DBDA

Introduction:
Psychological testing began, it will be recalled, with efforts to device
scientific instruments for the measurements and study of individual
differences in intelligence. Measurement and analyses of this complex
mental process has continued to be most important and widespread
type of psychological testing. It is desirable, therefore, to examine the
definitions and theories of intelligence, both for their historical value
and their current significance in test construction and utilization.
Knowledge of these will give the student a fuller understanding of
current tests.
The methodology for measuring mental ability stands at the
crossroads between the traditional clinical – empirical mode of
development and the increasingly favoured psychometric approach.
At present the traditional clinical methods are serving as the basis and
support for tests of single individuals, while the statistical approach is
being employed in progressively more group tests.
In the past, the investigators developed certain tests to measure
intelligence according to their preconceived notions of what in
functional terms, ability really meant to them. Those who defined
ability as the activity to learn, developed various tests to measure this
quality. Similarly, those who regarded ability as synonymous with
intelligence, constructed reasoning problems and tasks to evaluate
intelligence. In this way ability tests developed into a congeries of
empirically assembled tasks organized according to various
operational definitions of this psychological phenomenon.

To define this phenomenon, we can say that ability is the actual power
to perform an act, physical or mental, whether attained by training
and/or education. General ability is concerned with all sorts of tasks,
but especially those of a cognitive or intellectual nature. Special
ability has to do with a defined kind of tasks. Each special ability
should, whenever possible, be so defined, as not to overlap with other
special abilities. Ability thus implies that the task can be performed
now, if the necessary external circumstances are present; no further
training is needed. To compare ability with similar phenomenon it is
seen that:
Aptitude (which formerly carried implications of innateness) has now
been specialized in technical writing to refer to the fact that the
individual can be brought by a specified amount of training to a
specified level of ability, either general or special, but usually the
latter.
Capability is the maximum effective- ness a person can attain with
optimum training. Capacity is a loose synonym for ability or even for
aptitude, often with implications of innateness.
Talent is a high degree of ability or of aptitude.
Gift and endowment are popular terms for high ability, largely
innate.
Competence is fitness either for a particular kind of task or fitness in
general.

Various theories have come up in the past few years to highlight the
different methodologies to be adopted for measuring differential
abilities. Among the most prominent ones is that of Group Factor
Theories. Such theories were originally conceived by Thurstone
whose work resulted in the construction of a set of measures called
Tests of Primary Mental Abilities. According to group factor theory,
ability not an expression of innumerable highly specific factors, nor is
it the expression primarily of a general factor that pervades all mental
activities. Infarct, the analysis and interpretation of group factor
theorists lead to the conclusion that certain
Mental operations have in common a "primary factor that gives them
psychological and functional unity and that differentiates them from
other mental operations. These mental operations, then constitute a
"group." A second group of mental operations has its own unifying
primary factor; a third group has a third; and so on. In other words,
there are a few groups of mental abilities each of which has its own
primary factor, giving the group a functional unity and cohesiveness.
Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively independent of
others.
Thurstone's work on "primary mental abilities" has been with us for
many years, based on the new methods of multiple- factor analysis of
some six such ability factors. Whereas other workers in this area such
as Charles Spearman in Britain and Karl Holzinger in US, had argued
(particularly Spearman) for studying each separate ability less for its
own conceptual sense and more for its contribution to the overall
central intellective or 'g' factor general intelligence. Thurstone's neo-
analytic tool-multiple factor theory -gave, instead, each broad ability
construct roughly equal importance and set investigators to the task of
more precisely defining the limits of the ability factors found in this
early research and extending the list of such "primary mental abilities"
beyond the six found in the pioneering research.

Thurstone characterised intelligence as a series of distinct abilities.

