chain system (SCCS) to
evolve Refined Smart Cold Chain
System (RSCCS)
Fruits and ‘Intelligent Container’ based on a Lang et al. (2011)
vegetables cognitive sensor network that measures
relevant parameters like temperature
and humidity
Lettuce Cold chain transport using WSN Ruiz-Garcia et al.
technology with real-time monitoring (2010)
of temperature, RH, door openings,
truck stops, and psychometry
Perishable items Integrated RFID-sensor network system Mejjaoli and
for optimization of logistics systems Babiceanu (2015)
operation
Perishable food RFID tags with temperature sensor to Jedermann et al.
products model shelf life and produce quality (2009)
during transportation
Supply chain of Real-time environment monitoring Wang et al. (2015)
perishable food

6.8 FUTURE DIRECTIVES

The export of fresh fruits and vegetables face many problems in terms of
quality phytosanitary requirements, postharvest handling and packaging.
Better storage and handling facilities at farm level, reduction in number of
intermediaries in the chain, development of bulk handling systems including
Advances in Packaging of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables 257

precooling and prepackaging can reduce loses. The shelf life of various
fruits and vegetables can be increased by 5–15 days when pre-packed.
Introduction of consumer packs like polyethylene bags with ventilation
holes, wrapping fruits and vegetables in stretch films and use of plastic pun-
nets not only increases the shelf life of the produce but also adds value to
the produce. Use of packages like plastic creates, leno bags, polypropylene
boxes also helps in extending the shelf life of the fresh produce. Postharvest
technologies including precooling, MAP, CAP, active packaging need to
be adopted for quality preservation and extension of shelf life of various
fruits and vegetables. If properly handled, temperature and packaging can
act favorably in preserving fruits and vegetables. Many novel techniques
and systems have become available for real-time measurement of produce
within the package and its environment. Non-destructive techniques and
technologies that allows for sensing and communication quality parameters
without having to open the package are promising. However, successful
commercialization of such technologies will depend on reliability of mea-
surements and correlation with existing established techniques.

KEYWORDS

•• Fruits and Vegetables


•• Functions of Packaging
•• Intelligent Packaging
•• MAP
•• Packaging Requirements
•• Postharvest Quality
•• Smart Packaging

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CHAPTER 7

FRESH-CUT PRODUCE: ADVANCES


IN PRESERVING QUALITY AND
ENSURING SAFETY
OVAIS SHAFIQ QADRI, BASHARAT YOUSUF, and
ABHAYA KUMAR SRIVASTAVA
Department of Postharvest Engineering and Technology,
Aligarh Muslim University, India, E-mail: [email protected],
Tel.: +91-9419041070

CONTENTS

7.1 Introduction................................................................................... 266


7.2 Physiology (Effect of Cutting on Tissues).................................... 268
7.2.1 Physiological Effects of Cutting on
Fruits and Vegetables........................................................ 269
7.3 Microbiology................................................................................. 270
7.4 Quality and Safety of Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables................ 275
7.5 Trends in Preserving Quality and Ensuring
Microbiological Safety of Fresh Cut Produce.............................. 278
7.5.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging...................................... 278
7.5.2 Edible Coatings................................................................. 281
Keywords............................................................................................... 283
References.............................................................................................. 283
266 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Fruit and vegetables comprise essential components of the human diet


and are being linked to health and nutritional benefits associated with
their consumption. Currently, benefits of fruit and vegetables through diet
are now well known and are documented in the literature. Average daily-
recommended intake of fruits and vegetables per capita, according to the
World Health Organization (WHO, 2008) is more than 400 gram. Fresh-
cut products offering convenience may play an important role to help
meet the recommended daily intake or other essential dietary require-
ments (Siddiqui and Rahman, 2015).
There has been a continuous increase in consumer demand for con-
venient and minimally processed produce including fresh-cut fruits and
vegetables. International Fresh-Cut Produce Association defines fresh-
cut produce as “any fresh fruit or vegetable or combination thereof,
physically altered from its original form, but remaining in a fresh state”
(IFPA, 2001). Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are minimally processed
products prepared usually by trimming, peeling, washing, cutting the
fruits or vegetables and packing them to offer convenience to consum-
ers while maintaining the fresh like character of such products. Usually
fresh-cut produce goes through preparation steps such as washing, peel-
ing, cutting or slicing, packaging (Abadias et al., 2011). Nevertheless,
there are no predefined operations for all types of fruits and vegetables,
rather the operations may vary with respect to the particular type of
product in consideration. In other words, the operations involved in the
preparation of fresh-cut product are specific to fruit or vegetable being
minimally processed. For instance, cabbage may only be shredded; car-
rots may be peeled and shredded, onions may be only peeled or peeled,
sliced or diced; spinach may be washed and trimmed; pineapple may be
cored and sliced; papaya may be halved and formed into slices or cubes
and so on (Figure 7.1).
Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are live tissues in a raw or fresh-like
state, prepared without employing frequently used food-processing meth-
ods like freezing, canning, dehydrating, fermentation, acidification, or
treatments with food additives. However they always require refrigerated
storage.
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 267

FIGURE 7.1 Fresh-cut Papaya prepared, packaged in polypropylene trays and stored
under refrigerated conditions (4°C) at Food Processing Laboratory, Department of
Postharvest Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, India.

Due to their convenience, there is a high-demand for fresh-cut fruit


and vegetables in the retail and food service industries. Also, there is a
strong tendency among people toward consumption of minimally pro-
cessed foods without addition of chemical preservatives. In the recent
past, this industry has expanded to a multi-billion dollar sector and repre-
sents one of the fastest expanding segments of ready to use fresh foods.
Foodservice establishments including restaurants, cafeterias and airlines
and other outlets are increasingly relying on fresh-cut produce. Still, this
sector has a plenty of room to grow.
Freshness and convenience are the primary characteristics of fresh-
cut produce. However, food safety, nutritional and sensory quality during
extended shelf life can in no way be ignored. Minimal processing leads
to alteration in the integrity of the fruit tissue resulting in the increase
in respiration and consequently accelerates degradation and shortens
shelf life. Fresh-cut vegetables deteriorate faster than intact produce. The
degradation due to increased respiration includes biochemical deteriora-
tions such as enzymatic browning, development of off flavor or break-
down of texture. In addition minimal processing operations will result
in damage to the fruit and vegetable tissue by cellular disruption and
de-compartmentalization.
268 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

7.2 PHYSIOLOGY (EFFECT OF CUTTING ON TISSUES)

Fruits and vegetables are biological entities that are living even after their
detachment from the parent plant. The physiological systems of fruits and
vegetables are maintained postharvest as the metabolic reactions continue
(Table 7.1). The processes like respiration and transpiration continue after
harvest but due to detachment of produce from the plant, neither respi-
rable substrate loss nor moisture loss is compensated, making the produce
entirely dependent on its own reserves of food and moisture. This reduc-
tion in food reserves and moisture of produce after harvest initiates dete-
rioration of quality, giving the perishable character to these commodities.
The causes of deterioration may be internal (including respiration rate,
ethylene production and action, mechanical injuries, rates of composi-
tional changes, sprouting and rooting, physiological disorders) or external
(temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric composition and sanitation
procedures) or a combination of both.
Fresh cut fruits and vegetables are subjected to different minimal pro-
cessing procedures depending upon the type of commodity, which may
include cutting, trimming, shredding, stoning and peeling, resulting in
their physical injury. This physical damage of the fresh cut produce tissues
further enhances the deteriorative changes, increasing the perishability of
such products manifold.

TABLE 7.1 Metabolic Changes in Postharvest Fruits and Vegetables


Degradative Synthetic
Destruction of chloroplast Synthesis of carotenoids and anthocyanins
Breakdown of chlorophyll Synthesis of flavor volatiles
Starch hydrolysis Synthesis at starch
Organic acid catabolism Synthesis of lignin
Oxidation of substrate Preservation of selective membranes
Inactivation of phenolic compounds Interconversion of sugars
Hydrolysis of pectin Protein synthesis
Breakdown of biological membranes Gene transcription
Cell wall softening Formation of ethylene biosynthesis pathway
Adapted from Baile and Young (1981).
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 269

7.2.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CUTTING ON FRUITS


AND VEGETABLES

The quality changes encountered in fresh cut fruits and vegetables are
basically a combined effect of different physiological processes, which
may be induced or enhanced as result of injury. The extent and severity of
these physiological changes depend on different factors including culti-
var, post-harvest crop management, physiological maturity, pre- and post-
cutting treatments, atmospheric composition. (Toivonen and DeEll, 2002).
The wounding of fruits and vegetables as a result of minimal pro-
cessing has been associated with increase in ethylene production in the
close vicinity of the wound area. Ethylene may have potential effects on
plant tissues depending on the type and physiology of tissue. Increase
in ethylene production after cutting has been reported for many fruits
and vegetables including galia, kiwifruit, tomato, papaya, and straw-
berry. Few studies have also reported contradictory results depicting no
change in ethylene content upon slicing of banana (Watada et al., 1990)
and decrease in ethylene production in cantaloupe upon cutting (Luna
Guzman et al., 1999).
Respiration of fruits and vegetables has been correlated to their shelf
life, higher respiration corresponding to lower shelf life (Kader, 1987).
Wounding of fruits and vegetables may enhance the respiration rate
which will eventually decrease the shelf life which may be attributed
to the assumption that a structural change of mitochondria and increase
in number of mitochondria is induced by wounding justifies this state-
ment (Siddiqui, 2015, 2016). However, the increase in respiration rate
of fresh cut fruits and vegetables shows a lot of variation. Watada et al.
(1990) reported an increase in respiration rate of kiwifruit on cutting but
no such increase was observed in banana.
Fruits and vegetables are mostly enclosed within a covering called
peel and at microscopic level; also there exist many membranes like
cell wall, cell membrane, organelle membrane. The function of these
coverings is to maintain the integrity of the produce. These membranes
get damaged during minimal processing which may trigger series of
processes detrimental to the quality of the product. Browning, develop-
ments of off-flavors (Brecht, 1995), free radical production (Thompson
270 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

et al., 1987), membrane lipid breakdown (Galliard 1979), enhanced eth-


ylene production (Sheng et al., 2000) are some of the reported effects of
membrane deterioration due to wounding. These changes are however,
specific to certain commodities and may not occur in every fruit and
vegetable on injury. Theologis and Laties (1980) reported some fruits
and vegetables like carrot, avocado, and banana do not show wound-
induced membrane lipid breakdown.
Accumulation of secondary metabolites is another physiological
effect that has been associated to wounded tissues. Wounded has been
shown to increase the activity of enzyme phenylalanine ammonia lyase
which initiated the phenolic accumulation. Increase in unpleasant sul-
fur compounds has been attributed to membrane deterioration, which
exposes several sulfur containing substrates to enzymes like cysteine
sulphoxidelyase and results in their oxidation.
Water loss mainly as a result of transpiration is continuous process
in fruits and vegetables and minimizing this loss is directly related to
quality, otherwise resulting in greater susceptibility to wilting and shriv-
eling. The peeling and cutting of fruits and vegetables results in reduc-
tion or elimination of outer periderm or cuticle, which provide resistance
against transpirational movement of water vapors, resulting in increased
rate of water loss. Agar et al. (1999) demonstrated that slicing of kiwi-
fruit increased rate of water loss and peeling further enhanced the rate.
Increased susceptibility to microbial spoilage is one of the most
important concerns in fresh cut fruits and vegetables and exposing the
fresh cut produce to normal conditions may provide an open invitation
to microorganisms. Watada et al. (1996) reported that broken cells and
their adjacent tissues are the areas of largest microbial population in
stored fresh cut produce, which may be attributed to the fact that dam-
aged tissues, and broken cells provide easy access to nutrients, ensuring
a protective environment for growth of wide range of microorganisms.

7.3 MICROBIOLOGY

Increased awareness of healthy eating habits lead to overall increased pro-


duce consumption in terms of fresh fruits and vegetables. Most of these
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 271

fruits and vegetables provide feasible conditions for the survival, growth
and proliferation of various types of microorganisms. Microbial decay is
the major source of spoilage of fresh-cut produce.
In general, hazards associated with food may be categorized as physi-
cal, chemical or microbiological. In fresh-cut industry, microbiologi-
cal safety is the main issue of concern (Table 7.2). Microorganisms are
natural contaminants associated with all the agricultural produce. These

TABLE 7.2 Microbial Populations Present on Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables


Fresh Microbial Groups Microbial References
Produce population
(Log cfu g–1)
Broccoli Total Mesophilic 4.7 Jacques and Morris (1995)
Count
Coliform Count 2.1
Yeast and Mold 3.25
Cantaloupe Total Mesophilic 1.05 Lamikanra et al. (2000)
pieces Count
Yeast and Mold 6.34 Tournas et al., (2006)
Carrot Total Mesophilic 5.5 Jenni et al. (2013)
Count
C. jejuni 6.5 to 6.9 Karenlampi and Hanninen
(2004)

E. coli O157:H7 6.1 Lacroix and Lafortune (2004)


Shredded Total Mesophilic 2.9 Chervin and Boisseau (1994)
carrots Count
Lactic Acid bacteria 1.1
Minimally Total Mesophilic 3.83–4.82 Carlin et al. (1996)
processed Count
broadleaf
endive
Cut chicory Total Mesophilic 4.00 Bennick et al. (1998)
endive Count
Chicory Total Mesophilic 5.2 Jacxsens et al. (1999)
endive Count
(shredded) Lactic Acid bacteria 2.63
Yeast and Mold 3.0
272 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 7.2 continued


Fresh Microbial Groups Microbial References
Produce population
(Log cfu g–1)
Cut Cabbage Total aerobic 5.2 Koide e al. (2009)
bacteria
Yeast and Mold 3.9
Escherichia coli 4.10–4.90 Lee et al. (2014)
O157:H7
Fresh-cut Total bacterial 5.08 Zhang et al. (2005)
celery Count
Lettuce Total Mesophilic 6.39–7.69 Gras et al. (1994)
Count
Coliform Count 4.14–5.29
Chopped Total Mesophilic 4.85 Odumeru et al. (1997)
lettuce Count
Processed Total Mesophilic 2.5–6.2 Francis and O’Beirne (1998)
lettuce Count
Shredded Total plate Count 4.28 Delaquis et al. (1999)
lettuce Lactic Acid bacteria <1
Yeast and Mold 2.07
Lettuce Total Mesophilic 7.23–7.61 Jayasekara (1999)
salad Count
Chopped Total Mesophilic 3.5 Izumi (1999)
bell peppers Count
Mixed fruit Yeast and Mold 6.34 Tournas et al. (2006)
pieces
Watermelon Yeast and Mold 6.26 Tournas et al. (2006)
chunks
Mixed Total Mesophilic 8 Manzano et al. (1995)
vegetables Count
Lactic Acid bacteria 5.5–6.3
Yeast and Mold 4–4.2
Mixed salad Total Mesophilic 1.84–2.99 Martinez-Tome et al. (2000)
Count
Coliform Count 0.7–1.90
Fresh-cut Total Mesophilic 8.3 Sapers and Simmons (1998)
mushrooms Count
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 273

