Advances in Biological Research 9 (4): 210-224, 2015

ISSN 1992-0067
© IDOSI Publications, 2015
DOI: 10.5829/idosi.abr.2015.9.4.9516

Tick Borne Hemoparasitic Diseases of Ruminants: A Review

Yitayew Demessie and Samuel Derso

Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

University of Gondar, P.O.Box:196, Gondar, Ethiopia

Abstract: Tick borne diseases are caused by different microorganisms and transmitted by ticks. They are the
most prevalent and devastating diseases in the developing countries all over the world. The objective of this
paper is to review tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants. Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of
ruminants such as Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis and Theileriosis remain most important in tropics areas.
Anaplasmosis, a rickettsial disease of blood caused by Anaplasma marginale and characterized by progressive
anemia, jaundice and fever without hemoglobinuria. Babesiosis is the other tick- borne disease caused by
protozoan of the genus Babesia and characterized by haemolytic anemia and fever, with hemoglobinuria. It is
a disease with a world-wide distribution affecting many species of mammals with a major impact on
cattle.Theilerioses is also a tick borne protozoal disease in ruminants caused by hemoprotozoan parasites
belonging to the genus Theileria. Theileria parva, is the most pathogenic species in Africa cause a disease
called East coast fever which is characterized by enlargement of superficial lymph nodes and a sustainable
fever. Losses from tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants like reduction of milk and meat production,
restricting the introduction of susceptible cattle breed with superior genetics, costs from death and abortion
as well as costs for treatment and control purposes are taking away the benefits of livestock owner and nation.
Effective diagnosis of tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants is helpful to implement appropriate
prevention and control strategies. Tick control, chemoprophylaxis and immunoprophylaxis are the basic
methods to control tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants.

Key words: Anaplamoisis Babesiosis Ruminant Theileriosis Tick Borne

INTRODUCTION resulting in anemia, jaundice, anorexia, weight loss and

infertility. The occurrence and importance of hemoparasite
Hemoparasitic diseases have a global distribution, is a reflection of complex interaction involving the
stretching from the polar circle to the equator. This is due causative organisms, vector, the vertebrate hosts and the
to the fact that their vectors, ticks and blood sucking flies environment [4].
have a global distribution. Tick borne hemoparasites Arthropod transmitted hemoparasitic diseases are
includes all tick-borne organisms which are visible economically important vector-borne diseases of tropical
with light microscope and which occur in the circulating and subtropical parts of the world including Ethiopia.
blood as part of their normal life-cycle [1]. The most Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ruminants are
important hemoparasites are Babesia, Theileria and caused by the Babesia, Theileria and Anaplasma species
Anaplasma. These hemoparasites are transmitted through and all are intracellular parasite species [5].
ticks [2]. Anaplasmosis is a vector borne infectious blood
Hemoparasites are of great economic impact on disease in cattle caused by the rickettsial parasites,
livestock affecting 80% of the world cattle population and Anaplasma (A) marginale and A. central in cattle and
causes economic loss due to morbidity and mortality. A. ovis in small ruminants. It occurs primarily in worm
Hemoparasite is a major threat to food security especially tropical and subtropical areas. The disease is not
among the livestock dependent communities within the contagious but transmitted most commonly by ticks.
sub saharan Africa [3]. Haemoparasites have generally It can also be transmitted via contaminated surgical
been shown to cause destruction of red blood cells instruments, biting flies and mosquitoes. The intracellular

