MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING

Overview and Historical Development of MRI

History of MRI
⁃ Research in NMR properties
Who did research on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in the Atomic Level? Nuclear Magnetism
> Otto Stern
> Isidor Rabi - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

NMR Properties of Solidly

> Edward Purcell
> Felix Bloch
- Studied the NMR properties of water
⁃ Bloch equation ( became a foundation for NMR imaging )
⁃ Father of MRI
> Raymond Damadian
⁃ First Medical Physicist
⁃ Produce the first crude MRI image of the Rat’s tumor
> Paul Lauterbur
⁃ Producing Cross Sectional NMR image
⁃ 1st method of NMR Imaging
⁃ Zeugmatography ( to combine all together )
⁃ Use of Back projections oldest NMR imaging technique

Fourier Transformation
⁃ Newest Technique to form NMR Image

> Peter Mansfield

⁃ Invent the Echo- Planar Imaging
⁃ DWI ( Diffusion Weighted Imaging ) & FMRI ( Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging) -

1st MRI machine - Indomitable

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

⁃ Is the process of creating diagnostic images through the use of magnetic fields
and Radiowaves to obtain a mathematically reconstructed image.
⁃ Patient is subjected into a strong external magnetic field > RF Signals are "Sent"
in > RF Signals are "Turned" off > Release of Signals for Image formation

Advantages of MRI
1. Excellent Contrast Resolution
2. Multiplanar Imaging
 3. Excellent Sensitivity and Specificity
Sensitivity- Ability to detect subtle differences in anatomy
Specificity - Nature of difference
4. No ionizing radiation

PHYSiCS
Atomic Basis of MRI
• Atom is the fundamental unit of Matter.
• It is mainly composed of Sub-Atomic Particles (Protons, Electrons, & Neutrons).
• Protons - Most important particle; p+
⁃ 1.673 x 10^ -27kg
• CI Neutrons - Heaviest particle, no
⁃ 1.675 x 10 ^ -26 kg
• Electrons - Lightest Particle; e-
⁃ 9.1 x 10 ^-31 kg

e = # of proton ( atoms are electrically neutral )

atomic mass = proton - nO
neutrons = proton - atomic mass

All of the Sub-Atomic Particles possess three types of motion:

⁃ Electrons spinning on its own axis.
⁃ Electrons Orbiting the Nucleus
⁃ Nucleons Spinning on its own axis
⁃ The spin of each particle especially the PROTONS + NEUTRONS "aka.
Nucleons" and Electrons (sub-atomic particles possessing a random spin).
⁃ Induces magnetic field also known as "Magnetic Moments"
⁃ The Little Bar Magnets - caused by the Particles with charges.

Little bar magnet - moving charge induces magnetic field

Nuclear Net Spin = Magnetic Susceptible

• Each element has varying Atomic Mass - either ODD or EVEN.

• According to Physics, if an element has an ODD Atomic Mass number:
• It Possesses a Nuclear Net Spin
• "IF AN ELEMENT POSSESSES A NUCLEAR NET SPIN IT IS CONSIDERED
AS AN MR ACTIVE NUCLEI'
• If an element has an EVEN Atomic Mass number.
• It DOES NOT possesses a Nuclear Net Spin

Hydrogen - known as MR active nuclei

ODD- High Magnetic Susceptibility
EVEN - Low Magnetic Susceptibility

⁃ One of the most abundant Element that can be found in the human body is
Hydrogen.

⁃ The Hydrogen nuclei also has the HIGHEST NUCLEI MAGNETIZATION due to
its Nuclear Net Spin (based from its Atomic Mass).