TABLE 7.2 continued


Fresh Microbial Groups Microbial References
Produce population
(Log cfu g–1)
Packaged Total Mesophilic 5.3–8.9 Hagenmaier and Baker (1998)
garden salad Count
(iceberg Yeast and Mold 0.9–3.85
lettuce, yeasts
carrot, red
cabbage) <0.3–2.2
molds
Prepackaged Total Mesophilic 5.5–8.3 Lack et al. (1996)
ready-to- Count
serve salad Yeast and Mold <3–6.75
Potato strips Total Mesophilic 2.00 Gunes et al. (1997)
Count
Potato salad Total Mesophilic 5.41–4.98 Jayasekara (1999)
Count
Japanese Total Mesophilic 3.9 Izumi (1999)
radish shreds Count
Raw Total Mesophilic 5.7 Kaneko et al. (1999)
vegetables Count
Coliform Count 2.3
Ready-to-use Total Mesophilic 7.18 Vescovo et al. (1995)
mixed salad Count
Coliform Count 6.60
Lactic Acid bacteria 5.3
Salad mix Total Mesophilic 5.35 Odumeru et al. (1997)
Count
Trimmed Total Mesophilic 4.00 Izumi (1999)
spinach Count
leaves
Fresh-cut Bacterial count 1.8–2.5 Daniyan & Ajibo (2011)
pawpaw
Melon Bacterial count 3.5–9 Daniyan & Ajibo (2011)
Fresh-cut Bacterial count 1.6–8.4 Daniyan & Ajibo (2011),
Pineapple Mantilla et al. (2013)
Yeast and Mold 3.86 Mantilla et al. (2013)
Yellow onions Aerobic plate count 4.19 Juneja et al. (2002)
(diced &
sliced)
274 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 7.2 continued


Fresh Microbial Groups Microbial References
Produce population
(Log cfu g–1)
Fresh-cut Total aerobic counts 4.3 Rupasinghe et al. (2006)
apple slices
Tomato Aerobic plate count 4.78 Juneja et al. (2002)
(diced)
Cut Yeast and Mold 4.36 Tournas et al. (2006)
strawberries
Fresh-cut Aerobic plate count 3.1 Sipahi et al. (2013)
watermelon Yeast and Mold 1.4
Coliforms 1.5

microorganisms decrease the economic value of fresh-cut products and


pose a threat to public health. Contamination of fresh produce can occur at
any stage from farm until its final consumption.
There could be many sources of surface contamination of fruits and
vegetables by microorganisms, such as soil, water, animals, birds, and
insects during the growing stage (Siddiqui, 2015). Further contamina-
tion may occur during different processes like harvesting, washing, cut-
ting, packaging, and shipping could. Fruits and vegetables frequently are
exposed to soil, insects, animals, or humans during growing or harvesting.
Poor agronomic practices, use of contaminated water irrigation of crops,
use of improperly composted manure and lack of training among field
workers on good personal hygiene may be considered as some of the rea-
sons for contamination. Furthermore, inefficient sanitary control during
various postharvest operations may also elevate the microbial load on fruit
and vegetable products (Siddiqui et al., 2016).
Next crucial stage is preparation of fresh-cut produce, which involves
a number of preparatory/processing steps. In fresh-cut produce production
chain, there are several processing steps and in each of these steps many
points for potential microbial contamination may exist. During these pre-
paratory steps, the fruit loses its natural protection (outer skin or peel) and
become more susceptible to microbial growth and subsequent degradation
of the product (Martin-Belloso et al., 2006). Furthermore, cut surfaces can
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 275

provide favorable conditions for growth of both foodborne pathogens and


spoilage microorganisms (Trias et al., 2008). Besides this, the high water
activity and approximately neutral (vegetables) or low acidic (many fruits)
tissue pH, facilitate rapid microbial growth (Parish et al., 2003). Cutting
will present the risk that rapidly reproducing spoilage microorganisms will
establish within open wound sites. Juice leakage from the damaged/cut
tissue favors the growth of microorganisms including various bacteria and
yeasts. Another critical factor affecting microbiology is cross contamina-
tion, which may occur during any of these preparatory steps.
Literature available on the occurrence of microorganisms in minimally
processed fruit and vegetable products emphasizes mostly on total bacte-
rial populations and microbial groups, such as coliforms, fecal coliforms,
pectinolytic species and yeast and mold counts. Microflora associated with
most vegetables is dominated by gram-negative bacteria, while as dominant
microflora associated with raw fruits mostly includes yeasts and molds.
(Tournas, 2005). Strains of pathogenic bacteria, such as Listeria mono-
cytogenes, Salmonella species, Shigella species, Aeromonashydrophila,
Yersinia enterocolitica and Staphylococcus aureus, as well as some
Escherichia coli usually found in contaminated vegetable and fruit prod-
ucts (Beuchat, 2002; Breidt & Fleming, 1997).
Usually, the natural microflora of raw fruits and vegetables is non-
pathogenic and may be present at the time of consumption (Ahvenainen,
1996). This non-pathogenic category of microflora has an important role
to play. A large population of non-pathogenic bacteria is in-fact a barrier to
reduce the risk of food borne illness from fresh-cut products. They do not
necessarily or directly prevent the growth of pathogens but give an indica-
tion of temperature abuse and age of the produce by causing spoilage in
terms of visible deteriorative changes. If there are no such visible changes
on spoilage, the product safety may sometimes be compromised, either
intentionally or unintentionally.

7.4 QUALITY AND SAFETY OF FRESH-CUT FRUITS


AND VEGETABLES

Quality of fresh-cut fruit and vegetable products is a combination of


different parameters such as appearance, texture, flavor, and nutritional
276 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

value (Kader, 2002). Quality determines the value of product to the


consumer and the relative importance of each quality parameter var-
ies with the commodity concerned. At the time of purchase, a person
may judge quality of fresh-cut fruit and vegetables primarily on the
basis of appearance and freshness. However, on subsequent purchases
he will also consider texture, nutritional quality and safety of fresh-cut
products. Quality of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables is of key impor-
tance because any compromise in the quality may lead the consumers
to doubt its safety and there may be potential risks to the public health.
Since fresh-cut produce is extremely sensitive, it is a huge challenge to
maintain quality efficiently for a longer period. The shelf life of these
products is mainly limited by microbial spoilage, desiccation, discolor-
ation or browning, softening or texture breakdown and development of
off flavors and off odors.
Quality of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables is influenced by various fac-
tors. It is primarily and largely dependent on the selection of raw material
for preparation of such products. The quality of raw material (fresh fruits
and vegetables) is in turn affected by factors like agricultural practices,
soil fertilizers, climate and harvesting conditions. Therefore, these factors
directly or indirectly affect the final quality of fresh-cut fruits and veg-
etables (Ahvenainen, 1996). Additionally, the quality of fresh-cut prod-
ucts may also be affected by the cultivar selected. For instance, a cultivar
of a fruit may develop browning rapidly or extensively than the other
cultivars of the same fruit. All this directs for the careful selection of raw
material for fresh-cut processing.
Postharvest and processing are among prime factors determining the
quality of fresh-cut products. Processing operations or preparatory steps
cause mechanical injury to the tissue. Removal of peel and loss of tissue
integrity makes the product more susceptible to quality loss. Exposure
of tissue to air and release of endogenous enzymes leads to detrimental
changes in quality.
According to Hodges and Toivonen (2008) quality of Fresh-cut is
affected by both internal and external factors. Internal factors represent
metabolic characterizations which affect fresh-cut processing and storage
such as morphological, physiological, and biochemical defense mecha-
nisms, genotype, stress-induced senescence programs, and processing
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 277

maturity. External factors are environmental situations, which inhibit or


exacerbate the manifestation of the internal factors such as storage tem-
perature, humidity, cutting-knife sharpness, and chemical treatments.
Safety must be of primary concern in any food including the fresh-cut
products. Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables are considered to be a source of
food borne outbreaks in many parts of the world. Fresh-cut produce has
emerged as a potential vehicle for deadly foodborne pathogens (Beuchat,
1998). Disease outbreaks that could spurt as a result of microbial growth
during the extended shelf life of fresh-cut produce are posing a challenge
to food processors in the global commercialization of these products
(Alzamora & Guerrero, 2003).
Fresh-cut produce does not receive any ‘lethal’ treatment or “kill
step” that kills all pathogens prior to consumption. Natural microflora
composed of many spices, present on fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, has
been reported to compete with or exhibit antagonistic activity towards the
pathogens (Liao & Fett, 2001; Ukuku et al., 2004). The shelf-life of fresh-
cut produce is reduced and is generally, less than that of intact fruits and
vegetables because of the wounding of tissues during their preparation.
The limited shelf life is due to both microbial and physiological deteriora-
tion. Considering the difficulties linked with the processing and preserva-
tion of living tissues, the preparation of sound fresh-cut products presents
a challenge for the food industry. Nevertheless, development of safe pro-
duction and disinfection methods is of critical importance to ensure the
safety and quality of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables (Abadias et al., 2011).
Since the contamination with microorganisms can occur at any stage
from farm to final consumer, both good agricultural practices (GAP’s)
and good manufacturing practices (GMP’s) are important to ensure safety
of fresh-cut products. Good agricultural practices help to ensure sanita-
tion of produce in field where as good manufacturing practices limits
product contamination during different processing operations in the pro-
cessing plant.
Safety of fresh-cut produce is a serious concern for consumers due to:
• there is no kill step in the preparation of fresh-cut produce, which
will ensure safety.
• fresh-cut products are consumed raw unlike cooked products, which
are thermally processed.
278 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

• wounded surfaces pose additional risks of contamination and growth


of microorganisms and subsequent degradation.
• fresh-cut products contain no preservatives which will guarantee
their safety.
Texture, color, aroma and sweetness are critical factors limiting the
shelf life of fresh-cut products. Fresh-cut processing promotes faster dete-
rioration of fruit and vegetable tissues in comparison with their intact
counterparts.

7.5 TRENDS IN PRESERVING QUALITY AND ENSURING


MICROBIOLOGICAL SAFETY OF FRESH CUT PRODUCE

The fragile nature of fresh cut fruits and vegetables in addition to their
increasing popularity has resulted in the surge of research in this field
development of new technologies to at least maintain, if not improve, the
quality of fresh cut products for longer duration. Few approaches to pre-
serve the quality of fresh cut produce presently under extensive research
include modified atmosphere packaging (Bai et al., 2001), surface treat-
ments through application of coatings (Bai and Baldwan, 2002), irradia-
tion (Xanthopoulos et al., 2012) and others.

7.5.1 MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING

Modified atmosphere packaging is a method of packaging aimed at increas-


ing the shelf life foods with minimal loss of quality. In modified atmo-
spheric packaging, the composition of air surrounding the packaged food
is changed in order to slow down the deterioration of the product. Modified
atmosphere packaging is a potential preservative technique which can be
effectively used for various foods which, when packed, influence the mix-
ture of gases inside the package (Sandhya, 2010). Interaction between rate
of respiration of the product and transfer of gases through the packag-
ing material help in achieving the modified atmosphere condition within
the package (Caleb et al., 2012). Fruits and vegetables are metabolically
active products which continue to respire till senescence and can change
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 279

the composition of surrounding atmosphere if packed hermetically. The


rate of respiration for most of the fresh cut fruits and vegetables is more
than the intact ones, making modified atmosphere packaging a technique
of choice for preserving quality and increasing shelf life of such products
(Kader and Watkins, 2000).
Modified atmosphere packaging is passive when the product is sealed
with natural air inside and the change of gaseous composition to the
desired levels within the package is relied upon the product respiration.
Establishment of equilibrium gaseous state within the package takes time
in passive modified atmosphere package depending upon respiration rate
and film permeability characteristics. In active modified atmosphere pack-
aging, gas flushing or gas replacement or use of gas scavenging agents
helps in achieving the desired gas composition within the package.
Excessive accumulation of gases (CO2 or O2), which can occur in passive
modified atmosphere packaging, can be detrimental to the quality of fresh
cut produce and their accumulation can be minimized with the help of CO2
and O2 scavengers.
Many factors that influence modified atmosphere packaging include
film thickness and surface area, product weight, free space within the
pack and temperature (Caleb et al., 2012). Different types of packaging
materials used for modified atmosphere packaging are flexible pack-
ages, rigid containers, engineered oxygen transmission rate (OTR) poly-
mers, microperforated materials, or a combination of these. Selection
of a packaging material for a specific product depends on various fac-
tors like product type, product quantity, market application, package
dimensions, stiffness, graphics, marketing, cost, environmental impact,
reusability (Toivonen et al., 2009). The physical properties, chemical
properties and gas transmission rate are specific for different packag-
ing materials and for packaging of fresh cut fruits and vegetables, gas
transmission rate especially O2 transmission rate and CO2 transmission
rate are important attributes.
Modified atmosphere packaging has been reported to increase the
shelf life of fresh cut products (Table 7.3). The prolonging of shelf life
of any fresh cut product can be achieved by reduction in respiration
rate, decrease in ethylene biosynthesis and action, preventing microbial
growth and contamination, and delaying of senescence. Reduction of
280 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 7.3 Modified Atmosphere Storage of Different Fresh Cut Products


Fresh cut MAP Conditions Days of References
Product Storage
Antichoke 5 kPaO2, 15 kPaCO2, 5˚C 4 Ghidelli et al. (2015)
Apple 0 kPaO2, 4˚C 21 Soliva-Fortuiny et al.
(2001)
1 kPaO2, 30–35 kPaCO2, 28 Aguayo et al. (2010)
4˚C
Butterhead lettuce 80 kPaO2, 10–20 kPaCO2, 5 Escalona et al. (2006)
1˚C
Carrot 5% O2, 5% CO2, 2°C 13 Alasalvar et al.
(2005)
Jackfruit 3% O2, 5% CO2, 6°C 35 Saxena et al. (2008)
Kiwifruit 90% N2O, 5% O2, 5% CO2, 12 Rocculi et al. (2005)
4˚C
Lotus roots 8.7% O2, 6.9% CO2, 4˚C 8 Xing et al. (2010)
Mango 21 kPa O2, 0.03 kPaCO2, 7 Beaulieu and Lea
4˚C (2003)
Melon 70% O2, 30% N2, 5°C 10–14 Oms-Oliu et al.
(2008)
Mushroom 10–20% O2, 2.5% CO2, 4˚C 12 Simon et al. (2005)
Pear 2.5% O2, 7% CO2, 4°C 14 Oms-Oliu et al.
(2008)
Pepper 5 kPaO2, 5 kPaCO2, 5˚C 7–10 Rodoni et al. (2015)
Pineapple 8% O2, 10% CO2, 0˚C 14 Marrero and Kader
(2005)
Pomegranate arils 6.5% O2, 11.4% CO2, 5˚C 10 Palma et al. (2009)
Tomato 3 kPa O2, 4 kPa CO2, 0˚C 14 Aguayo et al. (2004)

O2 and increase in CO2 levels under modified atmosphere conditions


effectively reduce the respiration rate and control ethylene biosynthesis.
As far as microbial contamination of fresh cut products is concerned,
the effect of modified atmosphere packaging is diverse and depend
upon microbial species, fresh cut produce type and storage condition
(Wang et al., 2004). The conditions commonly applied in modified atmo-
sphere packaging for fresh cut produce do not have biocidal effects on
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 281

microorganisms but it can affect the rate of growth of different species.


