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Chapter

Photochromic Dyes for Smart

Textiles
Virendra Kumar Gupta

Abstract

Photochromism is a light induced reversible color change phenomenon in

photochromic molecule due to light and heat effect and molecular species exist in
two forms which have different absorption spectra. The fascinating color change by
photochromic molecules in response to specific wavelength of light produces num-
ber of applications such as U.V. protective fabrics, ophthalmic photochromic lenses,
optical data storing, optical switch, sensors and display. This chapter provides a
brief and conclusive review of photochromism their mechanism and application in
Textiles. Although photochromic materials are in use since 1960 in lenses and
sunglasses, but the development is slow due to technical difficulties and poor
commercial application. Now there is renewed interest in photochromic materials
which are used in nanofibers in smart textiles and in allied items.

Keywords: photochromic colorants, thermochromic colorants, U.V. radiation

1. Introduction

The wide and increasing application of photochromic and thermochromic col-

orants in different fields initiates new interest in dyes and pigments. The photo-
chromic compounds got excited when irradiated at particular wavelength in range
of 200–400 nm and few compounds in 430–455 nm range. But researchers are more
interested to develop organic rather than inorganic photochromic materials because
their response in 400–700 nm visible region. The use of photochromic and
thermochromic colorants in making smart materials such as medical thermography,
photochromic lenses [ 1], food packaging materials, liquid crystal alignment [2, 3],
optical data storage [4, 5], non linear optics [6, 7], photo switching, molecular
photonic devices and in photochromic polymers [8] are well known. There is
demand for application of photochromic and thermochromic colorants in making
smart textiles,which are designed to sense and respond to external environmental
conditions and stimuli. Photochromic and thermochromic colorants are prone to
change their colors temporarily and reversibly in presence of UV light, visible light,
acids [9], alkalis, water, mechanical strain, temperature and in electric field. These
dyes became colored when exposed to these environmental conditions temporarily
and revert back upon disappearance of external environment. The photochromic
dyes [ 10] are categorized as inorganic and organic molecules. In inorganic types the
important are metal oxide, alkaline earth metals, sulphides, copper compounds and
mercury compounds. The organic types are effective and environment friendly and
they belong to the families of spiropyrans, spirooxazines, chromomenes, fulgides,

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Dyes and Pigments

fulgimides and diarylethenes. Spiropyrans, spirooxazines and chromomenes are

sensitive to thermal effect and reverse to colorless state under heat or visible light
however fulgides, fulgimides and diarylethenes are thermally stable. Out of these
spiropyrans are having more scientific interest than any other class.
Spiro compounds have pyran ring and linked to another heterocyclic ring
through spiro group. Spirooxazines molecules contain nitrogen atom at the place of
carbon in spiro group. These molecules (colorless) have non planer structure and
that inhibit delocalization of Л electrons in the molecules. In presence of UV light,
molecules absorb photon energy and breaking of –C-O- bond in pyran ring takes
place and there is formation of colored planar structure molecule. The planarity of
molecule allow delocalization of Л electrons and molecule become colored. This is
short term phenomenon and after absorption of heat or visible light molecules
convert into original structure (colorless) as shown in Figure 1.
The photochromism [11, 12] may be defined as a reversible light –induced color
change or reversible transformation between two different molecular structures
with different absorption spectrum in reversible manner due to electromagnetic
radiations. Photochromic materials are kind of chromic materials in which
photochromic and thermochromic materials are of paramount importance. In
photochromism the colorless molecule became colored in presence of UV Portion of
light however in the thermochromic molecules heat is responsible for change of
color [4].
The general physicochemical reaction of photochromic molecules are as given in
equation no. 1 [13, 14].

ð1Þ

ΔhY2

ʎ1 and ʎ2 are the wavelength of maximum absorption by corresponding mole-

cules and hY1 and hY2 are the energy absorbed by the molecules during transfor-
mation. Y1 is the frequency of wave in U.V. region and Y2 is the frequency of wave
in either U.V. or visible region and Δ is heat requirement. The factors which
influence reaction 1 are [15].

a. Wavelength of incident light

b. Speed of recovery or fatigue resistance

c. Long term stability of molecule to produce high number of cycles

Figure 1.
Conversion of colorless spriopyran molecule into colored molecule.

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2. Types of photochromism

2.1 Positive photochromism

In this photochromism photochromic molecule absorb UV light whose ʎmax falls

in UV region and colorless molecule became colored and on reversal during
bleaching process in visible wavelength it become colorless.

