Basic Science (311305)

Units and Measurements

CO1: Use basic instruments to measure the physical quantities in various
engineering situations.

To measure a physical quantity like length, mass and time, we require a standard of measurement. This
standard of measurement is called the unit of that physical quantity.
Unit: The reference standard used to measure the physical quantities is called the unit.
Properties of Unit

1. The unit should be of some suitable size

2. The unit must be well-defined
3. The unit should be easily reproducible, i.e., it should not change with place
4. The unit must not change with time
5. The unit should not change with physical conditions like temperature, pressure, etc.
6. The unit must be easily comparable experimentally with similar physical quantities.
System of Units
(1) FPS System: In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound, and the unit
of time is second.
(2) CGS System: In this system, the units of length, mass and time are centimetre, gram and
second, respectively.
(3) MKS System: In this system, the unit of length, mass and time are meter, kilogram and
second, respectively.
(4) SI System: This system is widely used in all measurements throughout the world. The
system is based on seven basic units and two supplementary units.

Physical Quantities
Those quantities which can describe the laws of physics are called the physical quantity. A
physical quantity is one that can be measured. Thus, length, mass, time, pressure, temperature,
current and resistance are considered as physical quantities.
Classification of Physical Quantities
The physical quantities are classified into
(i) Fundamental quantities or base quantities
(ii) Derived quantities
The physical quantities that are do not dependent on any other quantity for measurement are
called fundamental quantities.
 Fundamental Quantity Fundamental Unit Symbol
Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Meter m
Time Second S
0
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Amount of substance mole mole

Supplementary Quantity
1. Plane angle & its unit is Radian (rad): The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the
circle by the arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.
2. Solid angle & its unit is Steradian (Sr): The steradian is the solid angle subtended at the
centre of a sphere by a spherical surface of an area equal to the square of its radius.

All the other quantities which can be depend on one or more fundamental quantities for
measurement are called the derived quantities.

(i) Fundamental Units

The units defined for the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.
(ii) Derived Units
The units of all other physical quantities which are derived from the fundamental units are
called the derived units.
Example of fundamental unit
1. Metre (m): One metre is the distance travelled by light in the vacuum during a time interval
of (1/299792458) seconds.
2. Kilogram (kg): It is the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the National Bureau of
Weights and Measurements, Paris.
3. Second (s): The second is the time taken by the light of a specified wavelength emitted by a
caesium-133 atom to execute 9192631770 vibrations.
4. Ampere (A): One ampere is that current which, when passed through two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length and of negligible cross-section kept at a distance of 1 metre apart
in the vacuum, produces between them a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per metre length.
5. Kelvin (K): It is the fraction 1/273.6 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water.
6. Candela (cd): A candela is defined as 1/60 th of the luminous intensity of 1 square centimetre
of a perfect black body maintained at the freezing temperature of platinum (1773 0C).
7. Mole (md): One mole is the amount of substance that contains elementary units equal to the
number of atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
Supplementary Units
1. Radian (rad): The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the arc whose
length is equal to the radius of the circle.
2. Steradian (Sr): The steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a
spherical surface of an area equal to the square of its radius.
Dimensional Formula
The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is the formula that tells which of the
fundamental units have been used for the measurement of that physical quantity.
Characteristics of Dimensions
(1) Dimensions do not depend on the system of units.
(2) Quantities with similar dimensions can be added or subtracted from each other.
(3) Dimensions can be obtained from the units of the physical quantities and vice versa.
(4) Two different quantities can have the same dimension.
(5) When two dimensions are multiplied or divided, it will form the dimension of the third
quantity.
Dimensional Analysis
The dimensional formula can be used to
(1) Check the correctness of the equation.
(2) Convert the unit of the physical quantity from one system to another.
(3) Deduce the relation connecting the physical quantities.
Units and Dimensions of a Few Derived Quantities

1. Error
The measured value of the physical quantity is usually different from its true value. The
result of every measurement by any measuring instrument is an approximate number,
which contains some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called error. Every calculated
quantity, which is based on measured values, also has an error.
2. Causes of Errors in Measurement
Following are the causes of errors in measurement:

Least Count Error. The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the
instrument. Least count may not be sufficiently small. The maximum possible error is
equal to the least count.
Instrumental Error. This is due to faulty calibration or change in conditions (e.g., thermal
expansion of a measuring scale). An instrument may also have a zero error. A correction
has to be applied.
Random Error. This is also called chance error. It makes to give different results for same
measurements taken repeatedly. These errors are assumed to follow the Gaussian law of
normal distribution.
Accidental Error. This error gives too high or too low results. Measurements involving
this error are not included in calculations.
Systematic Error. The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction,
 either positive or negative. Errors due to air buoyancy in weighing and radiation loss in
calorimetry are systematic errors. They can be eliminated by manipulation. Some of the
sources of systematic errors are:
(i) intrumental error
(ii) imperfection in experimental technique or procedure
(iii) personal errors
3. Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error
Estimation of error
Absolute errors
Suppose the values obtained in the measurement are a1, a2 , a3 , an the arithmetic mean of
these values are taken as best possible value of quantity

a 1+a 2+a 3+ … .an

a mean =
n

The magnitude of difference between the individual measurement and true of the quantity
is called the absolute error of measurement |∆a|
∆a1 = a1 − a mean
∆a2 = a2 − a mean
∆a3 = a3 − a mean
:::
:::
∆an = an − a mean
∆a calculated may be negative or positive but the absolute error is always taken positive.
Mean absolute error the mean of all absolute errors is called as mean absolute error ∆a mean

∆ a 1+∆ a 2+ ∆ a 3+ … ∆ an
∆a mean =n
❑

Relative error
The relative error is the ratio of mean absolute error ∆a mean to the mean value a mean of the
measured quantify.
mean/average absolute error
Relative error =
mean reading
Percentage error
The relative error expressed in percent is called as percentage error
Percentage error = relative error x 100%
Significant Figures
Significant Figures In the measured value of a physical quantity, the number of digits about the
correctness of which we are sure plus the next doubtful digit, are called the significant figures.
Rules for Finding Significant Figures
1. All non-zeros digits are significant figures, e.g., 4362 m has 4 significant figures.
2. All zeros occurring between non-zero digits are significant figures, e.g., 1005 has 4 significant
figures.
3. All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant, e.g., 6250 has only 3
significant figures.
4. In a digit less than one, all zeros to the right of the decimal point and to the left of a nonzero
digit are not significant, e.g., 0.00325 has only 3 significant figures.
5. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit in the decimal part are significant, e.g., 1.4750 has 5
significant figures

Ancient Astronomical Instruments

Arayabhata I (b.476 A.D.) occupies a prestigious position in the history of Indian astronomy and
mathematics. In view of his important contributions, particularly to astronomy, he has been
rightly regarded as the founder of scientific astronomy in India.
1 The Clepsydra (The water clock) The Use of water clock is referred to in the Vedanga-Jyotisa.
The more ancient or of water clock appears to have been simply a vessel with a small orifice at
the bottom, through which the water flowed in a fixed unit of time, says a nadika (1 nadika = 24
minutes)
2 The Gnomon It is mentioned in the Atharveda. It is vertical rod (gnomon) with 12 divisions
first description as well as Varahamihira in his Panchasiddantika gives details of its use in
astronomy.
Sanayantra: This instrument is used for drawing circles.

Avalambaka yantra: It is used for adjusting vertical line.

Karana: It is in used connection with angles and diagonals.

Dhanur yantra: It is used for nata and unata kala ghatikas.

Karttari yantra: This instrument is of the shape of a pair of scissors with two semi-circular
blades, fastened to a string at the centre, at the centre is a fixed pole which casts shadows.
Chakra yantra: It is a circle of which the circumference (peridhi) is divided into 360 degrees.
Provided with an axis at the centre perpendicular to its plane and suspended with a string.
(Armillary sphere) The first mention of Golaynatra is on the Aryabhatiya (Golapada) composed
by Aryabhata in 499 A.D, according to Aryabhta The Golayantra was a uniformly round circle
made of wood (bamboo) and which was of uniform weight (density). It was leveled with water
(Oil or mercury) .A Salaka (rod) was fixed in it in the south-north direction.

Brahmagupta’s astronomical instruments

According to Brahmagupta’s Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta There are seventeen types of Kala-
yantra (time-reckoning instrument) these are:

1. Dhanur yantra (Bow instrument).

2. Turyagolaka yantra (Quadrant).

3. Chakra yantra (Circle).

4. Yasti yantra (Staff instrument).

5. Sanku yantra (Gnomon).

6. Ghatika yantra (A clock or a pot instrument).

7. Kapala yantra (Bowl instrument).

8. Karttari yantra (Scissor or Knif, cutter).

Salila yantra: It is used for leveling; since a liquid such as water seeks its own level, it can be
utilized to know whether a surface has been leveled or not.

Sanayantra: This instrument is used for drawing circles.

Avalambaka yantra: It is used for adjusting vertical line.

Karana: It is in used connection with angles and diagonals.

Dhanur yantra: It is used for nata and unata kala ghatikas.

Karttari yantra: This instrument is of the shape of a pair of scissors with two semi-circular
blades, fastened to a string at the center, at the center is a fixed pole which casts shadows.

Chakra yantra: It is a circle of which the circumference (peridhi) is divided into 360 degrees.
Provided with an axis at the center perpendicular to its plane and suspended with a string.