CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

What is Cement?

Cement is a fine powder made from a combination of limestone, clay, and other minerals. It is a
binding material used in construction to bind other materials such as sand, gravel, and water to
create concrete, mortar, and other building materials.
A cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens and can bind other
materials together.
 It is the product obtained by burning a well-proportioned mixture of Siliceous,
Argillaceous and Calcareous materials and crushing the same into a fine powder.
 Cement is a manmade mineral structure created at high temperatures, mainly comprising
lime (CaO), Silica (SiO2) and oxides of aluminum and iron (Al2O3 and Fe2O3).
 It is a hydraulic powder material, which reacts with water to produce strength-bearing
lattices.
QUARRY

Raw materials employed in the manufacture of cement are extracted by quarrying in the case
of hard rocks such as limestones, slates, and some shales, with the aid of blasting when
necessary. Some deposits are mined by underground methods. Softer rocks such as chalk and
clay can be dug directly by excavators.

Quarry is a place where raw materials are extracted and it is a ware house of natural mineral or
rocks. Based on rocks we can define the quarrying, that is the breaking of the rock in a safe and
economically way and then transporting the results to a plant for further reduction size. Cement
manufacturing process is starting from the quarry.

Quarry indicates to extraction material directly from the surface of earth. In kuyu cement factory
the quarry processes are the first step that is quarry of limestone, clay and the raw material
prepared through quarrying process

Raw material
Raw materials are the input that a company needs to manufacture its product. A raw material,
materials that are feedstock for future finished products. Also known as a feedstock, unprocessed
material, or primary commodity, is a basic material that is used to produce goods.
Generally raw material is a matured or immature substance that can be used as input to produce
substance or something.
Raw materials for cement production
 Primary raw materials Lime (CaO) from limestone (CaCO3), chalk, shale or calcareous
rock and other limestone containing minerals.
 Secondary raw materials Silica (SiO2): from sand, clay or argillaceous rock. Alumina
(Al2O3): from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay. Iron (Fe2O3): from clay, iron ore,
scrap iron and fly ash.
 Tertiary raw materials Gypsum Other "alternative" raw materials slag, mill scale, fly ash
Raw material type
Raw material type used mainly to manufacture cement are: -

Limestone: Limestone is the most common form of calcium carbonate which is used extensively
for the manufacture of cement,

Clay: Consisting basically of aluminosilicate, it is one of the raw materials from which cement
and hydraulic lime are made.

Pumice: Pumice stone is a natural sponge-like lightweight aggregate formed during the rapid
cooling and solidification of molten lava. After suitable preparation, it can be used as an
aggregate to produce lightweight concrete or as a cementitious material to produce blended
cement or geopolymer.

coal: Coal is used as an energy source in cement production. Large amounts of energy are
required to produce cement.

Gypsum: Gypsum is a mineral and is hydrated calcium sulfate in chemical form. Gypsum plays
a very important role in controlling the rate of hardening of the cement

Basalt: Basalt is described as igneous rock that can be used as an SCM with low pozzolanic
activity, as a replacement for the cement powder or as an additive to the cement paste in new
cement formulations

Sandstone: Sandstone cutting waste is used as substitute of natural sand in concrete.

Quarry of those materials is vital to extracted from their source properly to use for quality of
production effectively and the cost minimizing method considered to handling of the raw
material types from their quarry processing

Mining methods
Mining is a process of extracting and exploiting the raw material underground for any use;
mining is also extracting burned material below the earth surface while quarrying refers to
extracting material directly from the surface.

The mining and quarry sector includes mining metal ores, quarrying of stone, sand, clay and
other minerals. During development and exploitation to extract the natural material rock, soil, or
waste the operation employed are similar in all type of mineral. These basic steps are called the
unit operation mining. So, the basic production cycle in mining includes drilling, blasting,
loading.

The sequence and need of these operations vary depending on the nature of the material being
excavated.

This implies, to remove soil or to break soft rock drilling and blasting operation may be
unnecessary.

 Rock penetration: is one of the two important components of rock breakage and the other is
rock fragmentation.

 Drilling: is the process of making holes /penetration the ground /rock.