An increase in shelf life of fresh cut products using modified atmosphere
packaging can only be achieved if it has been appropriately designed and
can successfully reduce enzymatic browning, respiration rate, moisture
loss, and some microbial growth.

7.5.2 EDIBLE COATINGS

Edible coatings are the surface treatments, using edible materials, given
to a food product that coats the outer surface of the product and provides
a barrier to moisture, oxygen, and solute movement for the food (Dhall,
2013). Being edible in nature these coatings are derived from natural
sources and thus are environmental friendly. As per the basic material
used in the formulation, the coatings may be classified into three broad
categories; polysaccharide, protein or lipid based. In order to achieve
maximum desired properties in a single coating a combination of these
basic coating might also be used which are known as composite coat-
ings. The important polysaccharides that can be used in formulation of
coatings include starches, dextrin, pectin, cellulose and its derivatives,
chitosan, alginate, carrageenan, gellan and so on. Similarly proteins
like gluten, collagen, zein, casein, and whey protein, and lipids like car-
nauba wax, beeswax waxes, acylglycerols or fatty acids also possess
the desired properties and can be developed into effective coatings. Use
of edible coatings on fresh cut produce will only be successful if the
coating material possesses certain properties including efficient water
vapor barrier capacity, stability under high relative humidity, efficient
oxygen and carbon dioxide barrier capacity, good mechanical proper-
ties, easy adhesion with product, physico-chemical and microbial sta-
bility and reasonable cost. The application of edible coating on fresh
cut produce can serve many purposes including reduce water loss, delay
ripening of climacteric fruits, delay color changes, improve appearance,
reduce aroma loss, reduce exchange of humidity between fruit pieces,
act as carriers of antioxidants, texture enhancers, volatile precursors,
nutraceuticals, reduce quality losses and extend the shelf life of these
products. The use of edible coating isolates the coated product from the
282 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

environment, giving an effect similar to that of modified atmosphere


packaging (Olivas and Barbosa-Canovas, 2005). Many studies have
reported encouraging results on use of edible coatings in fresh cut pro-
duce and few of them are depicted in Table 7.4.

TABLE 7.4 Edible Coatings Applied to Different Fresh Cut Products


Type of coating Fresh cut product References
Polysaccharide Jackfruit bulbs Saxena et al. (2011)
based Apple Banasaz et al. (2013); Pan et al. (2013);
Chauhan et al. (2011)
Kiwifruit Benitez et al. (2013)
Garlic cloves Geraldine et al. (2008)
Cantaloupe Krasaekoopt & Mabumrung (2008);
Martinon et al. (2014)
Melon Oms-Oliu et al. (2008); Raybaudi-Massilia
et al. (2008)
Watermelon Sipahi et al. (2013)
Papaya Gonzalez-Aguilar et al. (2009); Brasil et al.
(2012); Tapia et al. (2008)
Broccoli Moreira et al. (2011)
Mango Nongtaodum & Jangchud (2009); Chien et al.
(2007); Chiumarelli et al. (2011)
Pear Ochoa-velasco & Guerrero-Beltran (2014);
Xiao et al. (2011); Mohamed et al. (2013)
Carrot Vargas et al. (2009), Costa et al. (2012)
Banana Bico et al. (2009)
Pineapple Azarakhsh et al. (2012); Bierhals et al. (2011);
Protein based Apple Ghavidel et al. (2013)
Papaya Cortez-Vega et al. (2014)
Composite Pineapples Mantilla et al. (2013)
Papaya Brasil et al. (2012)
Apple Perez-Gagoa et al. (2005); Perez-Gagoa et al.
(2006)
Cantaloupe Martinon et al. (2014)
Lipid based Apple Khan et al. (2014)
Fresh-Cut Produce: Advances in Preserving Quality and Ensuring Safety 283

KEYWORDS

•• Fresh Cut Microbiology


•• Fresh-Cut Produce
•• Microbiological Safety
•• Physiological Response
•• Quality Preservation
•• Shelf Life

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CHAPTER 8

POSTHARVEST PATHOLOGY,
DETERIORATION AND SPOILAGE
OF HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE
S. M. YAHAYA
Department of Biology, Kano University of Science and Technology,
Wudil, P.M.B. 3244, Nigeria, E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

8.1 Introduction................................................................................... 292


8.1.1 Importance of Postharvest Diseases.................................. 293
8.2 The Postharvest Pathogens........................................................... 294
8.2.2 How Pathogens Attack Plants?.......................................... 294
8.2.3 Postharvest Spoilage causing Pathogens........................... 295
8.2.3.1 Yeast................................................................... 298
8.2.3.2 Mold................................................................... 299
8.2.3.3 Bacteria.............................................................. 301
8.3 Factors Affecting Food Spoilage and Shelf Life........................... 302
8.3.1 Vegetables.......................................................................... 303
8.3.2 Fruits and Juices................................................................ 303
8.4 Control of Postharvest Spoilage Pathogens.................................. 304
8.4.1 Management of Mycotoxins Contamination..................... 305
8.4.1.1 Preharvest Control.............................................. 305
8.4.1.2 Postharvest Control............................................ 306
8.5 Conclusion.................................................................................... 307
292 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Keywords............................................................................................... 308
References.............................................................................................. 308

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Pathogenic micro-organisms account for substantial losses of grains,


fruits, and vegetables at both pre- and postharvest stages of crop produc-
tion. Narayanasamy (2006) emphasized that “the responsibilities of the
plant pathologist do not end with the harvest of satisfactory yields of
plant products and that harvesting marks the termination of one phase of
plant protection and the beginning of another.” This clearly indicates that
the second phase of plant protection—of seeds, fruits, vegetables, and
other economic plant parts from the time of harvest until they reach the
consumer—is equally important. Postharvest pathology, earlier termed
“market pathology,” deals with the science of, and practices for the pro-
tection of harvested produce during harvesting, packaging, transporting,
processing, storing and distribution (Doyle, 2007).
Previous researches have reported post-harvest losses occurring
between harvest and subsequent utilization of the agricultural produce by
the consumers as enormous, yet accurate record of losses is not available
(Yahaya and Alao, 2008; Siddiqui, 2015, 2016). The agricultural produce
are generally divided into: (i) durable crops which include grain legume,
cereal grains, and oilseeds; (ii) perishable crops which consist of succu-
lent storage organs which include fleshy fruits, rhizomes, vegetables and
tubers. The harvested produce are mainly dormant plant organs which has
physiological functions entirely different from the tissues of the mother
plant. Generally the susceptibility of the stored agricultural produce to
deterioration caused by microorganism increases at ripening/senescence
stage (Siddiqui et al., 2016). Therefore, storage could be regarded as an
abnormal state for organs of a living plant, which requires overcrowding
of large volume of agricultural produce in intimate contact in a limited
space. These unfavorable conditions will predispose the produce to vari-
ous types of diseases, which may occur due to pathogenic or physiological
causes (Doyle, 2007).
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 293

8.1.1 IMPORTANCE OF POSTHARVEST DISEASES

Generally there is a wide spread spoilage of agricultural produce perish-


able and durables due to the activities of post-harvest diseases caused by
pathogens. Higher losses of agricultural produce are recorded in devel-
oping countries due to in adequate storage facilities and handling meth-
ods causing high level of injury or wound at harvest and transit. The
durable agricultural produce are generally stored in a dry state with level
of moisture not exceeding 12%, however, the perishable produce have
high level of moisture which may reach 50% or more at storage time.
Therefore, the harvested produce might have already been infected dur-
ing time of transit and storage. It is therefore, estimated that, in the trop-
ics, about 25% of harvested perishables crops are lost at the time interval
between harvest and consumption. In general losses of durable produce
such as oilseeds, cereals and pulses are about 10% on a worldwide basis
(Waller, 2002). These losses include both quantitative and qualitative
(Table 8.1).
Under favorable condition, post-harvest losses due to pathogenic attack
may be higher than economic gains achieved by improvements of primary
production. Many researches on post-harvest diseases are essentially aimed
at preventing economic loss from spoilage of harvested effects of mycotoxins
produce by pathogenic fungi contaminating both perishables and durables.
Mycotoxins are generally known to be carcinogenic, responsible for many
serious ailments in humans and animals (Narayanasamy, 2002) (Table 8.2).

TABLE 8.1 Assessment of Losses Caused by Postharvest Diseases in Nigeria


Crop Loss(%)
Tomato 20–60
Pepper 10–35
Cabbage 37
Carrot 20–25
Onion 15–20
Citrus 20–25
Okro 20
*Source Alao (2000).
294 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 8.2 Some Estimates of Production and Losses of Selected Commodities in


Developing Country (Philippines, 2008)
Crop Production Production Percentage Loss Loss Value ($)
(m. tons) Value ($)
Fruits 2,763,443 403,909,220 28.1 113,498,490
Vegetables 1, 640, 541 248, 564, 310 42. 2 104,894,130
Total 4,403,984 652,473,530 — 218,392,620
*Source: FAO Corporate document Repository (2009).

Studies by Alao (2000) reported that the long chain and complex mar-
keting system of agricultural produce between the producers and consum-
ers make it very difficult to determine accurate level of losses of many
crops in Nigeria. He therefore, concluded that Nigeria justified it inclusion
in the list of poor countries because food security rating is very low and
not guaranteed in Nigeria. Report by FAO (2009) showed that agricultural
produce in Nigerian were not been able to meet world standard due to
poor post-harvest handling. Therefore, this necessitated the need to gather
eases, conditions which favor diseases development, and other methods
of developing more effective systems of disease’s control, so as to reduce
cost and increases availability.

8.2 THE POSTHARVEST PATHOGENS

8.2.2 HOW PATHOGENS ATTACK PLANTS?

Pathogens attack plants because during their evolutionary development,


they acquired the ability to live off the substances manufactured by the
host plants, and some of the pathogens depend on these substances for
survival (Agrios, 1999). Many substances are contained in the proto-
plast of the cells; however, if pathogens are to gain access to them, they
must first penetrate the outer barriers formed by the cuticle and/or cell
walls. Even after the outer cell wall has been penetrated, further invasion
of the plant by the pathogen necessitates the penetration of more cell
walls. Furthermore, the plant cell contents are not always found in forms
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 295

immediately utilizable by pathogens and must be broken down to units


that the pathogen can absorb and assimilate. Moreover, the plant, react-
ing to the presence and activities of the pathogen; if the pathogen is to
survive and to continue living off the plant, it must be able to overcome
such obstacles.
Therefore, for a pathogen to infect a plant it must be able to make its
into and through the plant, obtain nutrients from the plant, and neutralize
the defense reactions through secretions of chemical substances that affect
certain or metabolic mechanisms of their hosts. Penetration and inversion,
however, seem to be aided by, or in some cases be entirely the results of,
the mechanical force exerted by certain pathogens on the cell walls of the
plant.

8.2.3 POSTHARVEST SPOILAGE CAUSING PATHOGENS

There are thousands of genera and species of pathogenic microorganism.


Several hundred are associated, in one-way or another, with food products
(Agrios, 1999). The pathogens that are principally involved in food deteri-
oration are yeast, mold and bacteria. Mold and bacteria causing postharvest
diseases usually can attack healthy, living tissue, which they disintegrate
and cause to rot. Often, however, other mold and bacteria follow them and
live saprophytically on the tissues already killed and macerated by the for-
mer. Many of the postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables, grains and
legumes are the results of infections by pathogens in the field. Symptoms
from “field infections” may be too inconspicuous to be noticed at harvest.
In fleshy fruits and vegetables, field infections continue to develop after
harvest, whereas in grains and legumes, they cease to develop soon after
harvest. In fleshy fruits and vegetable’s new infections may be caused in
storage by the same or other pathogens, whereas in grains and legume’s
storage infections are usually caused by pathogens other than those caus-
ing field infections (Doyle, 2007) (Table 8.3).
Postharvest diseases caused by yeast, mold and bacteria are favored
greatly by high moisture and high temperatures. However, except where
these microorganisms are especially cultivated by selective inoculation or
by controlled conditions to favor their growth over that of less desirable
296 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

TABLE 8.3 Some Important Food Crops and their Principal Diseases
Crop Fungal Viral Nematode Bacterial
Tomato Botrytis cinerea
Lycopersicon Aspergillus spp
esculentum Penicillium spp
Pepper Botrytis cinerea
capsicum Aspergillus spp
annum Alternaria alternate
Lettuce Botrytis cinerea
Lactuca Aspergillus spp
sativa
Pea pisum Mosaic virus,
sativa Ascochyta spp

Carrot Alternaria dauci


Daucus
carrota
Beans Xanthomonas
Phaseolus campestris,
spp Psedomonas
syringe
Millet
Common Downy
millet mildew:
(Panicum Sclerospora
miliaceum) graminicola
Finger millet Blast: Pyricularia
(Eleusine setariae
coracana)
Leaf blight:
Cochliobolus
nodulosus
Maize (Zea Northern corn Chlorotic Stewart’s Downy
mays) leaf blight: dwarf: maize wilt: Erwinia mildew:
Helminthosporium chlorotic stewartii Sclerospora
turcicum dwarf spp. and
(Setosphaeria turcica) machlovirus others
Southern corn leaf Streak: maize Corn stunt
blight: H. maydis streak Gemini disease:
(Cochliobolus virus Spiroplasma
heterostrophus) kunkelii
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 297

TABLE 8.3 Continued


Crop Fungal Viral Nematode Bacterial
Rust: Puccinia spp. Yellow dwarf:
barley yellow
dwarf luteo
virus
Smut: Ustilago zeae
Stalk and ear rots:
Gibberella zeae,
Diplodia spp. and
others
Sweet potato Scab: Sphaceloma Feathery Root-knot Soil rot:
(Ipomoea batatas (Elsino mottle: sweet nematode: Streptomyces
batatas) batatas) potato feathery Meloidogyne ipomoea
mottle spp.
potyvirus
Fusarium wilt: Little leaf:
Fusarium oxysporum sweet potato
little leaf
phytoplasma
Black rot:
Ceratocystis
fimbriata
Java black rot:
Botryodiplodia
theobromae
*Source: Narayanasamy, et al. (2006).