Corresponding Author: Samuel Derso, Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Gondar, P.O.Box:196, Gondar, Ethiopia.
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parasites destroy the red blood cells. It causes anemia, significant vectors in field and it has been shown that
fever, weight loss, breathlessness, uncoordinated strains of A. marginale also co –evolve with particular
movements, abortion and death [6]. tick strain. After feeding on an infected animal, trans
Babesiosis is a haemolytic disease caused by intra stadial transmission may occur. Transovarial transmission
erythrocytic protozoan of the genus Babesia. The disease may occur although even in a single host Boophilus
is characterized by fever (40-42°C) which may be sudden species [6]. Anaplasmosis may also be spread
in onset, anemia, icterus, hemoglobinuria, listless, mechanically by infected hypodermic needle, castrating,
anorexic, jaundice and death. It is a disease of small and spaying and dehorning instruments, blood transfusion
large ruminants. Bovine babesiosis is caused by multiple and embryo transplant. Additionally intra uterine
species: Babesia (B) bigemina, Babesia divergens, infections also occur in cattle but much less frequently in
Babesia bovis and Babesia major. Two species, B. field cases than in experimental once. Anaplasma can
bigemina and B. bovis, have a considerable impact on transmit by biting flies of the family Tabanidae [9].
cattle health and productivity in tropical and subtropical Geographic distribution: Anaplasma is found endemic
countries [7, 8]. in all six populated continents of the world; mostly in the
Theilerioses is a group of tick borne disease caused tropics and subtropics because of the broad range of
by Theilaria (T) species. The most important species are vectors and the difficulties of efficient vector control [10].
T. parva and T. annulata which result death in cattle in The disease is an important economical factor even with
tropical and subtropical areas of the world [6]. Bovine a developed veterinary service [13].
Theileria species cause severe and mild infections in their Risk factor: Breeds; Bos taurus breeds are more likely
hosts. Two of them, T. annulata and T. parva, cause to develop acute Anaplasmosis than crossbred Zebu, but
lymphoprolipherative disease with high mortality and Bos indicus are not commonly affected because of their
morbidity in cattle, commonly known as Tropical resistance to heavy tick resistance [14]. Anaplasma
Theileriosis and East Coast fever, respectively [9]. East species can cause infections in bovine population of all
coast fever is an acute disease of cattle and characterized age categories where severity and mortality rate increases
by high fever, swelling of the lymph nodes, dyspnea and with augmentation of animal age. Anaplasmosis infection
high mortality which has greater effect on Africa [6]. is higher in female than male animals due to hormonal
Control of tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of disturbances, due to its use in milk production, draught
ruminants using effective methods such as vector control, power and breeding system which pose it to weakened
chemoprophylaxis and immunization is crucial to control immune system [5]. In temperate regions seasonal
tick borne hemoparasitic diseases and to increase the occurrence of the disease is associated with the
productivity of animals by improving their health occurrence of the vectors in which prevalence of
conditions in the tropics and other parts of the world Anaplasmosis is found higher in hot and humid weather
where tick borne diseases are prevalent [9]. Therefore, the associated with the abundance of vector ticks [10].
objective ofthis seminar paper is:
Life Cycle: The developmental cycle of A. marginale in
To review tick borne hemoparasitic diseases of ticks is complex and coordinated with the tick feeding
ruminants cycle (Figure 1). Infected erythrocytes taken into ticks
with the blood meal provide the source of A. marginale
Tick Borne Hemoparasitic Diseases of Ruminant infection for tick gut cells. After development of A.
Anaplasmosis marginale in tick gut cells, many other tick tissues
Etiology: Anaplasmosis is caused by the members of become infected, including the salivary glands, from
genus Anaplasma (Rickettsiales: Anaplasmataceae). where the rickettsiae are transmitted to vertebrates during
In cattle, this disease is caused by A. marginale and A. feeding. At each site of infection in ticks, A. marginale
centrale; later less pathogenic than former [10] where as develops within membrane bound vacuoles or colonies.
in sheep and goats A. ovis is the important causative The first form of A. marginale seen within the colony is
agent [11]. the reticulated (Vegetative) form, which divides by binary
fission, forming large colonies that may contain hundreds
Epidemiology: Transmission: Anaplasmoiss is not of organisms. The reticulated form then changes into the
contagious; numerous species of tick vectors (Boophilus, dense form, which is the infective form and can survive
Dermacenter, Rhipicephalus, Ixodes and Hyalomma) can outside the host cells. Cattle become infected with A.
transmit Anaplasma species [12]. Not all of those are likely marginale when the dense form is transmitted during tick

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Fig. 1: Life cycle of A. marginale Source: Kocan et al. [14]

feeding via the salivary glands [14]. Once Anaplasma abortion and mortality without hemoglobinemia and
entered in to the blood; the organisms enters the red hemoglobinuria during acute phase of the infection [16].
blood cells by invaginating the cell membrane so that a The most marked clinical signs of Anaplasmosis are
vacuole is formed; thereafter it divides to form an anemia and jaundice, the latter occurring late in the
inclusion body containing up to eight initial bodies disease [17]. Affected animals may die suddenly from
packed together [15]. hypoxia if they are handled roughly [18].