The purpose of drilling in mining includes:

 For placement of explosives

 For collecting samples during farther exploration

 For testing foundation

 For placing rocks

Generally, quarrying of raw materials within types of raw material follows the following steps.

 Mining and removal of over burden

  Drilling and blasting
 Loading
 Transportation
 Crushing
 Site restoration

Geological Composition of each Raw Material

The raw material that are used for cement production has different physical properties and
chemical composition that affect the quality of cement. Therefore, the composition and density
of the raw material should have to identified by geological department at quarry level.

Limestone: - is hard sedimentary rock, composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) used as
building materials and in the making of cement. calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) is a wide spread in
nature. The purest grades of limestone are calcite and aragonite. Limestone in kuyu cement is
extracted from a place called kerrensa.

Chemical composition of limestone

Limestone is primarily composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), but it can also contain various
other minerals and impurities. The exact composition can vary based on the source of the
limestone.

Impurities and additional minerals can affect the properties and uses of limestone. Below is a
table that outlines the typical chemical composition of limestone.

Chemical composition limestone

Oxides Their percent in Average

LoI 40.25

CaO 48

SiO₂ 4.47

Al₂O₃ 2.15

Fe₂O₃ 0.73
 MgO 1.83

Process of limestone extracting

The process of extracting limestone typically involves several steps, which can vary based on the
method used and the specific characteristics of the deposit.

Site Selection and Exploration

 Geological Survey: Conduct geological surveys to identify suitable limestone deposits.
 Core Drilling: Perform core drilling to assess the quality and quantity of limestone.

Planning and Permitting

 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Evaluate potential environmental impacts
and obtain necessary permits.
 Mining Plan: Develop a mining plan that outlines extraction methods, site layout, and
reclamation strategies.

Clearing the Site

 Vegetation Removal: Clear vegetation and topsoil from the mining area.
 Access Roads: Construct access roads for equipment and transportation.

Extraction Methods
 Open-Pit Mining: The most common method for limestone extraction, where large pits
are dug into the earth to access the limestone deposits.
 Drilling and Blasting: Use drilling rigs to create holes in the rock, followed by blasting
to fracture the limestone.
 Underground Mining: Used when limestone is located deeper underground; involves
creating tunnels to access the deposit.
 Surface Mining: Involves scraping off layers of soil and rock to expose limestone.

Crushing and Screening

 Once extracted, limestone is crushed into smaller pieces using crushers.
 Screening processes separate different sizes of limestone for various applications.
Transportation
 Transport the limestone to processing plants or directly to customers using trucks,
conveyors, or rail systems.

Clay: The other important raw material for cement manufactures is clay. It is formed by the
weathering of alkali and alkaline earth containing aluminum silicates and of their chemical
conversion products. The main components of clay are formed by hydrous aluminum silicates.

The extraction area is located in Oromia Regional state North Showa Zone, Kuyu Woreda in
kuyu cement factory

Chemical composition of clay

Clay is primarily composed of fine-grained minerals, and its chemical composition can vary
widely depending on its mineralogical content. The main components of clay minerals typically
include silica (SiO₂), alumina (Al₂O₃), and water (H₂O), along with other oxides. Below is a
simplified table showing the typical chemical composition of common clay minerals:

 Silica (SiO₂): The main component, providing structural strength.

 Alumina (Al₂O₃): Contributes to plasticity and workability.
 Iron Oxide (Fe₂O₃): Affects color and can influence the firing temperature.
 Magnesium Oxide (MgO): Found in some clays, affecting thermal properties.
 Calcium Oxide (CaO): Can be present in calcareous clays.
  Sodium and Potassium Oxides: Affect the clay's behavior during firing and its
plasticity.
 Water (H₂O): Present in varying amounts, contributing to the plasticity of wet clay.

Chemical composition clay

Oxide contents Percent of oxide

LoI 12

SiO₂ 52.03

Al₂O₃ 23.24

Fe₂O₃ 18.26

CaO 2.39

MgO 1.47

Pumice: Pumice is a light, volcanic rock that forms when lava cools rapidly and traps gas
bubbles, resulting in a porous texture. Its composition can vary depending on the specific
volcanic source,

-is a natural stone sponge-like lightweight aggregate formed during the rapid cooling and
solidification of molten lava. In addition to this pumice is light material less dense than other
ingredients.