80 % Hydrogen
60 % H2O

MRI Physics
The 3-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System
⁃ x,y ( transverse axis ; transverse magnetization ; Mxy )
⁃ z ( z direction longitudinal ; equilibrium magnetization state ; Mz )

Random Alignment
⁃ the orientation of hydrogen atoms are in random fashion

If humans have the majority of naturally occurring MR Active nuclei then why can't we be
influenced by a strong magnetic field?
Magnetic Domain
⁃ Small pocket of natural alignment found in para and ferro magnetic material
⁃ High magnetic susceptibility

Bo External Magnetic Field

⁃ MRI machine
Tesla - SI unit
Gauss - Conventional Unit
1T - 1000G
x 3.0T

Vector Alignment
⁃ Scalar ( Magnitude only ) vs Vector ( Magnitude & Direction )
⁃ Collection of all the hydrogen atom
⁃ NMV Nuclear Magnetization Vector
⁃
External Magnetic Field ( Bo )
⁃ Upward ( North ) of Z direction
⁃ Classical Theory ( anti - parallel ; downward, against the direction of Bo , high
energy, cancel outs prallel hydrogen atoms )
⁃ Quantum Theory ( parallel, towards the direction of Bo , low energy )
 1. direction of alignment
2. energy

Polarization
⁃ Is the phenomenon which net magnetization vector is formed.
⁃ px becomes part of the bigger magnetic system

Precession
⁃ Is the "Wobbling" type of motion that occurs in spinning Hydrogen Atoms

Larmor Equation
⁃ Is a mathematical formula that is used to calculate the speed of precession and
its frequency
⁃ wo = Y Bo

Gamma
⁃ Gyromanetic ratio
⁃ Wo

High Larmor Frequency = External Magnetic Field ( Bo )

Larmor Frequency
Specific Frequency of Resonance

⁃ to achieve resonance

Precessional Phase
⁃ Refers to the position of magnetic moments of spins on their precessional path at
any moment in time.

When does the atom go "Out of Phase"?

⁃ Incoherent phase
When does the atom go "In Phase" occur?
⁃ RF signal
⁃ coherent phase

Resonance
⁃ Is a phenomenon that occurs when the natural frequency of an object system
matches the external energy
⁃ RF- Matching of the natural frequency with external energy

1. To achieve resonance the MR System matches the energy a frequency of the

Hydrogen Nuclei
 2. Radio-waves Short burst of EMR that interacts with the Hydrogen Proton
3. "Energy Transfer" RF= PF - Resonates

Resonance
⁃ MRI system matters with the natural energy & frequency of the hydrogen atoms
⁃ Larmor Equation - specific frequency and energy
⁃ a requirement Larmor Frequency

RF pulses ( radiowaves ) - Hydrogen Atoms LF / PF = RF

⁃ Resonance Transfer

1. RF PULSES ARE "TURNED ON" & "SENT IN “

2. The RF Pulses interacts with the NMR Vectors:
3. The RF Pulses ENERGY WILL BE TRANSFERRED through ABSORPTION.
4. EXCITATION OCCURS.
5. HIGH ENERGY VECTORS HAVE THE ABILITY TO GO AGAINST THE BO.
6. The LONGITUDINAL (Mz) Magnetization DECREASES.
7. The Nuclear Magnetization are "In-Phase"
8. The TRANSVERSE (Mxy) Magnetization INCREASES.

Relaxation
⁃ Is the de-excitation of the Hydrogen Atoms
⁃ Releasing Energy
⁃ T1 ( spin lattice relaxation ; energy is released to the environment )
⁃ T2 ( spin- spin relaxation; energy is released to losing phase coherence with
neighboring spinning hydrogen atom )
Free- Induction - Decay

Free Induction Decay

⁃ Is the MR signal that is released from the de-excitation of the Hydrogen Protons.
⁃ Free exist w/o RF Stimulation
⁃ Induction moving magnetic field induces electricity
⁃ Decay as time passes the signal maturity decreases

Micheal Faraday
⁃ moving magnetic fields

Imaging Parameters - Contrast Mechanism

Contrast Parameters
⁃ Intrinsic ( inherent ) cannot be controlled
• T1 recovery, T2 Recovery & Proton Density
⁃ Extrinsic can be controlled
• TR, TE, Flip Angle, Turbo Angle
Imaging Parameters - Contrast Mechanism
pic
Repetition Time
⁃ Is the time of application of one Radiofrequency Pulse (RF) to the next.
⁃ determines how fast the MR system is sending RF pulses
⁃ Controls : Relaxation Time