His approach was somewhat different from that of Thorndike or
Wechsler, who assumed that their individual sub-tests were pure
measures of the designated ability. Ac- cording to Thurstone, an
ability is isolated by giving mental tests to a great number of persons
and then determining, through a mathematical process known as
"factor analyses", the least number of abilities necessary to explain
the correlations among the tests. In his pioneering study Thurstone
(1938) isolated six "factors" that accounted for most of the score
similarity of 56 different tests given to a group of college students.
These were Verbal, Number, Spatial, Word fluency, Memory, and
Reasoning. The verbal factor was identified by its heavy "loadings"
on tests of reading, synonyms, analogies, grammar, and vocabulary.
Similarly, Thurstone's number factor was identified by loadings on
such tests as addition, multiplication and arithmetical reasoning. Out
of this research came the first of the "multi-aptitude" test batteries, the
primary mental abilities tests. Later, investigations. showed, however,
that the number of factors isolated depended considerably on the
educational and environmental back- grounds of the subjects tested
and, on the number, and types of tests used in the factor analysis. It
was even shown that Thurstone's so called "primary mental abilities
correlated positively with each other which suggests the presence of a
still more basic and general mental factor as had long been argued by
the British psychologist Charles Spearman.

Recent thinking among factor analysts about the nature of human

intelligence has led to slightly different ideas. One is rep- resented by
Spearman's British tradition. of investigation, exemplified by Philip
Vernon's structure of human abilities in which human mental abilities
are arranged in a hierarchy with a broad general factor and split into
two major "group" factors, one distinguished by verbal and
educational abilities and the other by practical or performance
abilities. Each of these major group factors is the differentiated into
more specific factors like Thurstone's verbal, number, and space.
These finally break into factors found in specific types of tests. Thus,
any mental performance can be described as involving percentages of
g, vied, verbal and others until all the factors needed to ac- count for
the performance have been determined. The scheme of Horn and
Cattell (1966) has some similarity to Vernon's structure. Cattell
distinguishes between. fluid and crystallized intelligence. Crystallized
intelligence is largely a function of one's environment and is much
like the v: ed abilities. Fluid intelligence reflects more of the genetic
aspect of intelligence and is more clearly reflected in non-language
background or previous experience.

Another view of mental abilities grows from Thurstonian American

tradition of investigation. Its chief advocate is J.P. Guilford, who
device a theoretical Structure-of-Intellect model (SI) In which he
classifies human mental abilities in three dimensions. The first is
defined by the kind of test content confronting the individual -
"figural", "symbolic", "semantic", or "behavioural". The second is
defined by the 'types of mental "operations" necessary to deal with the
various content forms-"cognition", "memorization", "convergent
thinking", "divergent thinking", and "evaluation". The last deals with
the outcome or "products" yielded by the various mental operations
applied to the various content forms. There are six products: units of
information, classes of units, relations between units, systems of
information, transformations, and implications. With four kinds of
contents, five kinds of operations and six kinds of products involved
in mental performances. Guilford postulates 120 (4x5x6) distinct
mental abilities in the SI model. He reports that about sixty of these
have been isolated through factor analytic investigations.

Perhaps the most important application of factor-analytic studies of

mental abilities has been the increasing use of "multi- aptitude" test
batteries in educational and vocational guidance. These batteries are
composed of a series of individual tests built around the findings of
factor analysis; to a certain degree each of the general battery's
subtests assesses a specific ability. One such battery is the Differential
Aptitude Test (DAT) for use with high school students; the DAT
contains seven subtests that measure verbal reasoning, numerical
ability, abstract reasoning. space relations, mechanical reasoning,
clerical speed and accuracy, and language usage. But DAT and other
such batteries which currently exist do not intend to be "pure"
measures of single "factors", they just provide a profile of an
individual's mental strengths and weaknesses. There- fore, taking this
aspect into consideration a test/battery was essentially required which
could delineate specific abilities based on current
occupational/vocational needs and lifestyles.

Thus, the stimulus for the development of David's Battery of

Differential Abilities (DBDA) came largely from the growing
realization that, although most of the primary ability traits had been
isolated and studied, the available standardized test batteries of
intelligence and abilities did not reflect currently accepted views of
the number and nature of the psychological constructs involved. The
overall guiding principal in the development of the DBDA was to
provide a battery of short tests to provide investigators with an
economical vehicle for assessing a wide range of the important ability
constructs.