After suitable preparation, it can be used as an aggregate to produce lightweight concrete or as a

cementitious material to produce blended cement or geopolymer.

Since the pumice is other raw material for production of Pozzolana Portland cement (PPC) and
not available in kuyu town, it is transported from Adama.
Chemical composition of pumice.

Chemical composition of pumice from Adama

Oxides Percent

LOI 5.69

SiO2 67.68

Al2O3 12.96

Fe2O3 6.39

CaO 3.92

MgO 1.6

Gypsum: Gypsum is a mineral found in crystal as well as masses called gypsum rock. It is a

very soft mineral and it can form very pretty, and sometimes extremely large colored crystals .
Gypsum is one of raw material which are added to the clinker and also some parts of gypsum is
underground with the other raw material preparation. The addition of gypsum is to control the
settling time of the cement. For kuyu cement industry the gypsum is transported from the Abay.

Chemical composition of gypsum

Chemical composition of gypsum Percent in average

Loi 21-22%
SiO2 0.85
Al2O3 0.77
Fe2O3 0.48
CaO 33.01
MgO 0.36
So3 42.8

Coal: Coal plays a significant role in cement production, primarily as a fuel source and as a raw
material.
Fuel Source: Combustion: Coal is burned in kilns to provide the high temperatures required for the
chemical reactions involved in cement production. The typical temperature in a cement kiln can
reach up to 1450°C (2642°F).

 Energy Generation: The combustion of coal generates the necessary heat to convert raw
materials (like limestone and clay) into clinker, which is the intermediate product in
cement manufacturing.
 There are 3 different type of coal pet coke, south African, local coal
Difference between each coal

. Local Coal

 Origin: Refers to coal sourced from a specific region or country, which can vary widely
in quality and type depending on geological conditions.
 Composition: The composition can vary significantly based on the local geology, but it
typically includes carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

South African Coal

 Origin: Coal mined in South Africa, known for its significant reserves and high-quality
coal deposits.
 Composition: Generally high in energy content (especially bituminous coal) with lower
impurities compared to some other regions. South African coal often has favorable
properties for combustion and is known for its low sulfur content.

▎ Petroleum Coke (Pet coke)

 Origin: A byproduct of the oil refining process, specifically from the cracking of crude
oil.
 Composition: Composed primarily of carbon (about 80-90%), with varying amounts of
sulfur and heavy metals depending on the source of the crude oil.

Basalt: Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock, in kuyu cement factory basalt is
extracted from Sombo cheka
Basalt is composed mostly of oxides of silicon, iron, magnesium, potassium, aluminum, and
calcium. Classify as igneous rock by its mineral content whenever possible, with the relative
volume percentages of quartz (crystalline silica (SiO2),

Chemical composition of Basalt Percentage in average

Loi 9.48%
SiO2 37.7
Al2O3 15.92
Fe2O3 17.97
CaO 7.85
MgO 3.8
Moisture content 0.67

Chemical composition of basalt

Sandstone: is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly silicate grains. Sandstones comprise
about 20–25% of all sedimentary rocks.
most resistant minerals to weathering processes at the Earth's surface. Like uncemented sand,
sandstone may be any color due to impurities within the minerals, but the most common colors
are brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly
visible cliffs and other topographic features, certain colors of sandstone have been strongly
identified with certain regions. In kuyu cement sandstone is again extracted from a place called
Abay

Chemical composition of sandstone Percentage

Loi 2.69%

SiO2 87.07%

Al2O3 2.61%

Fe2O3 1.22%

CaO 2.05%

MgO 0.49%

Moisture content 2.77%

Blasting Methods and Types of Explosives.

Blasting: - is a process of rock penetration or explosive during mining process by using the
chemical blasting.

Methods of blasting: - the step which to follow for the blasting of rock or quarrying process is as
follow.