types, microorganism multiplication on or in foods is a major cause of


food deterioration. The microorganisms will attack virtually all food con-
stituents. Some will ferment sugars and hydrolyze starches and cellulose.
Others will hydrolyze fats and produce rancidity. Still others will digest
proteins and produce putrid and ammonia-like odors. Some will form acid
and make food sour. Others will produce gas and make food foamy. Some
will form pigments, and a few will produce toxins and give rise to food-
borne illnesses. When food is contaminated under natural conditions, sev-
eral types of organisms will be present together. Such mixed organisms
contribute to a complex of simultaneous or sequential changes, which may
include acid, gas, putrefaction, and discoloration (Doyle, 2007).
298 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

8.2.3.1 Yeast

Yeast is a subset of a large group of organisms called fungi that also


includes molds and mushrooms. They are generally single –celled
organisms that are adapted for life in specialized, usually liquid, envi-
ronments, and, unlike some molds and mushroom’s yeast, do not pro-
duce toxic secondary metabolites. Yeast can grow with or without
oxygen (facultative) and are well-known for their beneficial fermen-
tations that produce bread and alcoholic drinks. They often colonize
foods with a high sugar or salt content. Fruits and juices with a lowpH
are another target (Kurtzman, 2006). There are four main groups of
spoilage yeast:
(a) Zygosaccharomyces and related genera tolerate high sugar
and high salt concentrations and are the usual spoilage organ-
isms in foods such as honey, dried fruit, jams and soy sauce.
They usually grow slowly, producing off-odors and flavors and
carbon dioxide that may cause food containers to swell and
burst. Debaryomyces hansenii can grow at salt concentrations
as high as 24%, accounting for its frequent isolation from salt
brines used for cured meats, cheese, and olives. This group also
includes the most important spoilage organisms in salad dress-
ings (Campos et al., 2003).
(b) Saccharomyces spp. are best known for their role in production
of bread and wine but some strains also spoil wines and other bev-
erages by producing gassiness, turbidity and off-flavors associ-
ated with hydrogen sulfide and acetic acid. Some species grow on
fruits, including yogurt-containing fruit and some are resistant to
heat processing (Malfeito-Ferreira, 2003).
(c) Candida and related genera are heterogeneous group of yeasts,
some of which also cause human infections. They are involved in
spoilage of fruits, some vegetables and dairy products (Casey, 2003).
(d) Dekkera/Brettanomyces are principally involved in spoilage of
fermented foods, including beverages and some dairy products.
They can produce volatile phenolic compounds responsible for off-
flavor (Hogg et al., 2003).
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 299

8.2.3.2 Mold

Molds are filamentous fungi that do not produce large fruiting bodies.
Molds are very important for recycling dead plant and animals remains
in nature but also attacks a wide variety of foods. Mold is larger than
bacteria and yeast and more complex in structure (Chang and Kang,
2004). Majority of postharvest diseases causing mold belong to the class
Ascomycetes. They are well adapted for growth on and through solid sub-
stances, generally produce airborne spores, and require oxygen for their
metabolic processes. Most molds grow at a pH range of 3 to 8 and some
can grow at very low water activity levels (0.7–0.8) on dried foods. Spores
can tolerate hash environmental conditions but most are sensitive to heat
treatment. An exception is Byssochlammys, whose spores have a D value
of 1–12 min at 90°C. Different mold species have different optimal growth
temperatures, with some able to grow in refrigerators. They have a diverse
secondary metabolism. Some spoilage molds are carcinogenic while oth-
ers are not (Chang and Kang, 2004). Spoilage molds can be categorized
into four groups:
(a) Zygomycetes are considered relatively primitive fungi but are
widespread in nature, growing rapidly on simple carbon source
in soil and plant debris, and their spores are commonly present in
indoor air. Generally, they required high-water activities for growth
and are notorious for causing rots in a variety of stored fruits and
vegetables, including strawberries and sweet potatoes. Some com-
mon bread molds also are Zygomycetes. Some Zygomycetes are
also utilized for production of fermented soy products, enzymes, and
organic chemicals. The most common spoilage species are Mucor
and Rhizopus. Zygomycetes are not known for producing mycotox-
ins but there are some reports of toxic compounds produced by a few
species (Doyle, 2007).
(b) Penicillium and related genera are present in soils and plant
debries both tropical and Antarctic conditions but tend to domi-
nate spoilage in temperate regions. They are distinguished by their
reproductive structures that produce chains of conidia. Although
they can be useful to humans in producing antibiotics and blue
300 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

cheese, many species are important spoilage organisms, and some


produce potent mycotoxins (patulin, ochratoxin, citreoviridin,
penitrem). Penicillium spp. Cause visible rots on citrus, pear, and
apple fruits and causes enormous losses in these crops. They also
spoil other fruits and vegetables, including cereals. Some spe-
cies can attack refrigerated and processed foods such as jams and
margarine.
(c) Aspergillus and related molds generally grow faster and more resis-
tant to high temperatures and low water activity than Penicillium
spp. and tend to dominate spoilage in warmer climates. Many
Aspergilli produce mycotoxins: aflatoxins, ochratoxin, territrems,
cyclopiazonic acid. Aspergilli spoil a wide variety of food and non-
food items (paper, leather, etc.) but are probably best known for
spoilage of perishables, grains, dried beans, peanuts, tree nuts, and
some spices.
(d) Botrytis cinerea is the causal agent of the postharvest disease
called gray mold. Grey mold is one of the most common and
destructive diseases of green house and outdoor crops. B. cinerea
can infect over 230 crops (Govrin and Levine, 2000; Zhao et al.,
2009) and is estimated to cause greater economic loss of orna-
mentals and vegetables than any other disease (Samir and Amnon,
2007). B. cinerea appear as blossom blights, fruit rots as well as
damping off, stem cankers or rots, leaf spots and tuber, corn bulb
and root rots. Grey mold can be a serious problem during both
short and long term storage and subsequent shipment of most
types of horticultural produce, (Agrios 1997). Williamson et al.
(2007) consider B. cinerea as the most widely distributed disease
of vegetables, ornamentals fruits and field crops throughout the
world.
Other molds, belonging to several genera, have been isolated from
spoiled food. These generally are not major causes of spoilage but can be a
problem for some foods. Fusarium spp. Causes plant diseases and produce
several important mycotoxins but are not important spoilage organisms.
However, their mycotoxins may be present in harvested grains and pose
a health risk (Agrios, 1999).
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 301

8.2.3.3 Bacteria

Bacteria are unicellular microorganisms of many forms, although three


principal shapes of the individual cells predominate. These are the spheri-
cal shape represented by several forms of cocci, the rod shape of the bacilli,
and spiral forms possessed by the spirilla. Some bacteria produce spores,
which are remarkably resistant to heat, chemicals and other more adverse
conditions. Bacterial spores are far more resistant than yeast or mold
spores. And more resistant to most processing conditions than natural food
enzymes. All bacteria associated with foods are small. Most are of the order
of one to a few microns in cell length and somewhat smaller than this in
diameter. (A micron is one-thousandth of a millimeter (0.001 mm) or about
0.00004 inches). Postharvest spoilage causing bacteria can be grouped into
the followings:
(a) Spore-forming bacteria are usually associated with spoilage
of heat-treated foods because their spores can survive high pro-
cessing temperatures. These Gram-positive bacteria may be strict
anaerobes or facultative (capable of growth with or without oxy-
gen). Some spore-formers are thermophilic, preferring growth
at high temperatures (as high as 53°C). Some anaerobic thermo-
philes produces hydrogen sulfide (Desulfotomaculum) and others
produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide (Thermoanaerobacterium)
during growth on canned/hermetically sealed foods kept at high
temperatures, Other thermophiles, (Bacillus and Geobacillus spp.)
cause a flat sour spoilage of high or low pH canned foods with lit-
tle or no gas production (Pepe et al., 2003). Mesophilic anaerobes,
growing at ambient temperature causes, several types of spoilage
of vegetables (Bacillus spp.): putrefaction of canned products,
early blowing of species, and butyric acid production in canned
vegetables and fruits (Clostridium spp.) and ‘medicinal’ flavors
in canned low-acid foods (Alicylobacillus) (Chang and Kang,
2004). Psychrotolerant sporeformers produce gas and sickly odors
in chilled meats and brine-cured hams (Clostridium spp.) while
others produce off-odors and gas in vacuum-packed, chilled foods
and milk (Bacillus spp.).
302 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

(b) Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are group of Gram-positive bacteria,


including species of Lacto-bacillus, Psdiococcus, Leuconostoc and
Oenococcus, some of which are useful in producing fermented
foods such as yogurt and pickles. However, under low oxygen, low
temperature, and acidic conditions, these bacteria become the pre-
dominant spoilage organisms on a variety of foods. Undesirable
changes caused by LAB include gas formation in cheeses (blow-
ing), pickles (bloater damage), and canned or package vegetables.
LAB may also produce large amounts of an exopolysaccharide that
causes ropy spoilage in some beverages (Doyle, 2007).
(c) Pseudomonas and related genera are aerobic, Gram-negative soil
bacteria, some of which can degrade a wide variety of unusual com-
pounds. They generally require a high-water activity for growth
(0.95 or higher) and are inhibited by pH values less than 5.4. Some
species grow at refrigeration temperatures (Psychrophilic) while
others are adapted for growth at warmer, ambient temperatures.
Four species of Pseudomonas (P. fluorescens, P. fragi, P. lundensis,
and P. viridiflava), Shewanella putrefaciens, and xanthomonas
campestris are the main food spoilage organisms in this group. Soft
rots of plant-derived foods occur when pectins that hold adjacent
plant cells together are degraded by pectic lyse enzymes secreted
by Campestris, P. fluorescens and P. viridiflava. These two species
of Pseudomonas comprises up to 40% of the naturally-occurring
bacteria on the surface of fruits and vegetables and cause nearly
half of post-harvest rot of fresh produce stored at cools tempera-
tures (Fonnesbech Vogel et al., 2005).
(d) Entrobacteriaceae are Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic bacte-
ria that include a number of spoilage organisms. These bacteria are
wide spread in nature in soil, on plant surfaces. Erwinia carotovora
is one of the most important bacteria causing soft rot of vegetables
in the field or stored at ambient temperatures (Rasch et al., 2005).

8.3 FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SPOILAGE AND SHELF LIFE

Foods by their nature are rich in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids that
microbes as well as humans find very nutritious. Living plants have
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 303

structures and chemical defenses to prevent microbial colonization, but


once they are harvested, dead or in a dormant state, these systems deterio-
rate and become less effective. Many different microbes may potentially
be able to use the nutrients in a food, but some species have a competitive
advantage under certain conditions (Pitt and Hocking, 2007). Different
food categories present different challenges for inhibition of spoilage
pathogens.

8.3.1 VEGETABLES

Vegetables are a very good source of nutrients for spoilage pathogens


because of their near neutral pH and high-water activity. Although vegeta-
bles are exposed to a multitude of soil microbes, not all of these can attack
plants and some spoilage microbes are not common in soil, for example,
lactic acid bacteria. Most spoilage losses are not due to microorganisms
that cause plant diseases but rather to bacteria and mold that take advan-
tage of mechanical and chilling damage to plant surfaces. Some microbes
are found in only a few types of vegetables while others are widespread.
Botrytis cinerea and Erwinia carotovora are the most common spoilage
pathogenic fungi and bacterium respectively and has been detected in vir-
tually every kind of vegetables (Tournas, 2005).
Bacterial spoilage first causes softening of tissues as pectins are degraded
and the whole vegetables may eventually degenerate into a slimy mass.
Starches and sugars are metabolized next, and unpleasant odors and flavors
develop along with lactic acid and ethanol. Besides carotovora, several
Pseudomonas spp. and lactic acid bacteria are important spoilage bacteria.
Molds belonging to several genera, including Rhizopus, Alternaria,
and Botrytis, causes a number of vegetables rots described by their color,
texture, or acidic products. The higher moisture content of vegetables as
compared to grains allows different fungi to proliferate, but some species
of Aspergillus attack onions (Chang and Kang, 2004).

8.3.2 FRUITS AND JUICES

Intact, healthy fruits have many microbes on their surfaces but can usu-
ally inhibit their growth until after harvest. Ripening weakens cell walls
304 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

and decreases the amounts of antifungal chemicals in fruits, and physi-


cal damage during harvesting causes breaks in outer protective layers of
fruits that spoilage organisms can exploit. Molds are tolerant to acidic
conditions and low water activity and are involved in spoilage of citrus
fruits, apple, pears, and other fruits. Penicillium, Botrytis, and Rhizopus
are frequently isolated from spoiled fruits (Calho et al., 2007). Yeast and
some bacteria, including Erwinia and Xanthomonas, can also spoil some
fruits and these may particularly be a problem for fresh cut packaged fruits
(Ngarmsak et al., 2006).
Fruits juices generally have relatively high levels of sugar and a low
pH and this favors growth of yeast, molds and some acid-tolerant bac-
teria. Spoilage may be manifested as surface pellicles or fibrous mats or
molds, cloudiness, and off-flavors. Saccharomyces and Zygosaccharomyces
are resistant to thermal processing and are found in some spoiled juices
(Fitzgerald et al., 2004). Aliccyclobacillus spp., an acidophilic and ther-
mophilic spore-forming bacteria, has emerged as an important spoilage
microbe, causing a smoky taint and other off-flavors in pasteurized juices
(Chang and Kang, 2004).

8.4 CONTROL OF POSTHARVEST SPOILAGE PATHOGENS

Microbial pathogens, depending on their pathogenic potential (virulence),


the level of susceptibility/resistance of crop cultivar, and the existence
of favorable environmental conditions, may cause losses of marketable
produce to a varying extent. In order to counter the adverse effects of
microbial pathogens, one or more strategies for disease management
that are compatible with each other have to be evaluated. Different dis-
eases management strategies that have to provide more effective dis-
ease control than that possible with a single approach (Narayanasamy,
2002). Many economically important crop diseases have been managed
by integrating various strategies, such as crop sanitation, certification,
crop rotation (crop sequence), adoption of suitable planting/sowing date,
and use of resistant cultivars, with nominal use of fungicides or other
chemicals. Acknowledge of pathogen biology and ecology, source of
inoculum, and epidemiological factors and storage conditions favoring
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 305

disease incidence and spread may be useful in selecting and integrat-


ing suitable strategies for the effective management of the postharvest
diseases of both durable and perishable commodities (Narayanasamy,
2002).