Thus, keeping the above concept in mind, the David's Battery of

Differential Abilities (DBDA) Revised Version is being devised to
have an accurate measure of an individuals' various mental abilities.
The DBDA (Revised Version) is a standardized procedure for
objectively measuring what a person can do at the time he is being
assessed and under the conditions of the assessment. Included in this
concept is the realization that individual behaviour including mental
pro- cesses, is neither consistent nor stable. Although scores for
groups may be relatively stable, it does not follow that the individual
score within a group will be similarly stable. And the fact that DBDA
may have high predictive validity does not mean that any individual
taking this test may be accorded the same predictability as the group
itself. Because ability is a product of nature as well as nurture, an
individual’s mental functioning will be influenced by many extrinsic
factors such as cultural exposures, including quality of education, as
well as intrinsic factors such as personality characteristics. The most
we may say for the DBDA scores is that it describes how the
individual performs here and now, and that all things being equal, he
will probably continue to function in a like manner.
ABILITIES MEASURED IN DBDA
VERBAL ABILITY (VA)

Verbal Ability refers to the comprehension of words and ideas, or a

person's ability to understand written language. It has been studied by
the psychologists for many years and is one of the most important of
human abilities. Traditional tests of general intelligence usually
largely USUALLY tap VA. In the DBDA, VA is assessed by two
different kinds of sub-tests: Vocabulary (VA Part:1) and
Understanding proverbs (VA Part: II). This ability can be expected to
figure prominently in success in academic and school-related
performances. It is a predictor of occupations involving much reading
and writing of re- ports, and so on. This factor is assessed by taking
the sum of a person's scores on VA-I and V-II. In this and other tests
of the DBDA, no correction for guessing is ap- plied.

VA Part: involves word meaning exercise to assess the subject's

knowledge of English words and his ability to abstract and generalise
relationships among words. VA Part-II involves the ability to
recognize the proverbs and understand their latent meaning, an ability
assumed to be essentially the same as that of comprehension of
language, and usage of words in day-to-day life.

The VA subtest is included in this battery because it is anticipated to

be useful in predicting important criteria such as aca- demic success,
speedy and accurate re- call of exact data received from the
surroundings, and rapid comprehension of verbal communication
where verbal relationships and concepts are important. The VA score
deserves a considerable weight where it is to be judged that whether
the subject is "rom a good formal school education or not.
Vocationally, the VA score also indicates something about the
occupational level up to which the subject should appropriately
aspire, since there is a positive relationship in many occupations be-
tween the level of responsibility of a job and the complexity of
verbally phrased ideas to be comprehended.

NUMERICAL ABILITY (NA)

Numerical ability refers to facility in manipulating numbers quickly

and accurately. in tasks involving addition, subtraction. multiplication,
division, squaring dealing with fractions etc. NA is distinct from both
reasoning and mathematical knowledge and is with the more basic
trait of facility and fluency in fundamental number operations. This
ability is generally found high in individuals who are successful in
mathematical, scientific, and technical subjects. It is a predictor
occupation involving computational task 3, such as various clerical,
accounting, engineering, technological, data processing jobs, etc.

The problems to be solved in NA test are not difficult but they have to
done in very limited time. Thus, increasing the difficulty level for
rapid calculations. In combination with the VA score, both the tests
are a good measure of general learning ability.

SPATIAL ABILITY (SA)

Spatial Ability is concerned with perceiving spatial patterns

accurately, and following the orientation of figures when they position
in a plane or space is altered/ This ability has been extensively studies
over the years and has been seen as ar indicator of non-verbal, or to
some extent culture-fair intelligence, since its dependence on
acculturation and learning is minimal. In DBDA, SA is assessed by
items in which the subject must be able to determine quickly whether
two-dimensional figures have been merely turned around (rotated) or,
they are turned over and rotated (revers ed). This ability is found to be
high in individuals who are successful in geometrical drawing,
drafting, vocational training, and in art and design.
CLOSURE ABILITY (CA)
Closure Ability is primarily a perceptual ability measured by the
DBDA. It refers to the ability to see quickly a whole stimulus when
parts of it are missing, or to "complete the Gestalt." The principle of
closure has been adopted from Gestalt Psychology which says that the
brain tends to fill in gaps to perceive complete meaningful forms. CA
is a speed test assessed by items in which the examinee must look at a
"mutilated word, i.e., a word with parts of the letters missing, decide
what the word is, and then find which one of the five jumbled options
spells that word when unjumbled. Both completing the gestalt of the
"mutilated word" and unjumbling of the letters in the options tap this
ability. CA can be expected to be relevant to success in courses and
occupations involving speedy visual perception, such as those
concerned with office and shopwork, architecture, computer
programming and data processing, art and designing, etc.