Over burned Drilling Fulling chemical Blasting and explosives

Types of explosives
An explosive is a substance which has high rate of combustion involving an excessive and
instantaneous increase in volume of resultant gases. The common chemical used in the
explosives are: - nitroglycerin, ethylene, glycol dinitrate, Ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate and
calcium carbonate.

There is different type of explosives used in blasting:

1. Low explosives

2. High explosives

3. Chlorate explosives

4. Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO) explosives

Meanwhile in Kuyu cement factory we use ANFO (ammonium nitrate fuel oil) or (NH 4NO3)
Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO):

It is consisting of ammonium nitrate of the fertilizer grade and some suitable fuel oil and are
popularly called ANFO explosive. Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) fuel oil mixture has acquired a
great popularity and recognition in the mining industry because of the following advantages.

 It is cheapest, safest and least hazardous to handle.

 Purchase and storage of its constituent.
 It can be mixed, ready for use locally

In Kuyu cement factory while we use ANFO, we mix 80 % NH 4NO3 with 20% fuel, this makes
the material to crack by giving them high density.

Generally during explosive, the safety is very necessary and securely government is considered.

Challenge face in raw material exploration

There are many challenges that faces kuyu cement factory during raw material exploration;

 Accessibility or access to land

 Access to fund (exploration cost)
 Environmental impact
  Healthy and safety
 Peace and security issue
 Solid waste Dust
 Physical change to the mine area
 Ther is no shade for raw material to store
CHAPTER TWO

CRUSHER

In the cement industry, a crusher is a vital piece of equipment used to break down large rocks and
raw materials into smaller, more manageable sizes for further processing.
Crushers play a crucial role in the cement production process by preparing raw materials for
further processing. Their ability to efficiently reduce material size enhances overall production
efficiency and contributes to the quality of the final cement product

A crusher: is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into a smaller rocks or dust. Crushers
may use to reduce the size or change the form of waste materials. So, they can be more easily
disposed of or recycled or to reduce the size of a solid mix of raw material (as in rock ore).
Crushing devices hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces and apply
sufficient force to bring the surfaces together to generate enough energy with in the material
being crushed so that its molecules separate from or change alignment in relation to deformation
each other and also mining operation used crushers.

Each crusher is designed to work with a certain maximum size of raw material and often delivers
its output to a screening machine which sorts and directs the product for further processing.

The application areas of crusher like in cement industry, mining processes and sugar industry
involving it.

Crusher types
1. Jaw Crusher:

 Function: Primarily used for primary crushing.

 Operation: Utilizes compressive force to break down larger rocks.
 Advantages: High reduction ratio and ability to handle hard materials.
2. Impact Crusher:

 Function: Used for secondary or tertiary crushing.

 Operation: Employs impact force to fracture materials.
 Advantages: Produces a more cubical product and is effective for softer materials.

3. Cone Crusher:

 Function: Also used for secondary or tertiary crushing.

 Operation: Uses a rotating cone to crush materials against a fixed outer surface.
 Advantages: Provides a high level of control over the size of the output material.

4. Hammer Crusher:

 Function: Suitable for crushing softer materials.

 Operation: Utilizes hammers mounted on a rotating shaft to impact and break down
materials.
 Advantages: Simple design and effective for certain types of raw materials.

5. Roll Crusher:

 Function: Used for fine crushing.

 Operation: Employs two rotating cylinders to crush material between them.
 Advantages: Produces a uniform product with less dust.

But in kuyu cement factory (KCF) there are only hammer crusher and jaw crusher.

Mechanical components of crushers

Hammer crusher: A hammer crusher is a type of crushing equipment that uses high-speed
rotating hammers to impact and break down materials. It is commonly used in various industries,
including cement, mining, and recycling, to crush softer materials such as limestone, coal, and
gypsum.

Mechanical component of hammer crusher

 Drive Motor: Powers the rotor to facilitate crushing.