Pathogenesis: The incubation period of infection varies Diagnosis: Clinical diagnosis of Anaplasmosis is
with the number of organisms in the infective dose and performed by observing anemia, icterus and constipation.
ranges from seven to 60 days, with an average of 28 day The presence of tick vectors or numerous biting Diptera
[14]. A.marginale invades and multiplies in red blood may give an additional indication [19]. In endemic areas,
cells. As the disease progresses, infected and even Anaplasmosis in adult cattle showing chronic anemia
uninfected red blood cells are destroyed mainly in the without haemoglobinuria leading to cachexia [20].
liver and spleen, resulting in progressive hemolytic Microscopic examination of Giemsa stained blood
anemia and even death in severe cases, the number of films Anaplasma inclusion in the red cells are usually
infected erythrocytes increases drastically and sufficient for diagnosis. Under microscope A. marginale
phagocytosis by reticuloendothelial cells of parasitized are seen as small, round, dark red ‘inclusion bodies’
erythrocytes lead to development of hemolytic anemia located near the periphery of red blood cells as indicated
and icterus [11]. in Figure. 2 [15].
Depending upon the strain and the susceptibility of Serological methods such as Enzyme-Linked
the host, from 10-90% of erythrocytes may be parasitized Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), complement fixations test
(CFT), or card agglutination test have been used to detect
in the acute stage of the infection [9]. Cattle that survive
antibodies in animals which have recovered from infection
acute infection develop persistent infections characterized
[21]. CFT has been used extensively in the past, but, it
by cyclic low-level rickettsemia. Persistently infected
lacks sensitivity and doesn’t detect some carrier. Card
cattle have lifelong immunity and are resistant to clinical
agglutination test is sensitive, simple, rapid and can be
disease on challenge exposure. However, persistently
used in the field. ELISA using a positive and negative
infected cattle serve as reservoirs of A. marginale
antigen can eliminate non-specific reaction [19]. For the
because they provide a source of infective blood for both
determination of the persistently infected cattle molecular
mechanical and biological transmission by ticks [14].
diagnosis is mostly applicable [22].
At necropsy, pale and icteric carcass and organs,
Clinical Sign: Anaplasmosis ischaracterized by fever,
splenomegally, constipation, congestion of the liver and
weight loss, decreased milk production, pale mucous hardening of the omasum are indicative of Anaplasmosis
membranes, severe anaemia, jaundice, hyper-excitability, [19].

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bovine Anaplasmosis worldwide. Vaccines for the control

of Anaplasmosis can be divided into two major types: live
and killed vaccines. Both types of vaccines rely on the
use of A. marginale from infected bovine erythrocytes.
Both types induce protective immunity that reduces or
prevents clinical disease, but these vaccines do not
prevent cattle from becoming persistently infected with A.
marginale [9].
Chemotherapy, probably used more often for
prevention of Anaplasmosis in the United States than in
other areas of the world, is expensive and often not
applicable to range cattle and the intensive use of
Fig. 2: Blood smear was analyzed by Giemsa staining antibiotics bears the risk of causing selection of resistant
Anaplasma like structure is to detect in one of the strains [14].
erythrocyte (Arrow). Source: Noaman et al. [22] The introduction of the disease into herds by carrier
animals should be prevented by prior serological testing.
Differential diagnosis: Anaplasmosis has to Attention should also be given to preventing iatrogenic
distinguish from other infections that cause fever, anemia, transmission with instruments used for injections or
icterus in the absence of haemoglobinuria. Thus, the surgical operations by disinfection after use on each
following diseases can be considered as differential animal. The eradication of Anaplasmosis is not a
diagnosis: Babesiosis often associated with practicable procedure in most countries at the present
haemoglobinuria and specific vector ticks are always time because of the wide range of insects which are
present. Trypanosmosis occurs in regions infested by capable of carrying the disease,the long period of
tsetse flies, tabanids and other biting flies. Theileriosis infectivity of carrier animals and, in some areas, the
often characterized by swollen lymph nodes and specific presence of carriers in the wild animal population [9].In
vector ticks in the region.Certain intoxication by copper or endemic areas, control measures are aimed at minimizing
plant [19]. stress in indigenous reared cattle [18].