8.4.1 MANAGEMENT OF MYCOTOXINS CONTAMINATION

Seed microflora may comprise both beneficial and harmful microorgan-


isms. However, the adverse effects caused by seed-borne fungal and
bacterial pathogens outweigh the usefulness of beneficial microbes. In
addition to failure of seed germination, reduction in seedling vigor, and
seed deterioration caused by pathogens, production of mycotoxins by
some fungal pathogens and contamination of foods and feeds have been
the cause of concern, due to the possible health hazards. As mycotox-
ins contamination is unavoidable and unpredictable, it poses a unique
challenge to food safety (FAO, 2009). The quality and safety of feeds
is of vital importance to ensure that markets are not compromised by
the distribution and sale of poor quality or unsafe food. Development
of integrated system of management is considered to be the most effec-
tive approach to meet the risk associated with mycotoxins contamina-
tion. The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control (HACCP) approach
identifies, evaluates and controls hazards that are significant for food
safety. It is a structured, systematic approach for control of food safety
throughout the commodity system, from the ‘seed to spoon’ (Wareing,
1999). Mycotoxins production and contaminations may be contained by
taking measures during pre- and postharvest stage. The control param-
eters include various factors, such as time of harvesting, temperature
and moisture during storage, selection of agricultural products prior to
processing, decontamination conditions, addition of chemicals and final
products storage (Lopez-Garcia et al., 2004).

8.4.1.1 Preharvest Control

The first step in ensuring a postharvest control and safe final products
is prevention through preharvest control. Some seeds are contaminated
306 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

with mycotoxins in the field. If the infections occur in the field, as in the
case of wheat, barley, and corn, the fungal pathogens (Fusarium spp.)
will continued to develop during postharvest stages and storage. Myco-
toxins, such as fumonisin B1, are invariably produced preharvest.
Aflatoxins may be produced both pre- and postharvest. Drying the seed
to a safe water activity level is one to 14% for maize and 9.5% for
groundnuts at 20°C it is possible to reduce the growth of Aspergillus
flavus (Wareing, 1999).
Insect infestation of seed results in greater level of damaged kernels,
favoring higher incidence of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Hence, control
of insect infestation may help prevent proliferation of Aspergillus spp.
and aflatoxins production. Proper disposal of infected crop residues
that may form the source of inoculum for infection of the next crop and
adoption of a proper crop sequence (rotation) have been suggested to
reduce infection by fungi producing mycotoxins. A maize-soybean rota-
tion may result in a reduction in the incidence of Fusarium spp com-
pared to monoculture of maize. Soil fertility and drought stress appear
to have some influence on the level of preharvest aflatoxins contamina-
tion of maize. Drought followed by high moisture conditions has been
found to be favorable for the development of Fusarium moniliforme
and fumonism production. Development of cultivars resistant to toxi-
genic fungal pathogens may be the ideal approach for the management
of mycotoxin contaminations. Some investigations have indicated the
possibility of producing wheat and corn cultivars with resistance to the
pathogens producing mycotoxins.

8.4.1.2 Postharvest Control

Factors such as timeliness, clean-up, and drying to maintain safe levels are
important during harvesting. As crops left on the field for longer periods
shows higher levels of mycotoxins contamination, it is essential to harvest
the crops at the right time, followed by adequate drying, for mycotoxins
decontamination, biological methods have been explored (Siddiqui, 2016).
The possibility of degrading aflatoxins using certain fungi, which produce
peroxidases was reported by Lopez-Garcia and Park (1998). Among the
Postharvest Pathology, Deterioration and Spoilage 307

several chemicals evaluated for their ability to inactivate and reduce the
hazard of mycotoxins, ammonification has been shown to be an effective
process. Aflatoxin’s contamination in maize, peanuts, and cotton could be
significantly reduced by the ammonification process (Lopez-Garcia and
Park, 1998).
Due to the unpredictable and heterogeneous nature of mycotoxins
production and contamination, it may not be possible to achieve 100%
destruction of all mycotoxins in all food systems. However, it is consid-
ered that the use of HACCP-based hurdle system, in which contamination
is monitored and controlled throughout production and postproduction
operations, may be effective. The development of suitable integrated
mycotoxins management systems may control at points from the field to
the consumer (Lopez-Garcia et al., 2004).

8.5 CONCLUSION

The importance of postharvest microbial pathogens yeast, fungi, and


bacteria with potential to inflict substantial quantitative and qualita-
tive losses of harvested produce has been recognized. Various strate-
gies have been found to be effective at varying levels under range of
conditions, which interact with each other and in many cases control is
achieved through the less expensive, but very effective biological and
cultural control methods. Chemical control offers the best choice but
unfortunately this cannot be used at the time when the produce is ready
for consumption, since this is the most susceptible stage of the host to
the pathogen. In addition, chemicals are expensive, and excessive use
results in pathogen resistance rendering them less effective, and they can
be detrimental to the environment. Therefore, host resistance remains
the most cost effective method for managing postharvest spoilage and
deterioration of food. However, for this to be achieved, it is necessary
to have a good understanding of the host defense mechanisms against
the pathogen. Also better understanding of the epidemiology of the most
common postharvest pathogen is needed to effectively tackle important
stages in their life cycles.
308 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

KEYWORDS

•• Food Spoilage
•• Horticultural Produce
•• Postharvest Pathology
•• Quality preservation
•• Safety measures
•• Shelf Life
•• Spoilage Pathogens

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CHAPTER 9

NATURAL ANTIMICROBIALS IN
POSTHARVEST STORAGE AND
MINIMAL PROCESSING OF FRUITS
AND VEGETABLES
MUNIR ABBA DANDAGO
Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture
and Agricultural Technology, Kano University of Science and
Technology, Wudil, Kano State, Nigeria

CONTENTS

9.1 Introduction................................................................................... 312


9.2 New Alternative Methods............................................................. 312
9.3 Postharvest Applications of Natural Antimicrobials in
Fruits and Vegetables.................................................................... 313
9.4 Postharvest Applications of Herbs, Spices and
Essential Oils in Fruits and Vegetables......................................... 316
9.5 Postharvest Applications of Natural Coatings in Fruits and
Vegetables..................................................................................... 318
9.6 Postharvest Applications of Antogonistic
Micro-Organisms in Fruits and Vegetables................................... 319
9.7 Conclusion and Recommendations............................................... 319
Keywords............................................................................................... 320
References.............................................................................................. 320
312 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Fresh fruit and Vegetables are perishable and susceptible to postharvest


diseases, which limit the storage period and marketing life, Moreover,
postharvest decay results in substantial economic losses around the world
(Zhang et al., 2011). The high rate of microbial attack in fruits and veg-
etables after harvest is due to the loss in their natural resistance, high water
and nutrient contents. Postharvest losses many reach up to 50% and more
in the field depending on the crop, harvest method, length of storage, mar-
keting condition, etc. (Appleton and Nigro, 2003).
Fungal diseases are the major cause of losses in postharvest industry
and to consumers. Infections occurring either before harvest, between flow-
ering and maturity, or during harvest, handling and storage is currently con-
trolled with synthetic chemical fungicides (Appleton and Nigro, 2003).
Synthetic fungicides treatments have long being the main method of
controlling postharvest diseases. However, the use of synthetic fungicides
has many limitations and disadvantages (Siddiqui, 2016). These include
progressively restrictive legislations, social rejections due to toxicologi-
cal problems affecting humans and environment and the development of
resistance (Appleton and Nigro, 2003). Owing to the toxicity, synthetic
chemicals are no longer recommended for prevention of microbial spoil-
age in food products. According to Suslow (2000) the rapid rise in the
demand for organically produced fruits and vegetables all over the world
is increasing the demand for natural pesticides and therefore making syn-
thetic chemicals irrelevant (Ahmad and Siddiqui, 2015). There is also
increasing international concern over the indiscriminate use of synthetic
fungicides on crops because of the possible harmful effects on human
health and the emergence of pathogen resistance to fungicides. Therefore,
new alternatives for controlling postharvest diseases, which have good
efficiency, low resistance, and little or no toxicity to nontarget organisms
are in urgent demand (Zhang et al., 2011).

9.2 NEW ALTERNATIVE METHODS

Consumers are nowadays more concerned about both the fresh and pro-
cessed food they eat and so there is increasing interest to replace the
Natural Antimicrobials in Postharvest Storage and Minimal Processing 313

synthetic preservatives with natural, effective, non toxic compounds


(Marija, 2009; Siddiqui et al., 2016).
According to Sanzani and Ippolito (2011) the development of resis-
tance together with increasing concern about possible adverse effects
on human health and environment caused by synthetic fungicides have
contributed to arouse interest in the development of alternative means of
controlling plant pathogens capable of integrating if not totally replacing
synthetic fungicides. Substantial progress has been made in finding alter-
natives to synthetic fungicides for the control of postharvest diseases of
fruits and vegetables (Ippolito et al., 2004; Paluo et al., 2008; Sanzani et
al., 2009; Scheneria et al., 2007; Sharmer et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009).
In the last few years, one of the priorities of Food Industry’s researches
has been to look for a healthier, safer and more sustainable alternative treat-
ments and compounds to substitute the traditional chemical products used
for Food preservation particularly due to increasing consumer demands
(Gonzalez et al., 2010). So there is a clear need to develop new alterna-
tive methods of controlling postharvest diseases and the emerging tech-
nologies for the control of postharvest diseases are essentially threefold;
application of antagonistic microorganisms, application of natural antimi-
crobials and the application sanitizing products (Mari et al., 2003). The
natural antimicrobials and sanitizing products in the first place are plant
extracts and essential oils of herbs and spices. As natural foodstuff, herbs
and spices appeal to all who question the safety of synthetic food additives
and demand high quality products that are safe and stable (Marija, 2009).
According to Sanzani and Ippolito (2011) many alternative control
agents provided limited success under field conditions. This was attrib-
uted to uncontrollable environmental conditions. However, the likelihood
of success greatly increases during postharvest phase due to better control
of the environment.

9.3 POSTHARVEST APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL


ANTIMICROBIALS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

The natural antimicrobial compounds are compounds derived from natural


sources that are believed to have the ability to kill or inhabit the growth
of microorganisms, much has been written about the potential for natural
314 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

antimicrobials to replace or reduce reliance synthetic food preservatives.


Antimicrobial agents are substances or mixtures of substances that are used
in the food industry to destroy or suppress the growth of harmful microor-
ganisms on food and other surfaces (Hirnersen et al., 2010). Studies have
shown that antimicrobials can be applied either by dipping, or spraying on
the surface to reduce the bacterial growth on surfaces of produce (Beuchat,
1998).
Plants produce a large number of secondary metabolites with anti-
microbial effects on postharvest pathogens. Detailed studies have been
conducted on aromatic compounds, essential oils, volatile substances
and isothiocyanites with encouraging results (Mari et al., 2003). Some of
chemicals with antimicrobial activity are natural constituents of the plant
while others are produced in response to physical injury, which allows an
enzyme contact with its substrate, and some are produced in response to
microbial inversion (Adams, 2003). In addition to their protective role in
the living plant, their potential as antimicrobials in foods has long been a
subject of review in the area (Shelf, 1983; Beuchat, 1994; Nychas, 1995;
Smid and Gorros, 1999; Nychese et al., 2003; Ippolito and Nigro, 2003;
Alzamora and Guerrero, 2003).
In recent years, interests in natural substances have increased and
numerous studies on the biocidal activity of a wide range of secondary
metabolites have been reputed (Man et al., 2003). Certain volatile com-
ponents produced by fruits like apples and pear during ripening show
antifungal activity. For example, acetaldehyde has been found to be
effective in postharvest control of P. expansum in apples and pear (Man
et al., 2003).
A study by Chanda et al. (2010) investigated the antimicrobial activity
of seven fruits and vegetables peels against eleven microorganisms. Result
showed that the peel of mango had the best and promising antimicrobial
activity.
Bukar and Magashi (2008) determined the antimicrobial/sanitizing
effect of aqueous extract of Parkia biglobosa as washing solution for
tomatoes, peppers and oranges. Results have shown the potential use
of the extract of P. biglobosa as an antimicrobial washing solution to
reduce the count and/or eliminate potential spoilage and pathogenic
organisms on the surface of fruit and vegetables prior to storage.
Natural Antimicrobials in Postharvest Storage and Minimal Processing 315

Green mold caused is Penecillium digitatum is a common and serious


postharvest disease of fruits particularly citrus in the Mediterranean cli-
mates. Applications of pomegranate peel extract (PPE) as postharvest dip
provides an eco friendly and safe method for control of P. digitatum and
the method could serve as an efficient postharvest treatment in packing
houses (Tayel et al., 2009).
Recently, there has also been increasing interest in the use of Aloe Vera
gel in the food industry as a functional ingredient in foods, drinks, bev-
erages and creams. Nevertheless, most of the so called aloe Vera prod-
ucts may contain very small amounts of active compounds because of the
processing techniques used to obtain the A. Vera gel affects the bioactive
compounds (Valuede, 2005).
The antifungal activity of Aloe Vera pulp has been documented including
several postharvest applications to fruit pathogens such as pencillium digi-
tatum, P. expansum, B. cinerea, Alternaria alternata (Jasso de Rodreguez
et al., 2005; Sacks et al., 1999). The antifungal activity of Aloe Vera was
based on the suppression of germination and inhibition of mycelial growth
and this could be attributed to the presence of more than one active com-
pound with antifungal activity.
In addition, Aloe vera gel has been proven to reduce the growth of 17
bacteria, although the compounds responsible for the antibacterial activity
were not elucidated even though compounds such as saponins and anthra-
quinones are known to have antibiotic activity (Reynolds and Dweck,
1999).
In a study by Valverde et al. (2005) on the use of Aloe vera gel to main-
tain quality of table grapes; uncoated dusters of table grapes shared rapid
deterioration with an estimated shelf life of 7 days at 1°C plus 4 days at
20°C based on the fast weight loss, Color change accelerated suffering and
ripening, browning and cough incidence of berry decay. On contrary, Aloe
Vera treated dusters showed significant delay in postharvest quality losses
as measured by those quality parameters. Storability was extended to 35
days at 1°C and the edible coating was able to reduce initial microbial load
for mesophilic aerobic bacteria, yeast, and molds which increased the stor-
age period (Valverde et al., 2005).
In a similar study, Aloe Vera gel was used to coat table grapes and it
extended the shelf life to 35 days at 1°C. The gel worked as a barrier of
316 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

O2 and CO2 thereby creating a modified atmosphere and acted as a mois-


ture barrier reducing weight loss, browning, softening, growth of yeasts
and molds. The material reportedly contains antimicrobial compounds
and thus prevents decay. Aloe Vera contains malic acid, acetylated car-
bohydrate that demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity.
Themgavela et al. (2004) studied the used of Jatropha leaf extract
for control of postharvest disease of Banana. Results showed that J.
carcass leaf extract was able to control the anthracnose disease in three
Banana varieties. According to Rahman et al. (2011), Jatropha curcas
fruit and seeds could be used as antifungal components to control major
postharvest diseases of fresh horticultural produce in vitro. In the study
J. carcass seed and pulp extract were found to be more effective than
the whole fruit extract in the control of anthracnose disease of papaya
fruits. The study concluded that J. carcass seeds and pulp extract have
the potential to be used as natural fungicide against fungal phyto-patho-
gens to replace synthetic fungicides in agricultural applications.