 Gear Box: Transmits power from the motor to the rotor, adjusting speed and torque.
  Couplings: Connects the motor to the gearbox, allowing for flexible movement.
 Grizzly Bar: A screening device that separates larger materials before crushing.
 Hammers (28): Striking tools attached to the rotor that fracture the material.
 Front Liner: Protects the interior of the crusher and aids in material reduction.
 Rotor: The rotating assembly that holds hammers and generates crushing force.
 V-Belt: Transfers power from the motor to the gearbox or rotor.
 V-Belt Supporting Bearing: Supports the V-belt, ensuring smooth operation and
alignment.
Working principles of hammer crusher

Material Feeding: Raw materials, such as limestone and clay, are fed into the crusher through a
hopper.

Impact Crushing: The rotor, equipped with hammers, rotates at high speed. When materials
enter the crushing chamber, they are struck by the hammers. This impact breaks the materials
into smaller pieces.

Size Reduction: As the materials are crushed, they fall through the grizzly bar or screen at the
bottom of the chamber. The size of the crushed material can be controlled by adjusting the gap
between the hammers and the liner.

Recycling of Material: Larger particles that do not pass through the screen are recycled back
into the crushing chamber for further reduction.

Discharge: The finely crushed material is discharged from the bottom of the crusher and can be
transported to storage or further processed.

Dust Control: In some setups, dust control measures are implemented to manage airborne
particles generated during crushing.

Particle size distribution of all raw materials

 Particle size distribution measurement is a common method in any physical, mechanical,
or chemical process because it is directly related to material behavior and/or physical
properties of products.
  A particle size distribution indicates the percentage of particles of a certain size (or in a
certain size interval). These intervals are also called size classes or fractions.
 Quantitative measure of particle shape can be obtained indirectly by analyzing two or
more types of particle size and looking at different “shape coefficients” that relate to
those sizes.

The particle size distribution of raw materials in cement is an important factor that affects the
properties of cement. The critical strength and curing properties of cement are dependent on the
particle size distribution resulting from the grinding phase . In general, between 60 and 70% of
the material should be between 3µm and 30µm in size . Excess large particles (greater than
50µm) can cause problems by reducing strength due to incomplete hydration, whereas excess
small particles (less than 2µm) can reduce strength and cause the cement to crack by setting
exothermically. The particle size distribution of cement can be measured using laser diffraction .

Hammer Crusher capacity and power consumption

The designed information for hammer crusher in KCF, (during limestone crushed)

 Material feed: - limestone

 Capacity: - 150-240 Ton/hr.
 Power consumption: 315KW
 Size of feed: 800*800*mm
 Size discharge:-<(25mm)
 Number of hammers =28

However, the hammer crusher used for or South Africa coal (during drying process accrued
because of moisture released. So, the designed information of hammer crusher is

 Material feed: South Africa Coal

 Capacity: 30Ton/hr.
 Power consumption:55KW
 Size of feed: ≤100mm
 Size of discharge (output): ≤25mm

Electrical components of hammer crusher

The electrical parts that consider as component of crusher are:
  High voltage: - to supply electrical energy. e.g., 10kV used for electrical supply
 Capacitor bank: - to control a loss of power or rise power efficiency
 High voltage motor: - to generate motor.
 Liquid resistance starter: - (LRS)- to rise starting torques
 Control cabinet: - to control
 Installed cable (signal): - received the sensor of each operation for computer
system
 Drift switch: - belt balance and for emergency time.

Jaw crusher: in the cement industry is a type of heavy-duty machinery used primarily for the
crushing of raw materials, such as limestone, clay, and other aggregates. It operates on the
principle of compressive force, where two plates (the fixed jaw and the movable jaw) work
together to crush the material into smaller, manageable sizes.

Mechanical component of jaw crusher

Frame: The main structure that supports all other components. It is usually made of heavy-duty
steel to withstand the stresses of crushing.

Jaw Plates

 Fixed Jaw Plate: Stationary part that forms one half of the crushing chamber.
 Movable Jaw Plate: The moving part that crushes the material against the fixed jaw
plate.

Eccentric Shaft: A rotating shaft that drives the movement of the movable jaw. It is typically
supported by bearings and is crucial for converting rotary motion into linear motion.

Bearings: Bearings support the eccentric shaft and allow smooth rotation. They must be robust
to handle heavy loads and reduce friction.