2.2 Negative photochromism

It is opposite to the positive photochromism instead of coloration discoloration

observed on exposure to UV light i.e. the original molecule is colored and after
exposure to UV light it loss their color.

2.3 (c) Photo responsible materials

In photochromic reactions, there is conformational modifications in the struc-

ture of photochromic molecules and due to that there are change in physico-
chemical properties of two form of the photochromic molecules and the change
observed in physico- chemical properties of both molecules (colored and colorless)
are called photo responsible materials [16].

3. Mechanism of Phtochromism

Photochromic reaction leads to change in electronic absorption spectra of mole-

cules. The formation of new absorption band due to transition of electrons from
various vibrational levels in the excitation of colorless molecules from S1A level to
excited state S1B after absorption of energy photon in UV region [17] and then after
the colored molecules deactivated to ground state S0B. Subsequently there is spon-
taneous energy release process and molecules come to original S0A ground state.
Thermodynamically the molecules in B state due to higher energy are less stable and
after releasing energy became colorless and more stable. The transition from state B
to A takes place via a transition state X, whose energy is higher than the triplet state
of colored form S0B and it is thermally activated. There are six mechanism which
responsible for the photochromic effect and they are,

• Triplet triplet photochromism.

• Hetrolytic cleavage

• Hemolytic cleavage

• Trans-cis isomerismation

• Tautomerism

• Photodimerisation

The transition of molecules after absorption of light in different energy levels is

shown in Figure 2.

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Dyes and Pigments

Figure 2.
Representations of electronic, radiative and non radiative transitions in photochromic materials.

4. Classification of photochromic materials

Classification of photochromic materials are based on back reaction i.e., if it

from colored state to colorless state is brought in the presence of light then it is
called P type photochromic materials (Figure 1), where as if back reaction occurred
due to heat energy, it is called T type of photochromic materials.
The p type photochromic materials exist in two reversible forms upon irradia-
tion and have good thermal stability with better fatigue resistance. In p type photo-
chromic materials [18, 19] during exposure to UV light ring opening takes place.
After ring opening, molecules absorb visible wavelength light and became colored.
This state of molecule is temporary and again it became closed ring system (color-
less). Most of the p type photochromic materials do not follow trans- cis isomerism
and which follow they have they have open ring structure in colorless form after
exposure to UV light they became closed ring structure (colored). The reverse
reaction i.e. ring opening is promoted by visible wavelength [20, 21].
In T type photochromic materials photochromic reactions takes place due to
thermal irradiation or by photo irradiation with visible light [ 22, 23]. It shows
reversible equilibrium between trans and cis isomerism of different stability.
In T type photochromism there is no breaking of bonds occur however there is
rearrangement of electrons between energy levels and alteration in geometric
arrangement of the molecules. The thermal reversal of molecule takes place in dark.
The important T type photochromic materials are perimidinespirocyclohexadienes,
spirodihydroindolizines and anils. There are some requirement in T type
photochromic materials which are,

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Photochromic Dyes for Smart Textiles
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• Smaller concentration should produce intense color with effective color

change.

• The conversion from colorless to colored form upon exposure to U.V. light
must be very quick.

• The photochromic molecules should have minimum time to loss their

absorbance half i.e., photo chromic effect should be lost as soon as removal of
activating light takes place.

• The photochromic molecules should have quick response in presence of U.V.

radiation.

• The life time of photochromic molecules should be longer (Approx. 2 years) in

both colored and colorless form. It should also have good resistance to fatigue.

• The photochromic molecules should be less vulnerable to variation in

temperature.

5. Types of photochromic materials (T types)

5.1 Spiropyrans

It is first T type photochromic molecules and widely used in the industry. It have
application in memory disks, optical switches, sensors and as a photochromic dyes
in textiles and plastics. The general structure contain a second ring structure, which
attach to pyron core at position two [24–29]. The coloring of the molecules take
place under exposure to U.V. light. The ring opening in molecular structure occur
under U.V.light and merocyanine form is created and that exist as cic-cis/trans-
trans mixture. The absorption of either U.V. or visible wavelength takes place after
ring opening and after absorption, new wavelength in visible region is produced. It
has low thermal bleaching rate and at high temperature the color became weaker. In
Figure 3 the ring opening of spiropyrans and formation of conjugated structure is
shown.