Time to Echo
⁃ Is the time between an RF excitation pulse and the collection of Signal.
⁃ Determine the literality time of the MR system
⁃ Controls: Relaxation Time and Peak Signal Received

Extrinsic Flip Angle - Is an Angle Formed by the rotation of the Nuclear Magnetization Vector
(NMV).
Turbo Factor- Is the succession of Rephasing Pulses in TSE

Tissue Extremes
⁃ Fat - Low browmian motion
⁃ Water - highest browmian motion ; inefficient release
Browmian Motion - Denotes the random motion of particle / molecules
180 degrees - inversion

Intrinsic / T1 Recovery
⁃ The time it takes for the 63% of the Nuclear Magnetization to recover/ return into
Equilibrium
⁃ White appearance ; fat
⁃ Black appeanrance ; black
⁃ Occurs at the rate : 200-300ms fat and water back to longitudinal
63% is the cut off
⁃ controlled by TR

MRI- based on the intensity of the returning FID signals

Hyper intense- white
Hypo intense- black
Iso intense- gray

Fat
⁃ Takes Shorter/time to recover towards equilibrium

Water
⁃ Takes Longer/time to recover towards equilibrium
Intrinsic/ T2
⁃ The time it takes for the 37% of the Nuclear Magnetization to maintain their
Phase Coherence
⁃ 30 - 150 ms
⁃ Controlled : Time Echo

Fat
⁃ Takes Shorter time in losing Phase Coherence

Water
⁃ Takes Longer time in losing Phase Coherence

PD ( Proton Density ) / Intrinsic

⁃ The number of Hydrogen Atoms present in the area being sampled is the basis
for image contrast formation.
⁃ High hydrogen content ; White
⁃ Low hydrogen content ; Black

IMAGE WEIGHTING

MR Weighted Imaging ( process of MR imaging which the characteristics of recovery time more
pronounced)
T1
• T1 Weighted images have pronounced T1 Relaxation Time characteristics and
the T2 Relaxation characteristics are reduced.
• Repetition Time : Short
• Time to Echo : Short
• Detailed demonstration of anatomy
T2
• T2 Weighted images have pronounced T2 Relaxation
• Time characteristics and the T1 Relaxation characteristics are reduced.
• Repetition Time : Long
• Time to Echo : Long
• Identification of pathology
Proton Density Weighted Image
• The image produced have diminished T1 and T2 characteristics.
• The image contrast will depend on the Hydrogen Concentration of the anatomy
being imaged.
• High hydrogen content ; White
• Low hydrogen content ; Black
• Repetition Time : Long
• Time to Echo : Short
Short TR
> Fast application of RF pulses
> it will allow the complete differentiation of FAT & H2O

Long TE
> Literacy time natory for the return FID signal
> High CNR
> Allowing the differentiation of fat and water by allowing the complete defacing FAT & H2O
1. dephasing
2. longitudinal ( Mz )

Pulse Sequences
⁃ Series/ grouping of one or more RF pulses

Spin Echo Pulse Sequence / Conventional Spin Echo

⁃ "Gold Standard Pulse Sequence"
⁃ Uses a 90 ( excitation )-180 (rephasing ) pulse sequence to form an image.
⁃ can produce T1, T2, PD
⁃ Increased Scan time
Fast Spin Echo Pulse Sequence
⁃ Rare Rapid Acquisition Relaxation Enhancement
⁃ TSE Turbo Speed Echo Uses a 90 RF pulse and a series of 180 RF Rephasing
Pulse to form an image.
⁃ Increase Image Acquisition
⁃ Loss of Resolution “ Image Blurring “
⁃ Increase Tissue Heating
⁃ SAR Specific Absorption Rate
Inversion Recovery Pulse Sequence
⁃ STIR ( Short T1 Inversion Recovery ; Short Tau ir )
⁃ Flair ( Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery )
Diffuse Weighted Imaging
⁃ Mainly used for Stroke and Perfusion Imaging
⁃ Supply and nutritional though the of blood flow
⁃ Brain Viability Study
⁃ Diffusion ( passive movement of molecules )
⁃ Diffusion coefficient ( measurement of passive movement of molecule )
⁃ ADC apparent diffusion coefficient ( diffusion coefficient through the use the use
of strong magnetic field ) ; Brain Swelling low ADC
⁃ high ADC ; normal
⁃ movement of molecules is restricted