Flywheel: A large wheel attached to the eccentric shaft that helps maintain momentum during
operation and reduces vibrations.

V-belt: Transmits power from the motor to the flywheel, ensuring efficient energy transfer.
Discharge Chute: The area where crushed material exits the crusher, typically designed to direct
the material into a conveyor system or storage area. Hopper: -used for material dump vertically
inclined which means the entrance bin of a raw material crusher (gypsum).

Discharger chute: -used to transfer the discharge or output product.

Crushing chamber: - this motion is useful as it assist in pushing the particles through it.

Therefore, Jaw crushers are used for the primary reduction of very hard and abrasive admixtures
for cement manufacturer.

The particle size distribution of the jaw crusher product is considerable affected by the loading of
the machine; a crusher operating substantially below capacity will yield coarse product with high
proportion of over size.

or: - to generate the electrical into mechanical that used to move the jaw crusher.

Jaw crusher capacity and power consumption

The designed jaw crusher that used for gypsum crushed has:

 Material feed: Gypsum

 Capacity :30 Ton/Hr.
 Power consumption :37 KW
 Feed size :<600mm
 Grain size (discharge size) :<25mm
 Moisture:<3%

Generally, process flow diagram or flow sheet or block diagram of jaw crusher, which used to
crush the Gypsum is as follow: -

Electrical component of jaw crusher

The electrical components of a jaw crusher are crucial for its operation, control, and safety

Control Panel: This houses various controls and indicators, including start/stop buttons,
overload protection, and emergency stop switches.

Sensors: Various sensors may be installed to monitor parameters such as temperature, vibration,
and load. These help in predictive maintenance and ensure safe operation.
Wiring and Connectors: High-quality wiring and connectors are essential for reliable power
delivery and to minimize electrical losses.

Starter System: This includes contactors, relays, and fuses that help start the motor safely and
protect against overloads.

Material conveying mechanism

In the cement industry, the material conveying mechanism is crucial for the efficient transport of
raw materials, intermediate products, and finished cement.

 Apron feeder
 Belt conveyor
 Screw conveyor
 Bucket elevator
 Drag chain
 Air slide and pan conveyor

Apron feeder: An apron feeder is a crucial piece of equipment in the cement industry, used to
transfer raw materials to crushers or other processing equipment at a consistent rate. Here are
some key points about apron feeders:

Applications: In the cement industry, apron feeders are used to extract bulk materials
from under a dump hopper or to regulate feed to a crusher. They can operate horizontally
or vertically.

What are the components of an apron feeder

Apron Feeders move materials from a hopper to their destination at a steady speed. They have a
frame, undercarriage parts, a head shaft, tail shaft, flights, and a motor. The chain on the
undercarriage wraps around the head and tail shafts, and the flights, attached to the chain, travel
over undercarriage rollers.

Belt conveyor: Belt conveyors play a crucial role in the cement industry by facilitating the
efficient transportation of raw materials and finished products within the plant.
Working principle of belt conveyer

The belt conveyor is a conveyor belt that is supported by upper and lower rollers as a
bearing member and a traction member. It bypasses the head and tail rollers to form a
closed-loop conveyor. It transmits power by means of the friction between the driving
roller and the conveyor belt. Realize material transportation.
The belt conveyor has the following characteristics:
 Long conveying distance;
 Large conveying capacity;
 Simple structure, low capital investment, and low operating expenses;
 The transmission line can be arranged horizontally, obliquely, or bent horizontally or
vertically, so it is less restricted by topographical conditions;
 Simple operation, safe and reliable, easy to realize automatic control.
Screw conveyor: Screw conveyor is a device widely used in the industry to transport
solid materials in the direction of torsion and in horizontal, vertical, and inclined
directions. It consists of three main parts: screw chute, screw shaft and screw blade.
Working principle: The operating principle of the screw conveyor is based on the combination
of the gravity of the material and the frictional force between the material and the machine wall.
As the screw rotates, the blade generates thrust, pushing the material to move reciprocally along
the bottom of the conveyor.

The material at the mid-axis point is pushed by the material from behind, while the non-rotating
nut moves in the direction of the screw. The screw propels the material and ensures uniform
distribution over the entire conveyor.