5.2 Spirooxazines

The chemical structure is similar to spiropyrans, the difference exit that instead
of pyron core, it has oxazine group [ 30, 31] (Figure 4). The spirooxazines has very
good resistance to photo degradation. The spirooxazines produces fast fading blue

Figure 3.
Photochromic reaction of spiropyrans (from closed ring structure to open ring structure).

5
Dyes and Pigments

Figure 4.
Photochromic reaction of spirooxazines (from closed ring structure to open ring structure).

Figure 5.
Different structures of photochromic oxazine (R = alkyl group, X = H, amino, hetaryl Y = H, halogen,
a = electron acceptor.

photo coloration. The different chemical structure of spirooxazines are shown in

Figure 5 The presence of different alkyl groups R at nitrogen atom decide the fading
and color strength of molecules [32]. In 1990s, plastic photochromic ophthalmic

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Figure 6.
Photochromic reactions of napthopyrans (TT trans-trans, CT cis-trans, TC trans-cis, CC cis-cis).

lenses were manufactured using spirooxazines. Other applications are photochro-

mic inks, dyes and various cosmetics items.

5.3 Napthopyrans/benzochromenes

It has wide commercial applications such as in plastic photochromic lenses. The

photochromism mechanism of benzo and naphthopyron are similar to spiropyrans
[33]. They all have breaking of C—O bond in the pyron core. The photochromic
reactions of napthopyrans/benzochromenes by the light induced ring opening is
shown in Figure 6. The ring opening of molecular structure produces more planer
structure with greater conjugation of bonds. The planer conjugated structure are
capable to absorb visible region wavelength and produces color. The naphthopyrans
are less sensitive to temperature.

6. P type photochromic materials

The p type photochromic materials have applications in computing, optical

circuitry, memory technology and in ultra high density storage devices. The p type
photochromic materials are of two types such as fulgides and diarylethenes. In p
type photochromic molecules, the open ring structures are colorless and closed ring
structures are colored [34–36].

6.1 Fulgides

The fulgides and fulgimide family belong to P type photochromic materials

(Figure 7). In 1905 Stobbe synthesized some photochromic fulgides named as
phenyl substituted bismethylene succinic anhdides. Heller et al. [37] developed a
compound succinimide called fulgimide. It exhibit good photochromic properties. It
has shows absorption spectrum of both forms with efficient photoreaction, thermal
and photochemical stability. The application of fulgides are In optical switches,
sensors, dye inks and memory disks.

7
Dyes and Pigments

Figure 7.
Photochromic reaction of fulgides.

Figure 8.
Photochromic reactions of diarylethenes.

6.2 Diarylethenes

It has hetrocyclic five membered rings such as thiophene or benzothiophene

rings and undergo thermally irreversible and fatigue resistant photochromic reac-
tions as shown in Figure 8. The thermal stability of both isomers of diarylethens are
due to presence of aryl groups and when aryl groups are furan or thiophene, the
closed form is thermally stable. However diarylethenes exhibit thermally reversible
reactions when the aryl group is phenyl or indole.

7. Effect of temperature

Surrounding temperature influence the performance of photochromic dyes. The

bleaching effect of photochromic dyes are accelerated by the temperature of sample
[38–40]. Dulic et al. find that ring opening process of diarylethene is temperature
dependent whereas ring closing process shows only slight dependence. Ortica [41]
reviewed the effect of temperature on the characteristics of various photochromiv
materials such as spirooxazines, chromenes and arylethenes, which are as follows,

• In thermo reversible photochromic materials, thermal bleaching increase with

increasing temperature.

• Specific temperature can induce spontaneous coloration in thermochromic

materials however decreasing temperature will not help in reducing the
complexity of photochemical reactions.

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• In nitro substituted chromenes, it was observed that temperature variations

influenced the coloration which developed due to substitution in the molecular
structure.

• A combination of photochromic and thermochromic materials possess

synergistic effect and give superior performance at high temperature.

8. Applications in textiles

8.1 By exhaust dyeing

8.1.1 Method 1

In this method the photochromic dyes are dispersed with dispersing agent [42]
and dissolved in water keeping the M:L ratio of dyeing 1:50. The dyebath pH is
maintained between 4.5–5.5. The dyebath temperature raised from 40 0 C to 60 °C
with 20 C/min gradient and then after it is reduced 10 C/min and final dyeing
temperature is maintained at 90 0 C and dyeing is continued at this temperature for
60 min. After completion of dyeing, soaping, rinsing and washing are done to
improve fastness properties.