9.4 POSTHARVEST APPLICATIONS OF HERBS, SPICES AND


ESSENTIAL OILS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Common food preservation such as nitrites sodium benzoate, sodium


metabiosulfate have a long history of safe use (Gould and Russell, 2003).
However, there are occasional reports of allergic reactions in sensitive
individuals and the formulation of potential carcinogenic compounds such
as nitrosamines from nitrites, which have raised concerns about potential
detrimental effects of preservatives on health (Roller, 2003).
Herbs and spices have been added to foods since ancient times not
only as flavoring agent but also as food preservatives. Spices occupy a
prominent place in traditional culinary practices and are indispensable part
of daily diet of millions of people all over the world. They are essentially
flavoring agents used in small quantities and reputed to have both benefi-
cial effects and antimicrobial properties.
Nowadays, herbs and spices are added to foods for their antimicro-
bial activities and medical effects in addition to their flavor and fragrance
qualities (Marija et al., 2009).
Natural Antimicrobials in Postharvest Storage and Minimal Processing 317

Essential oils have been shown to possess antibacterial, antifungal,


antiviral insecticidal and antioxidant properties (Dobre et al., 2011; Bourt,
2004). Currently, about 300 essential oils out of about 3000 are commer-
cially important especially in pharmaceuticals Agriculture, food, cosmet-
ics and perfume industries (Bourt, 2004; Dalamare et al., 2007; Dobre et
al., 2011).
Cinnamon as an antimicrobial agent has been used in apple Juice
(Yaste and Fung, 2004; Muthuswamy et al., 2008); ethanolic extract of
Cinnamon bark (1–2%) could reduce the E. coli in vitro. Citrus peel
extracts have also been applied successfully in postharvest treatments of
fruits and vegetables (Fisher and Phillips, 2008).
According to Marija (2009) numerous studies have been published on
the antimicrobial activities of plant extradites against different microbes
including food borne pathogens (Banchat, 1994; Smith-Palmer et al.,
1998; Harakudo et al., 2004).
Lopez-Malo et al. (2006) reviewed some antimicrobial components
that have been identified in spices and herbs such as Eugenol from
cloves, thymol from thyme, vanillin from vanilla allocin from garlic,
cinnamic aldehyde from cinnamon etc.
Rasooli (2007) has comprehensively reviewed the use of various
essential oils from plant materials and different food commodities. It has
been reported that spices owe their antimicrobial properties mostly due
to the presence of alkaloids, phenols, glycosides, steroids, essential oils,
coumarins and Tannins (Ebana et al., 1991).
In another study, Gotterez et al. (2009) reported that effectiveness
of oregano in decontamination of carrots was comparable to that of
chlorine. When carrots were treated with oregano the initial total viable
counts was significantly lower than water treated samples. Since carrots
treated with oregano were acceptable in terms of sensory qualities so the
application; oregano could offer a natural alternative for the washing and
preservation of minimally processed fruits and vegetables.
Chemicals, such as Methyl Jasmonite (MJ) a natural compound
detected from Jasmine and other plant species is known to extend the
shelf life of whole or fresh cut Mango, Guava and strawberry (Roller and
Seedhar, 2002). Carvacerol and Cinnamic acid to delay microbial spoilage
of fresh cut melon and kiwi fruit (Corbo et al., 2010) Essential oils from
318 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

coriander mint, vanlla, persely, citrus peels and isothiocynates obtained


from cruciferous vegetables were also tested (Carbo et al., 2010).

9.5 POSTHARVEST APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL COATINGS IN


FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

An edible coating according to Ganzales-angular et al. (2010) is a thin


layer of edible material (hydrocolloid or lipid) applied on the surface of
a food product for the purpose of generating a semi-permeable barrier to
gases, water vapor and volatile compounds. Edible coatings were fund to
be able to extend the shelf life of fresh cut products by decreasing respira-
tion and color.
Coatings most commonly used as edible coatings include chitosan,
starch, cellulose, alginate, zein, gluten, whey, carnauba wax, beeswax, etc.
Coatings are considered one of the most promising technologies not only
in the postharvest of fruit and vegetables but also in pre-harvest applica-
tions (Siddiqui, 2015). Coatings based on edible and biodegradable hydro-
colloids, interparating natural compounds with anti-microbial actually to
control fungal growth in fresh fruits and Bacterial growths in minimally
processed product is nowadays a promising technology in food preserva-
tion. Natural compounds with antimicrobial activity include a wide num-
ber of products from plants, sea organisms, insects and microorganisms
(Gonzalez et al., 2010).
Edible coatings made of natural materials are also used to coat fresh
fruits and vegetables as well as fresh cuts. The advantages of using edible
coatings on fruit and vegetables are reduction of packaging waste because
they are considered biodegradable and also for the development of new
products. Evidence for example fresh cucumbers was coated with wax, cel-
lulose, lipids starch, zein, alginate and mucilage (Valverde et al., 2005).
Additives of natural origin such as Lysozome, Nisin, organic acids, and
essential oils are added to the coatings formulation to help in the preser-
vation of the quality of fresh cut, productions and in particular, the func-
tionality of edible coating can be extended by incorporating antimicrobial
compounds (Olivas et al., 2005; Ayala et al., 2008).
Different antimicrobials used as dipping and for filling solutions and
treatments with edible coatings were found to be able to extend shelf life
Natural Antimicrobials in Postharvest Storage and Minimal Processing 319

of fresh cut fruits (Allende et al., 2006; Chien et al., 2007; Lanciotti et al.,
2004; Gonzale–Anguilar et al., 2010; Rico et al., 2007; D Amato et al.,
2010; Companiello et al., 2008).
Many researches have shown that the use of antimicrobials can reduce
or eliminate specific microorganisms but it may also produce favorable
conditions for others. Thus combining essential oils could lead to useful
efficacy against both spoilage and pathogenic organisms (Marija et al.,
2009).

9.6 POSTHARVEST APPLICATIONS OF ANTOGONISTIC


MICRO-ORGANISMS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

During the past decade Antogonistic microorganisms effective against


postharvest diseases have gained considerable attention and achieved
practical applications. Antogonistic microorganisms are the type of organ-
isms capable of suppressing the growth of other organisms. Control of
postharvest diseases through the use of Antogonistic microorganisms is
also a new frontier that needs to be exploited to the fullest. The mechanism
of biocontrol among antagonists appears to be competition for nutrients
and space but other mechanism may also involve the production of anti
fungal metabolites, direct parasitism and induced resistance sometimes
associated with reduction of pathogen enzyme activity (Mari et al., 2003).
Ippolito and Nigro (2003) stated that the success of large-scale studies
on microbial antagonists has generated interest of researchers and agro-
chemical companies in the area of prevention and/or control of postharvest
diseases using antagonistic microorganisms.
Currently there are four antagonistic microorganisms to control post-
harvest diseases of fresh fruits and vegetables commercially available.
These are C. oleophila (Aspire™), C. albidas (Yieldplus™) and two
strains of Pseudomonas syringae (Biosave™).

9.7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Natural antimicrobials and antagonistic microorganisms are viable alter-


natives to synthetics chemicals in postharvest storage as well as minimal
320 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

processing of fruits and vegetables. They have the potential to completely


or partially replace the synthetics when fully harnessed.
It is recommended that developing countries where the high posthar-
vest losses are high should intensify their researches on the use of natural
antimicrobials common within a region and to be specific on a particular
fruit or vegetable. Results of researches should also be disseminated to
farmers and other stakeholders in the commodity chain through adequate
extension services.

KEYWORDS

•• Antogonistic Micro-Organisms
•• Fruits and Vegetables
•• Minimal Processing
•• Natural Antimicrobials
•• Natural Coatings
•• Postharvest Storage

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CHAPTER 10

ENHANCE: BREAKTHROUGH
TECHNOLOGY TO PRESERVE AND
ENHANCE FOOD
CHARLES L. WILSON
Founder/Chairman and CEO, World Food Preservation Center LLC,
E-mail: [email protected]

CONTENTS

10.1 Introduction................................................................................. 325


10.2 Hormesis: Well Established but Poorly Appreciated.................. 326
10.3 Xenohormesis: Shared Chemicals for the
Defense of Plants and Animals................................................... 327
10.4 Induced Plant Defensive Chemicals
as Nutrients and Neutraceuticals................................................. 328
10.5 UV-C Light as a Hormetin.......................................................... 330
10.6 Summary: Xenohormesis to both Preserve
and Enrich Our Food................................................................... 331
Keywords............................................................................................... 332
References.............................................................................................. 332

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Plants and animals have coevolved over a billion years. We are just start-
ing to fully appreciate how they have evolved multiple ways to help one
326 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

another survive adverse environmental stresses during this period. During


their co-evolution, plants and animals have carried out “chemical conver-
sations” on stressors in their environment and have adapted to their shared
environment accordingly.
Plants being sessile cannot move to avoid adverse environmental con-
ditions like animals. Consequently, plants have dedicated much of their
secondary metabolism to their defense against adverse environmental
insults. A wide array of compounds (alkaloids, cyanogentic glycosides,
terpenoids, and phenoics) has been fashioned by plants for their defense.
Many of these compounds are synthesized during stress. These com-
pounds help plants to defend themselves against herbivores, pathogen,
and adverse environmental conditions such as heat or drought (Siddiqui,
2015, 2016).
It has been shown that low dosages of plant or animal stressors that
are normally toxic will often induce a beneficial or hormetic effect. In
plants, the defensive compounds that are induced through hormesis for the
plants defense are often beneficial nutritionally for animals. A new field
of science has been established (Xenohormesis) based on the shared stress
chemicals produced by plants in response to stressors.
The understanding and manipulation of Xenohormesis presents us an
opportunity to enhance both the nutritional value and postharvest preser-
vation of food. It has been shown that through hormetic treatments we can
extend the shelf life of some foods while at the same time increasing their
nutritional content.

10.2 HORMESIS: WELL ESTABLISHED BUT POORLY


APPRECIATED

The phenomenon of hormesis came into prominence during the cold war.
Russian scientists studied extensively the effects of radiation (Gamma,
X-rays, and UV) on plants in conjunction with the development of atomic
weapons (Lucky, 1980). In looking at the dosage effects of radiation on
whole plants and seeds, Russian scientist repeatedly found a stimulatory
effect by low dosages of irradiation. These results were initially attributed
to experimental error but finally accepted as the concept of hormesis that
states that low-dosages of a stressor, such as radiation that normally causes a
ENHANCE: Breakthrough Technology to Preserve and Enhance Food 327

detrimental effect to a living system can often cause a positive or beneficial


effect.
As American scientists studied the effects of radiation dosages on
living systems, they observed the low-dosage stimulatory effect as
well. However, more for political than scientific reasons American
scientists adopted a “Linear Non-Threshold Model” for the effects of
radiation on living systems. They stated that low-dosage stimulatory
effects were spurious and that all dosages of radiation were detrimental.
Dr. Calabrese points out the damage that has been done to science by
this lack of appreciation of hormesis in his article, “How a ‘Big Lie’
Launched the LNT Myth and the Great Fear of Radiation (Calabrese,
2011).” Dr. Lucky (2006) has similarly attacked the “Linear Non-
Threshold Model.”
What is striking about the phenomenon of hormesis is that this
response to low dose stressors occurs throughout all living systems.
It, therefore, must be a highly conserved and important genetic trait.
Hormetic responses also occur broadly throughout all living systems
including plants, animals, and microorganisms (Lucky, 1980). In our
studies of the use of low-dose UV-C light to induce resistance to post-
harvest diseases of fruits and vegetables we never failed to get a posi-
tive hormetic response in all the wide variety of commodities we studied
(Wilson et al, 1994). This held true also for all the seeds that we studied
(Brown et al., 2001).
A wide variety of agents (hormetins) can elicit the hormetic response
in plants and animals including chemical (Belz and Piepho, 2012), bio-
logical (Nwachukwu, 2013), environmental (Kotak et al., 2007) and
mechanical (Howitz and Sinclair, 2008) hormetins (Figure 10.1).

10.3 XENOHORMESIS: SHARED CHEMICALS FOR THE DEFENSE


OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

It has been shown that many of the compounds induced by hormetins in


plants are beneficial nutrients for animals. This seemly unlikely asso-
ciation has recently found a logical explanation by Howitz and Sinclair
(2008) at Harvard University in a field of science that they established
and called xenohormesis. Hooper et al. (2010) have more recently
328 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

FIGURE 10.1 The hormetic dose response.

expanded the xenohormesis theory and suggested multiple applications


as it applies to plants.
A basic tenant of the xenohormesis theory is that animals have
learned to detect chemical changes in plants induced by adverse envi-
ronmental conditions. This “chemical conversation” works toward the
mutual benefit of both plants and animals. Animals may receive direct
nutritional benefit from the “stress chemicals” produced by plants
such as resveratrol (Adrian et al., 1997; Baur and Sinclair, 2009) or
these compounds may “turn on” the animals own adverse environment
defenses such as the SIRT1 gene (Howitz, 2003; Ingram et al., 2016;
Knutson and Leeuwenburgh, 2008). SIRT1 is a gene found in humans
and other mammals that helps to promote survival by protecting cells
during times when food (and therefore energy) is scarce. Scientists have
discovered similar genes in almost all species, including yeast, worms,
and fruit flies. Herbivorous animals with their SIRT1 gene turned on
presumably would put less pressure on plant populations by reduced
feeding (Figure 10.2).

10.4 INDUCED PLANT DEFENSIVE CHEMICALS AS NUTRIENTS


AND NEUTRACEUTICALS

Plants produce an array of phytochemicals in response to stress. Notable


among these are antioxidants (Atkinson et al., 2005; Erkan et al., 2008),
ENHANCE: Breakthrough Technology to Preserve and Enhance Food 329

FIGURE 10.2 Human beneficial responses to hormetic induced phytochemicals in plants


by stress (Howitz and Sinclair, 2008).

hydrolases (El Ghaouth et al., 2003), and phytoalexins (Adrian et al., 1997;
Nwachukwu, 2013). Resveratrol is a phytoalexin produced by grapes, blue-
berries, and other fruit in response to stress (Wang et al., 2003). Phytoalexin
are antimicrobial compounds that helps defend plant tissue against micro-
bial invasion. Resveratrol has also been claimed to have extraordinary ben-
efits for human health based on animal studies including: (a) Protecting the
endothelial lining of arteries; (b) Reducing oxidative stress, which prevents
premature aging of cells; (c) Blocking the production of noxious inflam-
matory agent; (d) Cellular support that improves mental function, and pro-
motes oral/dental health; (e) Cancer suppression by preventing cancer cell
replication and enhancing cancer cell death in a variety of laboratory cell
culture studies; and (f) Improve muscle health, by reducing muscle wasting
associated with diabetes and cancer. All these claims need to be validated
in clinical studies, but they still show the remarkable potential of stress-
induced chemicals in plants to impact on animal health.
330 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

The phytoalexins (glyceollins) elicited in soybean seeds by microor-


ganisms, UV radiation, and physical injury have been found to have a
variety of health benefits to humans including anti-tumor effects (Zhang
et al., 2006).