Treatment: Tetracycline compounds are effective in Economic Importance: Bovine Anaplasmosis causes
treatment if given early in the course of the disease and important economic loss in most countries, mainly due to
especially before the parasitaemia has reached its peak. the high morbidity and mortality in susceptible cattle
Tetracycline is effective when injected at five to ten herds. The losses due to Anaplasmosis are measured
mg/kg, provided the treatment is repeated two times at 24 through several parameters: low weight gain, reduction in
hour interval. The treated animal is not free from milk production, abortion, the cost of Anaplasmosis
Anaplasma after treatment, but can be eliminated treatments and mortality [14].
completely by a longer treatment [19]. More recently
imidocarb has been shown to be effective and may also Babesiosis: The disease also called piroplasmosis, Cattle
used to sterilize carrier animals [15] tick fever, Red water fever or Taxes fever [8].
Symptomatic treatment such as blood transfusion,
drugs that stimulates erythropiosis, drugs which protects Etiology: The causative agents of Babesiosis are specific
liver cells may help recovery [19]. for particular species of animals. In cattle: B. bovis, B.
bigemina, B. divergens and B. major [9].B. ovis and B.
Prevention and Control: Methods for the control of motasi are known to be pathogenic agents in sheep and
Anaplasmosis have consists of tick control with goats [23].
acaricides, chemotherapy for prevention and vaccination.
Weekly dipping in an acaricide is used in tropical areas to Epidemiology: Transmission: Babesia species is
control this disease. Animals that are to be introduced transmitted by hard ticks in which Babesia passes
into an enzootic area should be vaccinated. Vaccination transovarially, via the egg, from one tick generation to the
has been an economical and effective way to control next [24, 25].

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Geographic occurrence: Babesiosis occurs Life Cycle: Babesia multiplies in erythrocytes by

throughout the world [23]. However,the distribution of the asynchronous binary fission, resulting in considerable
causative protozoa is governed by the geographical and pleomorphism (Figure. 3). This replication eventually
seasonal distribution of the insect vectors [9]. The vector gives rise to gametocytes that are ingested by the vector
of Babesia, Boophilus (B) microplus is wide spread in tick. Conjugation of gametocytes occurs in the tick gut
tropics and subtropics [26]. followed by multiplication by multiple fission and
Host occurrence: Bovine Babesiosis associated with migration to various tissues including the salivary glands.
B. bigemina and B. bovis is an important disease of Further development occurs in the salivary glands before
tropical and sub tropical regions of the world. Both transmission. The ovaries are also invaded, which leads
species are transmitted transovarially by Boophilus ticks, to transovarial transmission [32]. The host gets the
but only tick larvae transmit B, bovis, where as nymphs infection when the larva sucks blood. After one moulting
and adults transmit B. bigemina and B. divergens. Bovine the larva transforms into nymph which also infect as larva.
Babesiosis transmitted by Ixodes ricinus is widespread. Nymph transforms into adult after moulting and they
Small ruminants Babesiosis is caused by B. ovis [27]. transmit infection in similar way [30]. The infective stage
of Babesia, sporoziote, enters in to the host when the tick
Risk Factors: Host factor: Bos indicus breeds of cattle sucks blood [19].
are more resistance to Babesiosis than Bos Taurus [28].
This is a result of evolutionary relationship between Bos Pathogenesis: Babesia produces acute disease by two
indicus cattle, Boophilus species and Babesia [9]. principle mechanism; hemolysis and circulatory
Because of natural selection pressure, indigenous disturbance [33]. During the tick bite, sporozoites are
populations, having lived for a long time with local ticks injected into the host and directly infect red blood cells.
and tick-borne diseases, have developed either an innate
In the host, Babesia sporozoites develop into piroplasms
resistance or an innate ability to develop a good immune
inside the infected erythrocyte resulting in two or
response to the tick or tick-borne hemoparasitic disease
sometimes four daughter cells that leave the host cell to
in question. Sheep were highly susceptible to B. ovis than
infect other erythrocytes [34]. It invades erythrocyte and
goats [29]. It is frequently stated that there is an inverse
cause intravascular and extravascular hemolysis [33].
age resistance to Babesia infection in that young animals
The rapidly dividing parasites in the red cells produce
are less susceptible to Babesiosis than older animals; the
rapid destruction of the erythrocytes with accompanying
possible reason is passive transfer of maternal antibody
haemoglobinaemia, haemoglobinuria and fever. This may
via colostrum. The severity of the clinical Babesiosis
be so acute as to cause death within a few days, during
increases with age [15, 30].
which the packed cell volume falls below 20% which will
lead to anemia. The parasitaemia, which is usually
Pathogen Factor: Many Intra-erythrocyte hemoparasites
detectable once the clinical signs appear, may involve
survive the host immune system through rapid antigenic
variation which has been demonstrated for B. bovis and between 0.2% up to 45% of the red cells, depending on
B. bigemina [9]. B. bovis is the most pathogenic organism, the species of Babesia [25].
resulting in high mortality rates among susceptible cattle
[31]. The effects of B. ovis are usually less severe than B. Clinical Sign: Affected animals suffered frommarked rise
motasi [24]. in body temperature, loss of appetite, cessation of
rumination, labored breathing, emaciation, progressive
Environmental Factor: There is a seasonal variation in the hemolytic anemia, various degrees of jaundice (Icterus)
prevalence of clinical Babesiosis, the greatest incidence from paleness in mild cases to severe yellow discoloration
occurring soon after the peak of the tick population. Of of conjunctival and vaginal mucous membranes in more
the climatic factors, air temperature is the most important progressive cases; haemoglobinuria, accelerated heart
because of its effect on tick activity; higher temperatures and respiratory rates, ocular problems and drop in milk
increase its occurrence.Heaviest losses occur in marginal production.The fever during infections in some cases
areas where the tick population is highly variable cause abortion to pregnant cattle [7]. Coffee colored urine
depending on the environmental conditions [9]. is the characteristics clinical feature of Babesiosis [30].
Babesiosis infection in cattle mostly reaches peak in Babesia parasites cause both acute and persistent
summer [7]. subclinical disease in cattle [35].