CLERICAL ABILITY (CL)

Clerical Ability is perceptual activity primarily concerned with
making rapid evaluations of features of visual stimuli. In CL, the
perceptual speed and accuracy is measured by items in which the
examinee must rapidly assess the sameness or difference of paired
groups of letters or numbers. The items provide a series of situations
which simulates the elements involved in many clerical jobs. Little or
no "higher level" of intellectual difficulty is involved in this test. But
since intelligence or mental ability components are adequately
measured by other tests of this battery, it was decided to include this
ability also due to high vocational value of this ability. CL is
important to success in many tasks involving record-keeping, filing,
taking inventories, dispatching, coding, and other similar jobs. It is
relatively less importance for most educational purposes, although
students who score very low may find it difficult to meet classroom
standards of neatness, speed and precision. A low score on this test for
a generally superior subject is likely to indicate his/ her emphasis on
correctness rather than speed.

REASONING ABILITY (RA)

Reasoning Ability refers to the ability to apply the process of
induction or to reason from some specific information to a general
principle. Here, RA is measured by items requiring the subject to
inspect sets of four letters and discover how four of the five sets
presented embody a general principle, while the fifth does not. Thus,
little or no reliance is placed on learned material, words, or numbers,
so that RA scores will be a good indicator of non- verbal, non-
culturally biased intelligence. This is one of the most important
primary mental abilities in many tests of general intelligence. RA is
important to success in many areas particularly those that stress logic,
such as courses and occupations in mathematics or related pursuits,
computer programming, engineering, sciences and scientific
technology.

MECHANICAL ABILITY (ΜΑ)

Mechanical Ability refers to an understanding of basic mechanical
principles, simple machines, tools, electrical, and automotive facts.
This factor can also be referred to as "Mechanical Information" or
"Mechanical Experience," as MA score is dependent mostly on
acquired knowledge and skills in such areas. It has been found useful
in the prediction of success in training and occupational performance
in technical vocational areas. The ability measured by MA test may be
regarded as one aspect of intelligence. The person who stands high in
this ability finds it easy to learn the principles of operation and repair
of complex devices. The MA test is useful in those curricular and
occupations where an appreciation of the principles of common
physical forces is required. If a student intending to go for higher
studies in a physical science field (or in a technical/manual training
course) but does not get a good score on MA, he/she is likely to
perform poorly in his/her job and find the work difficult. Thus, MA
score is relevant for courses and occupations concerned with
machinery and shop, electrical/electronic tasks, factory, automotive,
carpentry, and engineering technologies. It is important to realize that
MA scores are of less educational and vocational significance for girls
than for boys. The mean scores for girls are lower and value of the
test for educational or vocational guidance is less clearly established
for females.
PSYCHO-MOTOR ABILITY (PM)
Psycho-motor Ability refers to precise movements requiring eye-hand
co-ordination under highly speeded conditions. PM ability can be
considered one of fine muscle dexterity, primarily manual. The test
requires the subject to draw finely controlled pencil lines, as quickly
as he can, in specially constructed figures. The PM test can also be
associated with the MA test, as its importance to success in
mechanical-technological endeavours is well established. In addition,
PM can be expected to be relevant for success in assembly line work,
drafting, and clerical jobs.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION ON DBDA-R

The reliability estimates for the DBDA-R tests were calculated using
the KR-20 formula for internal consistency, complemented by split-
half and test-retest methods due to the nature of the speed tests. The
split-half reliability coefficients ranged from .69 for the Spatial
Ability (SA) test to .95 for the Visual Ability (VA) test, while the KR-
20 coefficients varied from .62 for SA to .92 for VA. Test-retest
reliability coefficients were generally consistent, with scores
between .61 for Reading Ability (RA) and .85 for VA.
In terms of validity, the DBDA-R tests demonstrated concrete validity
through their correlations with academic achievement and IQ scores.
A study involving boys and girls aged 14 to 17 revealed significant
relationships between DBDA test scores and academic performance.
Additionally, correlations with established intelligence tests showed
that the WAIS (Verbal) yielded coefficients ranging from .48 for
Visual Ability (VA) to .68 for RA. The 16PF (Factor-B) produced
slightly higher correlations, with values between .52 for VA and .69
for CL, while Jalota's GMAT had coefficients ranging from .44 for
PM to .65 for MA.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE BATTERY

The working time and number of items for each test in the DBDA-R
battery are as follows: The VA test consists of two parts. Part 1 has 15
items with a working time of 4 minutes, while Part 2 has 9 items with
a working time of 3 minutes and 30 seconds. The NA test contains 20
items with a working time of 5 minutes and 30 seconds. The SA test
consists of 72 items with a working time of 6 minutes. The CA test
has 20 items. The MA test contains 25 items. The CL test consists of
72 items. The RA test has 12 items with a working time of 5 minutes.
The PM test includes 70 items, divided into sections with working
times of 5 minutes, 9 minutes, 3 minutes, and 5 minutes respectively.