Diffuse Tensor Imaging ( DTI )

⁃ used for characteristic/ classification of malignant ( complex masses ) vs benign
lesions

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Machine Components

Picture pls

Primary Magnets
⁃ Its to generates Bo ( External Magnetic Field )
⁃ Disadvantage: Fringe Fields ( strong magnetic field )
⁃ Superconductive
Permanent Magnets / Permamagnets
⁃ Open Architecture MRI Machine
⁃ Claustrophobia ( fear of closed spaces )
⁃ Obese patient
⁃ Metallic Implants
⁃ Uses Natural Magnets : Ferrite
⁃ Alumni, Nickel, Cobalt ( AlNiCo )
⁃ Alloy - Mixed metals

Primary Magnets
"Electromagnets"
⁃ Resistive MRI Machine
⁃ Uses Electromagnets Aluminum strips that are spirally arranged in thousands of
layers
⁃ Solenoid
⁃ Dependent on the electric supply
⁃ Magnetic Fields can be turned off
⁃ Horizontal
⁃ Superconductive MRI Machine
⁃ Uses: Superconductivity
⁃ Is the property that allows the flow of electricity without any resistance - which
occurs at near absolute zero
⁃ Modern and Most Common MRI magnet machine
⁃ Niobium-Titanium (NbTi) Cryogen ( supercooled liquid material )
⁃ Liquid Nitrogen ; Liquid Helium
⁃ 9 kelvins - Critical Temp
⁃ Low temperature the electric resistance is 0
⁃ Free flowing of e- with out resistance
⁃ 264 degree

Cryogenics - Branch of physics that studies the extremity low temp environment
Cryostat- Containers which houses superconducting wires & cryogens
Dewars- Containers that are used to helium & nitrogen for transport & refill
Quench
- Is an unforeseen event when the superconducting magnets warms and the electromagnetic
coil become resistive
Liquid nitrogen / Helium ( Vapor )
Asphyxiation
⁃ High Bo ; High Image quality

MRI Instrumentation
⁃ Passive Shielding ( Copper )
⁃ Active Shielding ( Faraday Coye ) mode of the mri ; reduce fridge field

"Shimming Coils"
⁃ Secondary Magnets that are responsible for the maintaining Magnetic Field
Homogeneity
⁃ Shimming ( process of making the Bo homogenous ) ; Shim Coils ( ; Pole Phase
⁃ Magnetic Field Inhomogeneity - the emitted magnetic field has non-uniform
distribution. (there are areas of High and Low Bo).
⁃ Ensure the Bo homogeneity ( External magnetic field will produce homogenous
magnetic fields

Gradient Coils
⁃ Broad and Thick copper conducting bands that varies the External Magnetic Field
Strength
⁃ "Slew Rate" Is the rate of turning on and turning off of the gradient coils.
⁃ "Lorentzian Force" Is the force that is felt by the charged object when it moves
through a magnetic electric field.

Is an important part of the MRI system - this helps in the following:

1. Localization of the Free Induction Decay signals
2. Slice Selection

Magnetic Gradient - it is the changing values of

Magnetic Fields - particularly Upward and Downward
Encoding - creation of Spatial Map

Phase Encoding
Measurement of "Phase Shifts"
The variation of Phase Coherence of individual Hydrogen Atoms
In between RF and FID production

Frequency Encoding
Measurement of "Frequency Shift"
The variation of Precessional Frequency of individual
Hydrogen Atoms
After the FID is received "Read Out Gradient"