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Fig. 3: Life-cycle diagram of Babesia species

Source: Gray [32]

Ovine Babesiosis is a progressive hemolytic anemia Thin and Thick Blood Smears: Blood smear
disease of sheep [36]. High rise of body temperature, examination has been considered to be the standard
anorexia, dyspnea, haemoglobinurea, emaciation, pale technique for routine diagnosis, particularly in acute
mucous membrane, jaundice, constipation and cases, but not in sub-clinical infections where the
recumbency were the main clinical signs in both sheep parasitemia is usually much lower [35, 39]. Thin blood
and goats. Chronically infected sheep are usually smears were the first method to detect Babesia parasites
symptomless, except for parasitemia and unthriftiness in clinical samples, a method still used today very
[24]. Animals that recover from the acute disease remain effectively in most diagnostic laboratories.Blood is
infected for a number of years with B. bovis and a few usually collected, combined with an anticoagulant and
months in the case of B. bigemina. No clinical signs smeared on a glass slide, air-dried, fixed with methanol
appear during this carrier state [6]. and stained with Giemsa or a similar stain for several
Neurological signs are exhibited due to B. bovis minutes. The slide is then washed thoroughly and dried.
infectionas erythrocytes get adhered to the capilliaries of Intra-erythrocytic parasites are observed under a
the brain like nystagmus, circling movement, head microscope using a 100X objective and a drop of
pressing, hyperesthesia, convulsion, ataxia, teeth grinding immersion oil. The observation of paired Intra-
and muscle tremor [30]. erythrocytic merozoites is indicative of infection but there
are other stages of the parasite like the trophozoites,
Diagnosis: Accurate and correct diagnosis of Babesial which present different forms and sizes depending on the
infections plays an important role in monitoring, species and these make their detection difficult and time
management and control of infection [35]. Clinical consuming [39]. B. bigemina is larger in size and having
symptoms, because of their unspecificity, cannot be used paired structure at an acute angel to each other in the
to make a correct diagnosis [37]. erythrocyte while B. bovis is smaller in size and having
paired forming an obtuse angel to each other [7].
Microscopy Detection Methods: Microscopic examination Merozoites of B. bovis are usually found in the center of
still cheapest and fastest methods used to identify erythrocyte where as merozoites of B. bigeminaare pear-
Babesia parasites [38]. Identification of the different shaped [20].B. motasi is pyriform in shape; B. ovis has
stages of the parasite in mammalian or arthropod host rounded shape and marginally located inside the
tissues can be used for direct diagnosis purpose [39]. erythrocytes [40].