8.1.2 Method 2

In this method the photochromic dyes can be applied as a disperse dye on

polyester fabrics by exhaust method of dyeing [43]. The dye is pasted with acetone
and then stirred in water with dispersing agent (1%) keeping the M:L ratio of
dyeing 1:50.The pH of the dyebath is maintained between 4.5–5.5.The aqueous
dyebath is boiled to evaporate acetone, subsequently temperature is raised to
120°C and dyeing is done at this temperature for 45 minute. After dyeing reduc-
tion clearing treatment is given at 70 °C for 20 min. and finally sample is soaped,
rinsed and washed.

8.2 By continuous dyeing

In this method photochromic dyes are dissolved in acetone and then mixed with
binder solution and padded with padding mangle at appropriate pressure. After
padding fabric is dried at 80 C and cured at 140 C for 3.0 minute in hot air oven or
stenter machine [44].

8.2.1 As a disperse dyes in printing

Photochromic dyes can be used as a disperse dyes which are insoluble in water.
The photochromic dyes are disperse with dispersing agent and wetting agent of
anionic nature. The dye dispersion is milled on a roller mill by using ceramic balls in
glass jar. The dye dispersion is mixed with sodium alginate thickener solution to get
printing paste. The polyester or nylon fabric can be printed with printing paste. The
fabric is dried at 100 °C and cured at 140 °C for 5 minute. After reduction clearing
treatment, printed samples were soaped with nonionic detergent and finally
neutralization is done.

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Dyes and Pigments

8.3 Application of thermochromic materials

Photochromic materials have applications in both textiles and non textiles. In the
textile field new fashionable colors in T-shirts, hand bags and caps are produced by
dyeing with photochromic dyes. There is application of photo colorable textured
yarn in knitting, weaving and embroidery. Polypropylene threads are produced by
mass coloration by adding photochromic dyes in melt polymer solution, which on
exposure to U.V. light produces different colors. Photochromic colorants are also
used in developing camouflage patterns for military protective clothing. The pat-
terns change their colors on exposure to sunlight and match with surrounding
environment. Photochromic microencapsulated fabrics are produced which change
their color on exposure to sun light. In non textile field photochromic materials are
used in ophthalmics, surface coating applications and dye lasers.

8.4 Color measurement

Due to reversible color changing properties of photochromic dyes, it is very

difficult to measure color value of the shade produced due to photochromic effect.
For measuring the color value, it is essential to control several parameters such as
temperature and time interval between U.V. irradiation of sample and measure-
ment. A.F. Little et al. [45] developed a technology to measure the color value of
photochromic textiles using independent U.V. irradiation with traditional spectro-
photometer. The temperature of sample measuring cabinet was controlled by local-
ized air heating system. The temperature of sample cabinet is maintained at 24 °C
and time interval of 30 sec. is kept between irradiation and measurement of sample
which can be seen in Figure 9.

8.5 Washing fastness test

Due to dynamic color change properties of photochromic dyes, it is difficult to

measure the fastness properties. The traditional assessment method of color fastness
using gray scale standards [46] are not appropriate, therefore it is measured by
comparative test method. In this method we measure the color difference of sample
before and after wash and compare with color difference before U.V. irradiation
and after 1 min. Exposure to U.V. irradiation. The level of photo coloration

Figure 9.
Color measurement (color bleaching) of photochromic dyes fabric samples in 30 sec. Time interval.

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developed by U.V. irradiation varies with photochromic colorant classes. It was

revealed that in selected spirooxazine colorants the degree of photo coloration
increases with initial washing and subsequently decreases. In case of napthopyrans,
the degree of photo coloration decreases continuously with successive number of
washings. In case of printing the washing fastness more depends on binder quality.

8.6 Light fastness/photostability

The conventional method of exposing the sample to accelerated fading instru-

ments (Xenotest or MBTF) is not applicable to photochromic colorants. In photo-
chromic colorants due to dynamic color change properties, for light fastness
measurement a normalized value of color value to be calculated. The normalized
value is defined as the degree of photo coloration after a particular time of exposure
on the xenotest instumemt to the fraction of initial degree of photo coloration i.e.,
ΔE/ΔEo.
ΔEo = color difference before and after U.V. Irradiation without exposing to
xenotest instrument.