Slice Selection
The Gradient Magnetic Field generated only alters the specific site of interest/location.
Transmit Bandwidth
Narrow Transmit Bandwidth ( Thin )
Wide Transmit Bandwidth ( Thick )

What do we do to obtain a specific slice of an

Image Plane?
Y-Gradient Coil 4 Saddle Shaped
Coronal Plane/ Phase Encoding

X-Gradient Coil
4 Saddle Shaped
Sagittal Plane
Frequency Encoding

Z-Gradient Coil
2 Circular Shaped
Transverse Plane
Slice Selection

Is an array processor in the Computer systems which temporarily stores data until the scan is
finished
So What happens next after the data is stored in K-Space?
It will undergo the process of Digitization through the use of Analog-to-Digital-Converter (ADC)

Fourier Transformation
⁃ Is a mathematical function that is used in MR imaging to transform/ process the
data stored in the K-Space into a meaningful image
⁃ This is possible through the use of Fast Fourier
Transformation (FFTs).
Two-Dimensional Fourier
Transformation (2DFT)

Three-Dimensional Fourier
Transformation (3DFT)

"Radiofrequency Coils"
⁃ Is a component of MRI system that has a main function of Transmitting and
Receiving Signals
Volume Coils
⁃ RF coils that built in the MR system which aims to cover a large volume of
anatomy - Spine, Head and Neck Abdomen, and Extremities.

Surface Coil- RF coils that are placed directly to the specific part/ anatomy of interest.

MR Image Artifacts
Chemical Shift
⁃ Occurs when the scanning field contains anatomy that has slight difference in
Resonance Frequencies.

Fat and Water

Appears as White/ Dark Bands
Solution: Increase Bandwidth & Low Magnetic Field
Strength

Ghosting Artifact
⁃ an artifact that occurs due to the uncontrolled Voluntary and Involuntary Motion of
the patient.

Appearance of MR Image is Blurred

Solution: Proper Patient Communication; Immobilization, use TSE Pulse Sequence

Magnetic Susceptibility Artifact

⁃ an artifact that occurs when a ferromagnetic material/ objects are inside a
diamagnetic material.
⁃ Appears as Bright and Dark areas of surrounding anatomy.
⁃ Solution: Decrease magnetic field strength; decrease TE, increase receiver
bandwidth

Truncation Artifact
⁃ an artifact that occurs there is an under sampling of digital frequencies in the
K-Space.
⁃ Appears as Bright/ Dark Lines that are parallel to the borders of abrupt intensity
changes.
⁃ Solution: Increase Matrix Size

Partial Volume Artifact

⁃ an artifact that occurs when the slice thickness selection (wide transmit
bandwidth).
⁃ This causes the signals to encompassed into a single voxel.
⁃ Solution: Decrease Slice Thickness
States of Magnetic Susceptibility

Diagmanetic
⁃ Opposes the direction of the applied magnetic force
⁃ Weakly Repelled
⁃ Decreases the Local Magnetic Field

Paramagnetic
⁃ Aligns to the direction of the applied magnetic force
⁃ Weakly Attracted
⁃ Increases the Local Magnetic Field

Ferromagnetic
⁃ Strongly attracted to the applied magnetic force
⁃ Retains alignment without the applied magnetic field

Gadolinium
It is a paramagnetic contrast media that is used routine in MR imaging.
Generic name: Gadolinium - DTPA
Mechanism of Action:
"SHORTEN / ENHANCE THE T1 RELAXATION
TIME"
T1 tissue extreme appears "BRIGHTER" in the scan.

Iron Oxide
⁃ It is a superparamagnetic contrast media that is used routine in MR imaging.
Generic name: Iron Oxide
Mechanism of Action:
"SHORTEN / ENHANCE THE T2 RELAXATION
TIME"
T1 tissue extreme appears "Darker" in the scan.

MR SAFETY
⁃ Electronic/ Metallic implants or devices.
⁃ Individuals exposed to metal shavings as a part of their occupation
⁃ Metallic Materials/Objects
⁃ Pregnant Patients

Missile Effect
Tissue Heating (SAR)
Noise Level (65dB - 120 dB)