10.5 UV-C LIGHT AS A HORMETIN

UV-C light has turned out to be an excellent hormetin that can elicit a
number of improvements to harvested food. It is postulated that UV elicits
beneficial effects by slight damage to the DNA of the plant tissue. The
plant cell then responds with a variety of defensive responses including
the production of defensive compounds (hydrolases, antioxidants, phyto-
alexins, flavonoids) and cell wall thickening (Charles et al., 2009; Siddiqui
et al., 2016).
The pioneering work of the late Clauzell Steven at Tuskegee University
and his associates (among whom I gratefully include myself) have shown
the usefulness of low doses of UV-C light in reducing the postharvest
decay of fruits and vegetables and extending their shelf life (Stevens et
al., 1996, 1999, 2004, 2005). Stevens et al. (2005) demonstrated that the
resistant response induced in harvested food was systemic. When just the
ends of sweet potatoes were irradiated with UV-C light the induced resis-
tance was actually greater than if all the surfaces of the sweet potato were
irradiated.
Even with the great potential for the use of UV-C to enhance resis-
tance in harvested food and increase its nutrient content there has been
very limited commercialization of this technology. On-line applica-
tors have been designed (Wilson et al., 1997). Valdebenito-Sanhueza in
Brazil (Valdebenito-Sanhueza and Maia, 2001) has designed and used an
on-line applicator of UV-C that was able to pay for itself after only 1.1
days operation on apples by the savings realized through disease control
(Figure 10.3).
It has been demonstrated the pulsed treatment of mushrooms enhances
their vitamin D content by as much as five times (Kalaras et al., 2012).
Dole has commercialized this technology both for whole mushrooms
and in a mushroom powder (Figure 10.4).
ENHANCE: Breakthrough Technology to Preserve and Enhance Food 331

10.6 SUMMARY: XENOHORMESIS TO BOTH PRESERVE AND


ENRICH OUR FOOD

Hormesis and Xenohormesis provide us with breakthrough technology to


enhance our food supply. World hunger is basically a nutritional hunger. If
we can enhance the nutrimental content of our food, we have a way of attack-
ing world hunger without increasing food production. This has appeal since
concerns have been expressed over the environmental impact of expanded
agricultural acreages to feed a rapidly expanding world population.

FIGURE 10.3 UV-C applicator for apples (Valdebenito-Sanhueza and Maia, 2001).

FIGURE 10.4 Commercial Dole mushroom with enhanced vitamin D content as a result
of pulsed UV light treatments (Kalaras et al., 2012).
332 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

KEYWORDS

•• ENHANCE concept
•• Fruit and vegetable shelf life
•• Hormesis
•• Induced plant defense
•• Irradiation treatment
•• Postharvest quality
•• Xenohormesis

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INDEX

A Antimicrobial
activities, 316, 317
Abscisic acid, 102, 183, 205, 214
properties, 316, 317
Achillea filipendulina, 115
sanitizing effect, 314
Acidic water, 126
Antirrhinum, 107
Aeromonashydrophila, 275
Antirrhinum majus, 107, 115, 140
Agaricus bisporus, 152, 154, 157, 158,
Anti-tumor effects, 330
162, 163, 171
Antiviral effect, 160
Air distribution, 10, 12, 17
Antogonistic micro-organisms, 320, 319
Air infiltration, 8
Aranchnis, 128
Air pre-cooling methods types, 9–15
Aranthera, 128
forced-air-cooling, 13
Arduino wireless sensor network, 55
operation, 14
Artichokes, 34
pallet racking, 13
Ascorbic acid, 33, 71, 78, 170, 172, 198,
trapped tunnel pre-cooler system, 13
245
vertical airflow, 13, 15
Asparagus, 34, 43
natural convection air-cooling (room
Aspergillus, 300, 303
cooling method), 9–12
Aspergillus flavus, 306
modified room cooling method, 12
Astilbe hybrids, 114
Air stream, 3, 22, 25, 137
Auxin efflux carriers, 105, 106, 189
Air velocity, 11, 53, 239
Avocados, 34
Air-cooling, 2, 7, 11, 13, 18, 19, 22, 27,
32, 33, 38, 45, 58, 123, 169
Air-freight terminal, 110
B
Ajuga reptans, 206 Bacillus spp., 301
Aloe vera gel, 315 Bacterial blotch, 175
Alphonso, 183 Bamboo baskets, 129, 174
Alstroemeria, 92, 96, 104, 124, 129, Barn storage, 84
132, 143 Bellis perennis, 114, 140
Alternaria alternata, 315 Bent neck in gerbera, 217
Amaranthus tricolor, 114 Biosensors, 250
Aminoethoxyvinylglycine, 194, 195 Biosynthesis, 103, 105, 183, 184, 195,
Amrapali mango fruits, 199 214, 268, 279, 280
Anemone coronaria, 215 enzymes, 100
Anthocyanin biosynthetic gene, 207 pathway, 100
Anthurium, 93, 96, 98, 124, 128, Blackening symptoms, 108
131–134, 139, 215 Botrytis, 98, 142, 204, 218, 300, 303,
Antibacterial effect, 160 304
Anti-inflammatory, 159, 316 Botrytis blight, 204, 218
336 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Botrytis cinerea, 106, 218, 300, 303, 315 Carnation, 92, 93, 96, 97, 100, 102, 105,
Breathable materials, 245 121, 124, 128, 129, 132, 133, 139,
Broccoli, 7, 34, 41–45, 251 142, 143, 204, 208, 209
cooling methods, 45 Carotene, 200, 205
forced air-cooling, 45 Carrots, 22, 34, 44, 266, 271, 317
hydrocooling, 45 Cassava, 69, 71–73, 75, 76
package icing, 45 Manihot esculenta Crantz, 70, 75
room cooling, 45 Cattleya, 113, 124, 131, 134
Brown discoloration, 167 Cauliflower, 9, 22, 37, 156
Brussels, 9, 22, 34, 44 Celery, 22, 34
Bud harvesting systems, 113, 115, 116, Cellulose acetate, 131
256 Cellulose wood, 131
Bunching, 117, 118 Centaurea spp., 114
Byssochlammys, 299 Central equipment room, 31
Chemical conversation, 328
C Chinaster, 208
Calcium carbonate, 164 Chlorophyll, 109, 205, 206, 214, 245,
Calcium ionophore, 98 268
Calendula, 113, 136 Chrysanthemum, 92, 93, 120, 124,
Calendula officinalis, 114, 140 125, 128, 132, 139, 143, 203, 204,
Callistephus chinensis, 114, 140 207–209, 215
Calocybe indica, 152, 154, 173 Cinnamon, 317
Campanula spp., 114 Citric acid, 117, 125, 127, 128, 161,
Candida and related genera, 298 170–172
Canning, 163, 171, 173, 266 Clamp storage, 84, 85
process, 171 Clarkia unquiculata, 114, 140
Class-I, 122
blanching, 171
Class-II, 122
cooling, 171
Clostridium spp., 301
earning, 171 Cocoyams, 78
filling, 171 Colocasia esculenta, 78
labeling and packaging, 171 Taro, 78
sterilization, 171 Xanthosomas sagittifolium, 78
Cantaloupes, 34, 44 Tannia, 78
Capacity design, 18 Cold chain, 4, 5, 43, 44, 48, 49, 52,
Cape gooseberry, 201 53–55, 60, 232
Carbohydrate supply, 107, 109, 110, 126 Cold war, 326
Carbohydrates, 70, 107, 108, 110, 112, Cold-storage, 174, 218
137, 205, 215, 302 Color browning, 163
Carbon monoxide, 55 Compression test, 130
Cardboard (fiberboard), 242 Consolida ambigua, 114
Cardiovascular, 159 Control of the cold chain projects, 47
Cardoic tonic, 160 Controlled atmosphere, 51, 52, 97, 165,
Careless handling and stacking, 243 240
storage, 48, 141
packaging, 165, 240
Index 337

Convallaria majalis, 114, 140 Dry system, 24


Conveyer systems, 16 Drying of mushrooms, 163, 168
Cool storage, 4, 104, 108 Dynamic packaging systems, 247
Coreopsis grandiflora, 114, 140
Corrugated fiber board, 130, 242 E
Crop rotation (crop sequence), 304 Ear infrared, 248
Curing operation, 88 Easiest icing method, 44
Cut flowers, 3, 7, 13, 22, 38, 52, 56, Ecopack, 18
94–99, 101, 104–108, 112, 116, 118, Edible aroids (Colocasia Spp and
122, 124, 126–128, 130, 131, 135, Xanthosomonas sagattifolium), 70
136, 142, 144, 204, 212–219 Edible coatings, 281, 282, 318
microbiology, 144 Edible mushrooms, 155
storage, 135 Electronic Aroma Signature Pattern, 253
Cyclamen, 105, 113, 139 Electronic nose, 252
Cyclopiazonic acid, 300 Emasculation, 187
Cymbidium, 113, 124, 128, 134 Endogenous cytokinins, 103
Cytokinins, 103, 104 Energy saving, 48, 56
ENHANCE concept, 332
D Erwinia carotovora, 302, 303
Daffodil, 102, 103, 142 Essential amino acid in edible mush-
Dahlia, 113, 203 rooms, 158
Dahlia cvs., 114 Ethanol sensors, 250
Dashehari, 196, 200 Ethephon, 107, 193, 196–198, 205
Daylilies, 103 Ethylene, 3, 10, 43, 44, 92–94, 96, 98,
Decay organisms, 6 100–112, 115, 124, 125, 132, 135–
Decay-producing microorganisms, 3, 44 137, 143, 169, 195, 236, 238, 240,
Dekkera/Brettanomyces, 298 244–247, 268–270, 279, 280
Delphinium spp., 113, 114, 128, 134 sensitive flowers care, 132
Deterioration process, 2 synthesis, 10, 101, 102, 104
Dhingri, 172 tissue, 10
Dianthus barbatus, 115, 141 Eustoma grandiflorum, 114
Diazo-cyclopentadiene, 101 Evaporative cooling, 2, 7, 169
Digitalis purpurea, 114, 140 Evaporator, 7, 8, 9, 11, 26, 49, 51, 52, 58
Direct expansion, 3, 9, 11, 22, 24 Exotic flowers special care, 131
refrigeration system, 9 External view of portable precooling, 29
Direct use of slurry ice, 43
Directional mist eliminators, 22 F
Disease, 23, 74, 75, 79, 83, 95–99, 106,
Factors affecting postharvest life
110, 112, 136, 139, 218, 236, 253,
commercial flowers, 95
294, 300, 304, 305, 315, 316, 330
chilling injury, 98
Disease resistance in rose, 218
Dormancy and spouting, 73, 88 cut flowers, 99
Drop test, 130 desiccation, 99
Dry coil system, 2, 3 ethylene/hormones, 100
Dry storage, 136, 138, 139 genotype, 96
338 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

pre-harvest factors, 97 Fresh-cut products, 274–278


temperature, 97 Fructose, 107, 205
poikilotherms, 97 Fruit splitting, 33
water relations, 99 Fruits and vegetables, 5, 8, 29, 31, 34,
Fiberboard, 44, 130, 233, 235, 236 35, 42, 57, 58, 111, 136, 165, 232,
Field infections, 295 235, 236, 239–250, 253, 255–257,
First-expired-first-out, 53 266–271, 274–279, 295, 299, 300,
Floral preservative, 115, 117, 127, 128 302, 312–314, 317–320, 327, 330
Floricultural crops, 104 shelf life, 332
Florist shop, 108 Functions of packaging, 234, 257
Flow chart of processing, 161 Fungicides, 85, 106, 218, 304, 312, 313,
Flower 316
bud emergence, 204 Fusarium moniliforme, 306
deterioration, 110 Fusarium spp., 300, 306
harvesting, 204 Future directives, 256
packaging, 144
storage, 144 G
Food Gaillardia, 113, 136, 215
deterioration, 252, 295, 297 Gaillardia pulchella, 114, 140
spoilage, 302, 308 Gaillardia x grandiflora, 114
processing methods, 266 Gas composition, 38, 240, 279
acidification, 266 Gas indicators, 248, 252
canning, 266 Gas measurement systems, 252
dehydrating, 266 Geotropic bending protection, 131
fermentation, 266 Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, 182
Gerbera, 93, 124, 128, 131, 134, 139,
freezing, 266
210, 217
treatments with food additives,
Gerbera hybrida, 209
266 Germicides, 125
Forced air, 2, 7, 12, 13, 15–19, 22, 23, Gibberellic acid, 105, 182, 185, 186,
27, 30, 33, 45, 49, 51, 60, 97 188, 192, 194–196, 199, 203–208,
Forced air precooling, 2, 17, 19, 23, 49, 213–215, 219
51 Gibberellins, 105, 181–186, 201, 207,
technique adapted to commodities, 2 210
Forced ventilation system, 22 acidic, 182
Freesia hybrids, 114, 140 biosynthesis, 184
Fresh cut microbiology, 283 commercial availability, 185
Fresh mushroom market, 174 diterepenes, 182
Fresh produce, 3–7, 16–18, 37, 43, ent-gibberellane, 182
45–47, 50–58, 166, 233, 236, 239, ent-kaurene, 182
240, 256, 257, 274–277, 283, 302 functions, 184
cold chain, 4 growth retardants, 183
cut-flowers, 3 cycocel, 183
fruits, 3 daminozide, 183
vegetables, 3 paclobutrazol, 183
Fresh-cut processing, 276
Index 339

tetracyclic, 182 Homogeneity, 47


translocation, 184 Hormesis, 326, 327, 332
Gladiolus, 92, 93, 107, 108, 113–115, Hormetic effect, 326
118–121, 124, 128, 131, 133, 136, Horticultural produce, 181, 234, 236,
139–143, 207, 209, 215 238, 300, 308, 316
Gloriosa superba, 114 Hydrating, 117, 119, 127
Glucose, 107, 205 Hydrocooler belt, 31
Glycoprotein, 159 Hydrocooling, 2, 7, 29–34, 38, 39, 45,
Good agricultural practices, 277 60
Good manufacturing practices, 277 Hydrogen cyanide, 76
Grading, 117, 118, 120, 136, 137, 248 Hydro-vacuum methods, 39
Gram-negative soil bacteria, 302 Hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonic acid,
Grape vines, 185 100
Gravitropic response, 107 Hypertension, 158, 160
Green beans, 34
Green mold, 315 I
Greenhouse, 97, 101, 110, 115, 116, 135, Ice cooling, 7
136, 213 Ice-bank cooling, 170
Growth and tropic responses, 106 Icing systems, 46
Gypsophila spp., 99, 115 Indirect use of slurry ice, 46
Induced plant defense, 332
H Induced plant defensive chemicals as
Halogenated hydrocarbons, 39 nutrients and neutraceuticals, 328
Harvest, 2–5, 12, 33, 34, 38, 79, 80, 86, In-package-relative-humidity, 167
88, 94–101, 108, 110–113, 117, 118, Insufficient water uptake, 109
123, 124, 132, 135, 157, 161, 163, Intelligent packaging, 247, 248, 257
165, 169, 171, 174, 175, 181, 193, Internet of Things, 55
194, 196, 198–201, 205, 215, 236, Iris x hollandica, 114
240, 248, 253, 254, 268, 269, 292– Irish potato (Solanum tubaeroson), 70
295, 302, 303, 306, 312, 318 Irradiation method, 86
bud harvesting, 113–116 Irradiation treatment, 163, 332
conditioning, 118
handling, 116 J
quality and grading, 118 Jasmonic acid, 105
stages of harvest, 113 Jatropha curcas, 316
Harvesting indices, 88 Juvenile stage, 201
Hazard analysis and critical control, 305
Helianthus, 113 K
Helianthus annuus, 114
Hemerocallis cvs., 114 Kinnow mandarin, 196
Hibiscus sabdariffa, 206 Kniphofia uvaria, 115
High efficiency motors, 56 Kraft process, 243
Himsagar mango, 199
Hippeastrum, 113 L
Histidine, 79 Lactic acid bacteria, 302, 303
340 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Larkspur, 118, 131, 136 packaging, 165, 166, 244–247,