9. Thermochromism

Thermochromism may be defined as the reversible change in the color of com-

pound due to temperature change [47]. The phenomenon of thermochromism may
occur even in small temperature interval. The thermochromism can be depicted as
shown in Figure 10.
The following type of materials can exhibit thermochromism properties [48].

• Organic compounds

• Inorganic compounds

• Polymers

• Sol gels

Figure 10.
Reversible color change from species a to B due to thermochromism. Here A = colored or colorless. B = colored or
colorless.

10. Organic compounds

It may occur as a result of equilibrium between molecular species such as acid –

base, keto-enol and different crystal structure. The organic thermochromic mate-
rials have application in fibers, optics and optical sensors. The organic
thermochromic compounds show sharp color change due to temperature variation.
The different organic thermochromic compounds may be classified as follows.

10.1 Liquid crystals

Some organic materials when pass from crystalline solid to isotropic liquid state,
they form stable intermediate phases (mesophase). Transitions between phases are
11
Dyes and Pigments

Figure 11.
Chiral molecules in cholesteric mesophases form.

brought either by influence of temperature or solvent respectively [49]. The chole-

steric (chiral nematic) are the most important type of liquid crystals for
thermochromic systems. Here molecules are arranged in helical form. The reflection
of light by liquid crystals are influenced by temperature. The pitch of the helical
arrangement of the molecules decides the wavelength of reflected light [50]. The
liquid crystals are microencapsulated to get the thermochromic effect. They are
applied to the fabric with the help of binder (Figure 11).

10.2 Stereoisomerism

Organic molecules which posses stereoisomerism, show thermochromism espe-

cially ethylenes. When change in temperature takes place, molecules of these com-
pounds switch between different stereoisomers. Generally the required temperature
for thermochromism to takes place is more than 150 C. So they can not be used for
textiles application [51].
In another case, the crystal violet lactone is pH dependent rather than tempera-
ture dependent. At pH above 4.0 crystal violet lactone is colorless and below 4.0
pH, it is violet.

10.2.1 Rearrangement

Due to molecular rearrangement of organic compounds more conjugated struc-

ture resulted and formation of new chromophores take place. Such type of molecu-
lar arrangement occur due to temperature variation, change in polarity of the
solvent or pH of the solution.

11. Inorganic thermochromic system

Thermochromic behavior are exhibited by solid or liquid inorganic molecules.

In such type of molecules thermochromic properties are due to following
mechanism [52],

• Phase transition

• Change in ligand geometry

• Equilibrium between different molecular structures

• Change in the number of solvent molecules in the co-ordination sphere.

These compounds show theromochromic properties at high temperature (1500 C),
therefore they are not suitable for textile application.

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12. Microencapsulation

In reversible thermochromic compounds a colorless dye precursor and color

developer both are dissolved in hydrophobic non volatile organic solvent and
resulted solution is encapsulated [53]. On heating, melting of organic solvent occurs
and there is appearance of color in thermochromic compound. On cooling solvent
solidify and system comes to original color. Microencapsulation has some advan-
tages that it protect sensitive coloring agents from external environment and allows
several thermochromic colorants to be combined together and produces several
narrow color ranges.
The organic solvents used in microencapsulation are alcohols, hydrocarbons,
ester, ketones, thiols and alcohol –acrylonitrile mixture. The important
thermochromic colorants are N-acyl leuco-methylene blue derivatives,
fluoran dyes and diphenylmethane compounds. There are large number of
compounds work as color developers such as phenol derivatives specifically
bisphenol A and bisphenol B. In some recent work there are use of 1,2,3 triazoles
such as 1,2,3 benzotriazole, dibenzotriazole, thioureas and 4 hydroxy coumarin
derivatives.

13. Application of thermochromic pigments on textiles

13.1 By exhaust method

• Cationic agent 5–8% (owf)

• Thermochromic Pigments 10–15% (owf)

• Non ionic leveling and dispersing agent 10–15% (owf)

• Acrylic Binder 10–15%

Thoroughly pretreated fabric taken in water keeping M; L ratio 1:20 and we add
cationic agent at temperature of 60 °C and run in the aqueous media for 15 min to
get positive charge on fabric. After treatment fresh water is taken in the bath and
thermochromic pigments are added, temperature is maintained at 70 °C run fabric
for 10–15 min. During dyeing non ionic dispersing agent and leveling agent are
added. Finally acrylic binder is added and we run the fabric at 70 C for 15 min.The
fabric sample is soaped and washed. In microencapsulated fabric the melting tem-
perature of solvent control the temperature at which decolonization/colorization of
thermochromic colorant occur.