Bucket elevator: Cement bucket elevator plays an important role in cement production and
is used for transporting raw materials, charge, pulverized coal and finished products.

Working principle of bucket elevator

under the action of centrifugal force or gravity, materials will be unloaded from the discharging
port and sent to the next process.

Idler type and its function:

Idlers are vital to the conveying process. They support the belt and conveyed material along its
full length preventing it from stretching, sagging and eventually failing.

Types of idlers obtained in KCF: -

A. Transition idler(impact):

Impact idlers are placed at loading and transfer points where the material first lands on the belt.
These idlers are designed to absorb the shock and impact of the material being loaded, protecting
the belt from damage. They typically feature a series of rollers with a resilient surface, such as
rubber, to cushion the impact.
By reducing the force of the impact, these idlers help prevent tears and punctures in the belt,
extending its lifespan. Additionally, impact idlers aid in maintaining the belt’s alignment by
preventing sudden shifts and movements caused by the loading process.

B. Carrying idlers:
Carrying idlers are positioned on the carrying side of the belt, supporting the load being
transported. They are typically arranged in sets of three or more rollers, forming a trough shape
that cradles the material. This troughing effect helps to keep the load stable and centered on the
belt. The angle of the trough can vary, with common angles being 20°, 35°, and 45°, depending
on the type of material and the required capacity.
By providing stable support, carrying idlers prevent the belt from sagging under the weight of the
load, which can lead to misalignment and increased wear. Properly functioning carrying idlers
ensure the load is evenly distributed across the belt, enhancing the system’s efficiency and
longevity.
C. Return idlers:
Return idlers are located on the return side of the belt, supporting the empty belt on its return
journey. There are several types of return idlers, including flat return idlers, V-return idlers,
rubber disc return idlers, and spiral return idlers. Each type is designed to address specific issues
such as belt tracking, debris removal, and minimizing belt wear.
For instance, flat return idlers provide a flat surface for the belt to travel over, while V-return
idlers help in centering the belt. Rubber disc return idlers are effective in shedding sticky
materials, and spiral return idlers help clean the belt and prevent material buildup. These idlers
play a crucial role in maintaining the belt’s alignment and preventing it from wandering off
course, which can cause damage and reduce efficiency.
Operation and control of crusher system in detail (from crusher to the bin):
The sequence of START/ STOP is the attention part and need pain during the process is start.

For Limestone crusher, the operation and control system;

 Objective:
 To ensure smooth start and stop operation
 Pre-checks:
 Silos material level status
 inspect Apron feeder, Hammer crusher, belt conveyors and bucket elevator
 make sure all hammer crusher inspection doors are closed & sealed
properly
 inspection of bag filter 211BF01,2,3,4 and 211FN01
 inspect 211VV01 status
 communicate with the attendant which silo is the minimum
 Check compressed air availability (0.4Mpa).
 Make sure the apron feeder hopper is full of material
 Communicate to the lab person which type of material (over burden or
pure limestone) will be crushed
 Safety:
 make sure no person engaged in any of machineries
 no person standing under belt conveyors
 make sure no water & material leakage around 211BC01
 Start Procedure;
 Start de- dusting system of 211BF01/2/3/4
 Start 211BC03 and 211BE01
 Start 211BC02 and 211BC01
 Start 211HC01 and then after five minutes start 211AP01 with 3-5Hz, then
increase the frequency by checking the material flow on 211BC01 & 211BC02
 Stop Procedure;
 Stop 211AF01 and then if there no material is out from hammer crusher stop
211HC01
 Stop 211BC01 and 211BC02
  Stop 211BE01 and 211BC03
 Stop de- dusting system of 211BF01/2/3/4
 Hammer crusher is overload:
 If the material has a lot of moisture enter
 If there is foreign or uncrushed material enter
 If hammer crusher discharge line is blocked
 To avoid such kind of problems, implement the following actions
 First Spread the material to the sun for minimize its moisture
 Select the foreign or uncrushed material before inter into the hopper
 If it is already overloaded
 Open the inspection doors and clean

Type of interlocks & its functions:

is a primarily a safety measure through the process interlocks used to control the loops or
sequence. Inter-locking is a method used to maintain safe operating state of machinery.
Interlocks put the target device into default position to help ensures process is in a safe state.

 interlocks report to the control system, it can consist of any electrical or

mechanical devices and even it can include a computer program with an installed
interlock software. Interlocks are defined as a way to prevent something from
happening in a system. A simple example of an interlock is pushing the brake
pedal or clutch in your car before shifting it into drive or first gear.