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Fig. 4: Giemsa stained Babesia species inside the bovine erythrocytes (Thin arrow) where as thick arrow shows an
uninfected bovine erythrocyte. Source: Chaudhry et al. [26]

Another technique developed to detect low levels of IFAT is based on the recognition of parasite antigens by
parasitemia, especially in cases where B. bovis is serum antibodies in the blood of the tested animal.It is
involved, is based on thick smears of infected blood easy to do but requires a good quality antigen, which is
stained with Giemsa (Figure. 4). The advantage of the difficult to obtain [39].
thick smear is that a large amount of erythrocytes is
analyzed in a reduced amount of space; therefore the Molecular Diagnosis: Molecular methods aimed to
probability of finding infected cells is ten times higher detect nucleic acids have been very useful when
than in the thin smear [39]. immunological methods do not work. Detecting nucleic
acids is an indirect way of detecting the parasite so they
Brain Smears: When a bovine has died and it is are still considered indirect methods. However, the
presumed to be from Babesiosis caused by B. bovis due sensitivity and specificity of these methods are very
to presence of nervous clinical signs, identification of the high [39].
parasite can be done by brain smears [26]. In this case, a
small sample of grey matter of the cerebral cortex is placed Polymerase Chain Reaction: PCR is more sensitive and
on a slide and the tissue is smeared using another slide. specific technique and offers an alternative approach for
The brain tissue is fixed and stained. The diagnosis is the detection of Babesiosis [39]. An advantage of this
based upon observation of brain capillaries filled with method is that it allows identification of the parasite in the
infected erythrocytes. Almost one hundred percent of early stage of disease which enables early diagnosis,
erythrocytes present in the brain capillaries are infected. implementation of therapy and avoidance of
Smears of other organs as the kidney or liver can also be complications [37].
carried out with good results [39].
Treatment: The success of the treatment depends on
Immunological Methods: Serological tests, including early diagnosis and the prompt administration of effective
indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and ELISA are drug. The first specific drug used against bovine
capable of detecting antibodies of Babesia in sub-clinical Babesiosis was Trypan blue, which is a very effective
infections. Drawbacks of these tests are the occurrence of compound against B. bigemina infections, however, it did
false-positive and false-negative results, involving cross- not have any effect on B. bovis and it had the
reactive antibodies and/or atypical specific immune disadvantage of producing discoloration of animal’s flesh,
responses [27]. Another drawback is that antibodies can so it is rarely used. Diminazene aceturate, which is widely
be detected even months after recovery of infection used currently in the tropics as a Babesiacide, was
though no active infection is prevalent,so these methods withdrawn from Europe for marketing reasons [41].
cannot help in revealing the exact picture of prevalence of Imidocarb is the principal Babesiacide used in animals, the
infection at that particular point [35]. only one that consistently clears the host of parasites and
IFAT is the most widely used test for the detection of for over 20 years, it has been used in the treatment and
antibodies to B. bovis and B. bigemina but serological prophylaxis of Babesiosis and Anaplasmosi. Imidocarb
cross reactions make species diagnosis difficult [26]. retained in edible tissues of ruminants for long periods