13.2 Continuous method (In solution)

• Cationic agent 10–15%

• Thermochromic pigment 50%

• Nonionic dispersing and leveling agent 10–15%

• Acrylic binder 20%

13
Dyes and Pigments

13.3 Application technique

Pad Dry Cure

At room temperature (expression 70%) 80 C (3 min.) 140 C (2–3 min.)

13.4 Printing recipe

a. Thermochromic Colorant 20 part

b. Emulsion thickner 76 part

c. Acrylic binder 4 part

14. Thermochromic cellulose fiber

Marcin Rubacha et al. [54] developed a method to get thermochromic pigment

added cellulosic fiber called Lyocell. 1–10% chromicolor AQ-INK magenta type 27
pigmentation was used as a thermochromic modifier.

15. Photochromic polymers

A photo chromic polymer has photo chromic, chromophoric groups inside the
polymer backbone chain. The chromophoric group respond to external radiative
stimuli during the photo-irradiation of the polymers, there are change in physical
chemical and optical properties of polymer in reversible manner. In 1967 Lovrien
attempted to produce a polymer chain with photo irradiation sensitive properties by
incorporating azo chrysophenine into polymethacrylaic acid. In 1970 Agolini and
Gay [55] investigated photo chromic polyamides incorporating azo benzene. The
potential application of photo chromic polymers are in photo chromic glasses, UV
sensors, halographic recording media, non linear optics and memory devices.

16. Textile printing

Feczko et al. [56] printed cotton fabric by using photo chromic dyes based on
Ethyl cellulose –spirooxazine nano particles with light absorbers. They use micro-
encapsulation technique to incorporate photochromic colorants. Vikova [57]
applied photo chromic pigments on different fabrics such as cotton, polyester and
poly acrylonitrile by screen printing using pigment printing method.

17. Sol –gel coating methods

A sol is dispersion of solid particles in liquid where particles are sufficiently

small (0.1–1.0 μm). Due to inorganic nature [58] of layers formed by the sol gel
process it possess strong wear resistance and very thin nanometric sized layers. The
preparatory materials in preparing sols are inorganic metal salts or organometallic
compounds. The preparatory materials are submitted to series of hydrolysis and
polymerization reactions to produce colloidal suspension or sol, once the polymer-
ization is completed the colloidal form of the sol developed. Cheng et al. [59–61]

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prepared silica as a matrix material for fixing the photo chromic dye 5 Chloro 1,3
dihydro-1,3,3 trimethyl spiro on the surface of wool fabric through sol–gel process.

18. Mass coloration

Mass coloration or dope dyeing is method in which colorants are added in the
spinning composition before extrusion of filaments. Photo chromic polypropylene
[62] thread was prepared by this method. Vikova et al. [63, 64] prepared polypro-
pylene multi filaments by adding photo chromic pigments during dope preparation.
Concentration of photo chromic pigments was 0.25,0.5,1.5 and 2.5% by weight.

19. Conclusion

Photochromic and thermochromic materials presenting a new field of research

which are yet not fully explored in field of textiles and other allied fields in context
of application and durability. The photochromic and thermochromic colorant occu-
pied a niche position in colorant industry. Their application mainly concerned with
fashion, leisure and sports garments. Incorporation of photochromic colorants in
nanofiber based photochromic textiles can be made use of in smart textiles because
of their ability to react with external stimuli, which may work as chromic sensor.
Efforts can be done to improve properties such as light fastness and simplistic
application procedure. Presently two types of thermochromic system liquid crystals
and molecular rearrangement types have successful commercial applications. Japan
and U.S, A had developed wide range of thermochromic and photochromic mate-
rials, but innovations are required for commercial applications. The factors
influencing the equilibrium between colored and colorless form of colorant has to
be further explored. Presently only small number of commercial organizations are
engaged in research and development work of improved compositions. There is
need of study with respect to formulations, encapsulations and application of pho-
tochromic and thermochromic materials in textiles.

Author details

Virendra Kumar Gupta

Department of Textile Chemistry, M.L.V. Textile and Engineering College,
Bhilwara, Rajasthan, India

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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Dyes and Pigments

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