STANDARDIZED TEST INSTRUCTIONS

Some general considerations or points that apply to all the tests are
given below followed by specific information for each test.
1) General Considerations:
Read the instructions for this test to yourself while I read them aloud.
Pause where example appear, to allow the subjects some time to think
through the examples. Clarify instructions or doubts at this point, if
necessary, subjects may reread parts of the instructions and re- view
the examples, but no new examples should be given and then begin
timing. The examiner should be assured he knows the time allotted to
a test ben fore he gives the signal to start. For SA and CL, it is
important that that the working time not be informed to the subjects.
If an enquiry is made regarding the time for these tests, he/she should
be replied:
Persons taking this fest are not given the working time. Please
continue to work until told to stop.
The timings for SA and CL are not disclosed to the subject, to assess
the speed and accuracy under high anxiety states
Emphasize that the directions such as not going on to a PART-II or the
next page until told do so are to be strictly adhered to. In a group
testing situation, the examiner, or assistant, should unobtrusively walk
around the room to see that the subjects do on the page when they
finish the test.
Before beginning the battery, the examiner should encourage the
subjects to do their best by stressing the importance of the tests in
determining what each person's strength are, and which area/course is
best suited for him/her. Subjects should be reassured that they are not
expected to get every item correct
Allow the subject to relax 20 to 30 seconds before beginning the next
set of instructions
APPLICATION OF DBDA BATTERY
The uses of aptitude/ability test results fall into two general
categories: a) counselling with individuals, and b) in making
administrative decisions about individuals or groups. It is important to
keep these two uses separate wherever they are applied: in schools,
industry, business, social agencies, or elsewhere. Both functions,
however, require quite simi- lar kinds of information. In schools, in
social agencies, and in private consultation work, individuals are
given aptitude tests and other tests. This testing is an integral and
accepted part of the fact-finding phase of counselling. Modern
schools provide individual counselling for each student will respect to
his educational and vocational needs. Such schools also organize
guidance programs which give the necessary information concerning
each student's decision regarding his educational and vocational
career The administrative use of DBDA-R scores relates to discipline
scholastic or behavioural.
Major applications include
- Identifying learning disabilities, giftedness, or cognitive decline
- Informing educational and vocational planning
- Evaluating cognitive impairments in neurological or psychiatric
conditions
- Researching cognitive development, aging, and cognitive training
effectiveness
- Talent identification and employee development in occupational
settings
The DBDA's unique features include its:
- Comprehensive coverage of cognitive abilities
- Age-range applicability
- Flexibility for tailored assessments
- Integration with other evaluation tools
Applications in Different Occupations:
1. Education: Identifying learning disabilities, giftedness, or cognitive
strengths for tailored instruction.
2. Clinical Psychology: Assessing cognitive impairments in mental
health conditions (e.g., ADHD, depression).
3. Neuropsychology: Evaluating cognitive deficits after brain injury
or neurological disorders (e.g., stroke, dementia).
4. Human Resources: Talent identification, career development, and
employee selection.
5. Sports Psychology: Assessing cognitive abilities related to athletic
performance (e.g., attention, reaction time).
6. Military: Evaluating cognitive fitness for duty, identifying training
needs.
7. Rehabilitation: Developing cognitive rehabilitation plans for
individuals with acquired brain injuries.
8. Research: Studying cognitive development, aging, and cognitive
training effectiveness.
9. Aviation: Assessing pilots' cognitive abilities (e.g., attention, spatial
reasoning).
10. Healthcare: Evaluating medical professionals' cognitive skills
(e.g., decision-making, problem-solving).
11. Law Enforcement: Assessing cognitive abilities related to
situational awareness and decision-making.
12. IT and Programming: Identifying cognitive strengths in problem-
solving, logical reasoning.