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after treatment [39]. The combination of imidocarb the tick before the infective sporozoite develop in the
dipropionate and oxytetracycline is the most effective salivary gland [25]. Significant factors currently affecting
treatment of Babesiosis in sheep and goats [24]. the control of Babesiosis and Anaplasmosis include
In addition, supportive therapy such as blood increased resistance to acaricides by ticks and the
transfusions, anti-inflammatory drugs, tick removal, iron numerous drawbacks of the current live vaccines [45].
preparations, dextrose, vitamin B complex, purgatives and
fluid replacements, may be necessary in severe cases of Economic Importance: Recently Babesia becomes the
Babesiosis [39]. Vitamin E also acts as supportive therapy most widespread parasite due to exposure of 400 million
as vitamin E ameliorates the oxidative effect of Babesia by Cattle to infection through the world, with consequent
increase antioxidant effect [42]. heavy economic losses such as mortality, reduction in
meat and milk yield and indirectly through control
Prevention and Control: Epidemiological surveillance is measures of ticks. Babesiosis, especially in cattle has
the important aspect to control Babesiosis [43]. Active great economic importance, because unlike many other
prevention and control of Babesiosis is achieved by three parasitic diseases, it affects adults more severely than
main methods: immunization, chemoprophylaxis and young cattle, leading to direct losses through death and
vector control. Ideally, the three methods should be the restriction of movement of animals by quarantine laws
integrated to make the most cost-effective use of each and [8, 46]. The disease is also a barrier to improving
also to exploit breed resistance and the development and productivity of local cattle by cross-breeding due to the
maintenance of enzootic stability [44]. high mortality of genetically superior but highly
susceptible cattle, especially dairy cattle, imported from
Chemotherapy/chemoprophylaxis: Several groups of Babesia-free areas [47]. The consequence is that the
compounds have been used in the chemical control of quality of cattle in endemic areas remains low, therefore
Babesiosis. Of these, only imidocarb dipropionate, impeding the development of the cattle industry and the
diminazene aceturate and tetracycline antibiotics remain wellbeing of producers and their families [39].
freely available in most endemic countries.
Chemoprophylaxis is not a viable long-term alternative to Theileriosis
effective immunization, but imidocarb and diminazene Etiology: Theileria species, tick transmitted, intracellular
have been used to protect cattle for several months protozoan parasites infecting leukocytes and erythrocytes
against Babesiosis [44]. At dosage of three mg/kg, of wild and domestic large and small ruminants. In cattle:
imidocarb provides protection for Babesiosis for around T. parva,T. annulata, T. mutans, T. velifera, T.
four weeks and will eliminate B. bovis and B. bigemina tarurotragi and T. buffeli [19]. In small ruminants: T.
from carrier animals [6]. lestoquardi, T. ovis and T. separate [30]. T. annulata and
T. parva are considered to be the most pathogenic
Immunization: Using blood from carrier animals has been species of Theileria affecting cattle [48]. T. lestoquardi
practiced for many years in tropical areas and more (formerly T hirci) is the most virulent species in sheep and
recently in Australia [15] Vaccination has been done with goats [6].
varying degree of success with live and dead whole
parasite and isolated parasite antigen.Several findings Epidemiology: Transmission: Economically important
support the development of vaccines against Babesiosis. Theileria species that infect cattle and small ruminants are
First, cattle which recover from a primary Babesia transmitted by ixodid ticks of the genera Rhipicephalus,
infection or that have been immunized with attenuated Amblyomma, Hyalomma and Haemaphysali [49]. Theileria
parasites are resistant to challenge infection. Second, sporozoites are transmitted to animals in the saliva of the
immunization of cattle with native Babesia antigen extracts feeding tick [30].
or culture-derived supernatants containing secreted The most economically important species in Africa is
Babesia antigens elicit protective immunity against both T. parva [50]. Three subspecies are recognized in T.
homologous and heterologous challenge [9]. parva, namely T. parva parva causing classical East
Coast Fever (ECF). T. parva lawrencei responsible for
Vector Control: it is done by repeated treatment of cattle Corridor disease transmitted from buffalo to cattle and T.
with acaricides in areas of high challenge; such treatment parva bovis, the causing agent of Zimbabwe Theileriosis,
may require to be carried out twice weekly in order to kill a more benign form also known as “January disease“[50].

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Fig. 5: A generalized life cycle for the Theileria using T. parva as an example.
Source: Mans et al. [57].

Table 1: A comparison of three species of Theileria of veterinary importance

Species Host Vector Disease Distribution
T. parva Cattle Rhipicephalus East Coast Fever East and Central Africa
T. annulata Cattle Hyalomma Mediterranean or Tropical Theileriosis North Africa, South Europe, Middle East, Asia
T. hrici Sheep and goats Hyalomma Malignant ovine (caprine) Theileriosis North Africa, South Europe, Middle East. Asia
Source: Kaufaman [20]

It is important to emphasize that endemic region of T. hosts are their ability to exist free in the host cell
annulata and T. parva do not overlap [51] however, there cytoplasm and their ability to transform the host cell
were reports of coexistence in southern Sudan [52]. reversibly, leading to uncontrolled proliferation of the
parasite and the host cell [54].
Host Sensitivity: T. parva is highly virulent for European
dairy cattle, however, the indigenous cattle breeds and Environmental Factor: Theileriosis occurs when there is
African buffaloes in endemic areas have a natural much tick activity, mainly during summer but a single tick
resistance to this Theileria species [9]. The introduction can cause fatal infection [55]. The pattern of seasonal
of T. parva infection into a previously unexposed cattle occurrence of Rhipicephalus (R) appendiculatus (Vector
population results in an epidemic situation with mortality of T. parva) is determined by climate [50]. R.
up to 95% in all age categories of cattle. When the disease appendiculatus is most active following onset of rain,
is established, the older animals that have survived outbreak of ECF may be seasonal or, where rainfall is
primary infection become immune. In these situations, relatively constant, may occur at any time [15]
only calves and newly introduced stocks are at risk of
primary infection and mortality is estimated high. T. Host Factor: Increasing age is associated with increased
annulata highly virulent for European dairy cattle but T. parva sero prevalence [56]. The frequency of
infection in local breed cattle is mild [19]. T. hirci causes occurrence of ECF is higher in female than in male cattle
clinical illness and mortalities in sheep than in goats [53]. [55].