Lathyrus odoratus, 115, 140 278–280
Leaf removal, 117 Moisture loss (dehydration), 239
Leaf senescence, 104, 105, 219 Molded plastics, 243
Lettuce chicory potatoes, 22 Mucor, 299
Light intensity, 108, 109, 115, 127 Mushroom, 23, 37, 153–169, 171–175,
Light-emitting diode, 59 250, 298, 330, 331
Liliaceae, 104 packaging, 175
Lilium, 104, 113, 115, 139, 140, 143 processing, 175
Limonium spp., 115 postharvest technology, 160
Linear nonthreshold model, 327 cucumbers, 22
Listeria monocytogenes, 275 Mycotoxins, 293, 299, 300, 305–307
Litchi cultivar, 34
Low pressure storage (LPS), 142 N
Low-density polyethylene, 165
N,N-dipropyl (1-cyclopropenylmethyl)
L-phenylalanine, 206
amine, 101
Lupin, 131, 136
Naphthyl phthalamic acid, 107
Lupinus cvs. Russell, 114
Narcissus cvs., 114
Lysine, 79, 157
Natural antimicrobials, 313, 320
Natural coatings, 320
M Neck length, 203, 209
Magnetic resonance imaging, 248 Nitrites sodium benzoate, 316
Magnetic resonance relaxometry, 248 Nitrosamines, 316
Maintenance, 2, 3, 52, 59, 142 NMR spectroscopy, 248
Malate-dehydrogenase, 199, 201 Nuclear magnetic resonance, 248
Management of mycotoxins contamina-
tion, 305 O
MAP, 165–167, 245, 251, 257, 280
Oncidium, 128, 134
Marine containers, 54, 107
On-off method, 51
Mathematical modeling of vacuum cool-
Optimum precooling method, 6, 24
ing process, 40
Orchid, 92, 93, 120, 134, 139
Matthiola incana, 114, 140
Orchid flowers, 100, 134
Medicinal mushroom, 158
Organoleptic rating, 200
Mediocre package, 164
Oxygen transmission rate, 279
Methyl jasmonate, 106, 317
Oyster mushrooms, 166, 172
Microbiological safety, 271, 283
Microbiology, 270, 275
P
Mid infra-red, 248
Milky, 152, 162, 173 Packaging, 6, 17, 18, 23, 58, 87, 95, 117,
Milky mushroom, 154, 168, 173, 174 118, 129, 142, 162, 165, 166, 171,
Minerals, 3, 71, 153, 155, 158 174, 232–236, 240, 241, 244–248,
Minimal processing, 267–269, 320 250, 253, 255–257, 266, 274, 278–
Mobile pre-cooling facilities, 26 282, 292, 318
Modified atmosphere, 97, 139, 142, functions, 233
165–167, 244, 245, 250, 278–282, 316 material kinds, 241
different flowers, 132
Index 341

carnation, 133 Pollination, 100, 102, 104, 105, 111, 185


chrysanthemum, 132 Poly vinyl chloride, 166
rose, 132 Polyaccetate films, 164
Packaging requirements, 257 Polyethylene film, 138, 167
fruits and vegetables, 236 Polyethylene foil as protective cover,
Packing, 4, 17, 33, 86, 87, 108, 117, 119, 131
123, 124, 129–134, 161–166, 174, Polygalacturonase, 201
243, 247, 255, 266, 315 Polypacks, 172, 174
packaging, 164 Polyphenol oxidases, 163
modified atmosphere packaging, Polypropylene, 133, 165, 257, 267
165 Polysaccharide, 156, 159, 281
Polysaccharide-K, 159
modified humidity packaging, 166
Polythene, 133–135, 164–166, 172–174,
Packing boxes, 130
243
Packing process, 4
Polythene sheet, 172
Paddy straw mushroom, 154, 162, 174
Pomegranate peel extract, 315
Paper or plastic film, 243
Postharvest,
Paphiopedilum, 124
applications of,
Paraffin, 133
Parthenocarpic fruits, 185–187, 189, 202 antogonistic micro-organisms in
Pathogens, 74, 106, 245, 250, 275, 277, fruits and vegetables, 319
293–295, 304–307, 313–317 natural coatings in fruits and veg-
Pectin methyl esterase, 201 etables, 318
Peduncles, 134 control, 106, 305, 306, 314
Penicillium, 299, 300, 304 cooling, 3, 5
Penecillium digitatum, 315 harvest handling, 88
Peonia cvs., 114 pathogens, 294
Peroxyacetic acid, 33 pathology, 308
Petal cell elongation, 210 quality, 33, 88, 96, 101, 175, 181,
Petunias, 105 215, 219, 240, 257, 315, 332
Phalaenopsis, 113, 128, 134 shelf life, 219
Phenylalanine ammonia lyase, 206, 270 storage, 81, 253, 319, 320
Phloem, 108, 184 technology, 175
Phlox paniculata, 115, 140 Potassium meta bisulphite, 170
Photosynthesis, 3, 108, 109 Potato (Solanum tuberosom), 78
Physiological response, 283 Precooling, 2–7, 15–18, 20, 22–29,
Physiological weight loss, 192, 193 34–41, 43, 49–51, 56, 60, 117, 174,
Physiology, 72, 73, 181, 268, 269 257
Phytoalexin, 329 process, 2, 6, 17, 18, 25, 26, 35, 38,
Phytoalexins (glyceollins), 330 41, 49, 51
Pit storage, 84 methods, 2
Plastic sleeve, 131 air-cooling, 2
Plate-type heat exchanger, 31 evaporative cooling, 2
Platform storage method, 85 hydrocooling, 2
Pleurotus, 152–154, 157, 158, 172 slurry ice, 2
Polianthes tuberosa, 115
vacuum, 2
342 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

season, 6 Rhizopus, 299, 303, 304


systems, 3, 20, 38 Ripening/senescence stage, 292
Preharvest control, 305 Room cooling method, 7, 10, 13, 15
Preharvest spray, 194, 199, 219 Root and tuber crops, 70–75, 78–88
Preservation technologies, 163 curing, 74, 75
Pre-storage, 4 cell suberisation, 75
Programmable logic controllers, 57 formation of cork cambium, 75
Propylene glycol, 43 dormancy and spouting, 73
Proteins, 71, 79, 156, 157, 189, 281, harvesting, handling, transportation
297, 302 and marketing, 81
Proteoglycons, 159 handling of root and tubers, 82
Pseudomonas, 175, 302, 303, 319 harvesting of root and tubers, 81
Pulp-board punnets, 164, 166 marketing of root and tubers, 83
Pulsing, 95, 124, 129, 213 transportation of root and tubers, 83
major reasons for postharvest loss,
Q 79–81
Quality preservation, 257, 283, 308 mechanical damage, 79
Quality standards, 53, 122, 247 pathological factors, 81
physiological factors, 80
R nutritional importance, 71
physiology, 72
Radiation preservation, 171 postharvest losses, 79
Radio frequency identification, 55, 248 production statistics, 71
Radiofrequency identification, 254 storage method, 83
Rapid precooling, 5 common handling practices/condi-
Ready-to-eat, 256 tions, 86
Recommended storage conditions, 87 improved/modern storage methods,
Reducing oxidative stress, 329 85
Refined smart cold chain system, 256 recommended storage conditions, 87
Refrigerated trucks, 47, 54, 130, 174 traditional method, 84
Refrigeration, 5–12, 18–25, 27, 43, Rosa hybrida, 213, 214
47–49, 54–59, 85, 115, 137, 169, 174, Rudbeckia, 113
240, 302
capacity requirements, 19 S
method, 85
system, 8–12, 18, 23, 43, 47, 54, 57 Saccharomyces, 298, 304
Refrigerator, 9, 11, 169 Safety measures, 308
Relative humidity, 2, 3, 11, 22, 25, 26, Salmonella species, 275
46, 48–55, 57, 74, 82, 97, 131, 135, Sanitation level, 6
168, 199, 239, 255, 268, 281 Seed-borne fungal, 305
Respiration, 3, 5, 9, 35, 38, 50, 72, Seedlessness, 185, 187, 188
73, 80, 83, 97, 107–110, 123, 128, Senescence, 205, 207
135–138, 163–169, 193, 214, 231, process, 2, 207
236, 238–240, 244, 245, 267–269, regulation, 144, 219
278–281, 318 Senescing florets, 107
Reverse effect, 201
Index 343

Shelf life, 2, 7, 11, 32, 39, 46–48, 53, Sweet corn, 30, 34, 44
54, 124, 161–167, 170, 171, 174, 175, Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas L.), 70, 77
194, 198–201, 240, 245, 253–257, System classification, 20
267, 269, 276–279, 281, 283, 308, dry system, 24
315–318, 326, 330 secondary coolant coil, 24
Shewanella putrefaciens, 302
Shigella species, 275 T
Silver thiosulfate, 94, 101, 107, 111, 119 Tagetes erecta, 114, 140
Simulated annealing (SA) technique, 41 Temperature and relative humidity
meta-heuristic technique, 41 control, 52
Slurry ice, 2, 7, 42–47, 60 Thermodynamically equations, 40
Smart cold chain system, 256 Thermodynamically model, 40, 41
Smart packaging, 247, 257 Thermophysical specifications, 19
Snapdragon, 131, 132, 136, 142 Thidiazuron, 104
Society of American Florist, 120, 121 Time-temperature indicators, 248, 251
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate, 127 Titrable acidity, 196
Sodium erythorbate, 164 Total electricity consumption, 58
Sodium hypochlorite, 33, 164 Translocation, 184
Solidago spp., 114 Transportation, 4, 42, 43, 54, 80–83, 86,
Spadix, 133, 134 87, 98, 101, 129, 130, 163, 174, 217,
Spoilage, 79, 86, 161–163, 167, 168, 233–236, 241, 243, 248, 249, 256
172, 199, 200, 239, 250, 255, 270, Tropaeolum majus, 114
271, 275, 276, 293, 298–304, 307, Tuberose, 108, 206, 215
308, 312, 314, 317, 319 Tulipa cvs., 114, 141
molds, 299 Tulips, 107, 115
pathogens, 303, 308 Tyrosine ammonia lyase, 206
Stalk length, 207, 208
Staphylococcus aureus, 275 U
Steeping preservation, 170
Storage, 167 Ultra-low-oxygen (ULO) storage, 48
controlled atmospheric storage, 167 Underground storage, 84
life, 34, 78, 82, 87, 129, 142, 192, UV, 101, 243, 325–327, 330, 331
198, 199, 238, 244
methods, 84, 85, 135 V
optimum storage conditions, 167 Vacuum, 2, 23, 30, 34–42, 51, 60, 166,
packaging, 219 169, 170, 301
Strawberries, 20, 22, 24, 28, 32–34, 299 cooler, 35
Strelitzia flower, 108 cooling, 7, 23, 34–41, 169
Styrofoam box, 130 treatment of broccoli, 41
Suberin, 75 Vanda, 128, 134
Sucrose, 107, 124–129, 137, 205, 207, Variable frequency drive, 26, 51
213, 214 Variable speed drive, 52, 58
Supply chain, 52, 55, 232, 234, 248, Vase life, 93–97, 99, 104, 108–110, 112,
250, 254–256 113, 115, 116, 126–128, 135, 138,
real-time tracking information, 55 144, 213–215, 217, 219
Surfactants, 125
344 Postharvest Management of Horticultural Crops

Vase solution, 99, 107, 113, 128, 144, World Health Organization, 266
211 WSN technology, 256
Vibration test, 130
Viola odorata, 115, 141 X
Viola x wittrockiana, 114 Xanthomonas campestris, 302
Vita Flora, 112 Xenohormesis, 325–328, 331, 332
Vitamin content of edible mushrooms, X-rays, 326
157 Xylem tubes, 109
Volvariella volvacea, 152, 154, 157,
158, 174 Y
W Yam (Dioscorea Spp), 70, 76
Bitter yam (D. dumetorum Pax), 77
Washing, 163–166, 248, 266, 274, 314, Chinese yam (D. esculenta), 77
317 Water yam (D. alata L.), 76
Water loss during vacuum cooling deter- White yam (Dioscorea rotundata
mination, 39 poir), 76
Water resistant, 23, 130 Yellow yam (D. cayenensis Lam), 76
Water spray systems, 39 Yeast, 271, 291, 298, 304
Water tolerant packages, 44 Yersinia enterocolitica, 275
Wet cooling system, 20
Wet deck system, 2, 20, 24 Z
low air temperature, 2
relative humidity, 2 Zinnia elegans, 115, 141
Wet packing of flowers, 131 Zizyphus jujuba Mill, 191
Wetting agents, 125 Zygomycetes, 299
White button mushroom, 154, 163 Zygosaccharomyces, 298, 304
Wireless sensor network, 55, 56 Debaryomyces hansenii, 298

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