Types of interlocks
A. Safety interlocks: Safety Interlock something that prevents possible damage or death to
people operating that process or equipment.

B. Process Interlock: Something that prevents incorrect operation or possible damage to the
process or equipment.

C. protection interlocks: are physical devices or circuits that are connected directly to the
PLC inputs and outputs. They bypass the PLC logic and act independently of the software
 program. Examples of hardwired safety interlocks are emergency stop buttons, limit switches,
pressure sensors, relays, and contactors.

D. Permissive interlocks: The interlock is only in a position other than its safe or default
position if and only if certain are true. In all other instances, including poor signal quality, the
interlock assumes ‘default’ position

Functions of interlocks
Interlocks are safety devices or systems designed to prevent unsafe operations or conditions in
machinery and equipment. Their primary functions include:

Safety: Interlocks ensure that certain conditions must be met before a machine can operate. For
example, a door interlock might prevent a machine from running if a safety guard is not in place.

Preventing Damage: By controlling the sequence of operations, interlocks help protect

machinery from damage that could occur from improper use or operational errors.

Emergency Shutdown: Many interlocks are designed to trigger an emergency shutdown of

equipment if certain parameters are violated, enhancing the safety of operators and equipment.

Operational Sequencing: Interlocks can enforce the proper sequence of operations in complex
machinery, ensuring that tasks are completed in a safe and efficient manner.

Access Control: They can also restrict access to hazardous areas during operation, ensuring that
only authorized personnel can operate or maintain equipment.

Sensors and measuring devices that can be installed at crusher area

In the cement industry, various sensors and measuring devices are essential for efficient and safe
operation at the crusher area.
 Level Measurement Sensors:
 Point Level Detection:
 Pressure Measurement:
 Pressure Transmitters: For monitoring and controlling the pressure within the
crusher area.
 Flow Measurement:
 Blockage Detection:
 Ammeter: measuring current flow
 Voltmeter: - voltage measuring
  Reactive power control: to regulator loss of power with capacitor bank how power
loss.
 Term controller: to regulate setpoint value of temperature.
 Pressure controller: to control the pressure
 Level sensor
 Rope switch sensor
Generally, these sensors help in maintaining optimal operation, reducing downtime, and ensuring
safety in the crusher area of a cement plant.
Challenge face in crushers
Generally

Equipment Failure: This can include issues with the crushers, screens, conveyors, and other
components. Equipment failure can be due to wear and tear, mechanical issues, or electrical
problems.
Blockages: Material can become jammed or blocked in the crusher, leading to reduced
throughput and potential damage to the equipment. Blockages can occur in the feed hopper,
crusher chamber, or discharge conveyor.
Wear and Tear: Crushers are subjected to a lot of stress and abrasion, so the wear and tear on
their components can be significant. This can lead to reduced efficiency and increased
maintenance requirements.
Overloading: Overloading the crusher beyond its designed capacity can lead to damage and
equipment failure. It's crucial to operate the crusher within its specified limits.
Material Contamination: Contaminants, such as tramp metal or oversized rocks, can enter the
crusher and cause damage to the crushing chamber and other components.
Lubrication Problems: Insufficient or improper lubrication of moving parts can lead to
premature wear and equipment failure. Regular lubrication and maintenance are essential.
Electrical Issues: Electrical problems, such as short circuits or component failures, can disrupt
the operation of the crusher plant.
In KCF at crusher area many challenge faces those are
 High moisture content of the raw material;
 There is underground water Around 211BC01
 Hammer crusher operate by manual operation not connected to the CCR
 No rope switch 211BC02 and 211BC01
 There is no shade that RM are stored
 Over size RM
 uncrushed material