Risk Factor Life Cycle: Generalized life cycles for the Theileria genus
Agent Factor: The two unique features of the include secretion of infective sporozoites during tick
leukoproliferative Theileria parasites in their vertebrate feeding into the feeding site (Figure 5). Sporozoites then

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infect leukocytes and multiply by merogony, after Clinical signs of ECF characterized, unlike Tropical
which merozoites are released, which invade red Theileriosis, by the absence or limited intensity of anemia
blood cells thereby establishing the piroplasm stage. and high frequency of respiratory sign. Other symptoms
During a next feeding cycle, larval or nymphal vector include; diarrhea, corneal opacity leading to blindness
ticks ingest piroplasms and the released parasites and subcutaneous edema [19]. In susceptible cattle, ECF
undergo syngamy in the tick gut, forming a zygote, is characterized by enlargement of superficial lymph
the only diploid stage. The zygote divides into motile nodes starting with the parotid lymph node, a sustainable
kinetes that infect the tick gut epithelial cells and fever and diverse clinical signs associated with invasion
migrate to the haemolymph and subsequently infect the of non lymphoid tissues with parasitized lymphoblast.
salivary glands. After moulting and commencement of ECF causes high mortality with death occurring
feeding by the tick, sporogony results in the approximately three weeks after infection, mainly as a
multiplication of sporozoites in the salivary gland acini result of severe pulmonary oedema [59].
before injection into the feeding site by nymphs or adult Malignant Theileriosis of sheep and goats is usually
ticks [57]. acute and highly fatal disease of adult animals manifested
by high fever associated with conjunctival and nasal
Pathogenesis: Sporozoites of T. parva are injected into discharge, jaundice, enlargement of superficial lymph
the bovine host by the tick in its saliva. The sporozoites nodes,emaciation, reduced appetite, labored breathing
then enter lymphocytes and develop into schizonts in the and sometimes hemoglobinurea [60, 61].
lymph node draining the area of attachment of the tick,
usually the parotid node. Infected lymphocytes are Diagnosis: Tentative diagnosis of Theileriosis in the field
transformed to lymphoblasts which continue to divide is mainly based on clinical signs and tick infestation on
the infected animals. However, confirmation of the
synchronously with the schizonts so that each daughter
diagnosis depends on microscopic examination of blood
cell is also infected [15]. Eventually, infected
and lymph node smears stained with Giemsa in acute
lymphoblasts are disseminated throughout the lymphoid
cases [58, 62].
system and in non lymphoid organs where they continue
to proliferate. Later, some schizonts differentiate into
Microscopic Examination: The presence of multinucleate
merozoites, are released from the lymphoblasts and invade
intracytoplasmic and free schizonts, in lymph node biopsy
erythrocytes which lead to development of anemia. The
smears, is a characteristic diagnostic feature of acute
dominating pathological lesion is generalized lymphoid
infections with T. parva and T. annulata [59]. Piroplasm
proliferation resulting from uncontrolled proliferation of T-
of T. hirci appeared as a small oval, round or dotes- like
lymphocytes containing schizonts. This is followed later
inside erythrocytes and machroschizont in large
by necrosis of infected lymphoblasts induced by lymphocyte [60]. Microscopic examination alone is not a
cytotoxic T-Iymphocytes. The severe lymphocytolysis fully reliable method of diagnosis unless coupled with
often leads to immunosuppression. Terminally, the animal other serological and molecular diagnostic assay [63].
develops severe pulmonary edema, probably due to
release of vasoactive substances from lymphocytes Serological Diagnosis: The main weaknesses of
disintegrating in the lungs. Erythrocytic indices are serological tick-borne disease diagnosis have been
usually unchanged, but there may be terminal anemia in reported as cross reactivity, low specificity and sensitivity
January disease [9]. and being poor at detecting low piroplasm levels in carrier
animals [64].
Clinical Findings: Tropical Theileriosis of cattle
characterized by lymphproliferative disorders Molecular Diagnosis: PCR technique: PCR technique can
associated with lymph nodes enlargement in its early be used as a gold standard method and also can be used
phases. The first lymph nodes involved are the pre for screening of T annulata carrier cattle. PCR is highly
scapular lymph node as a result of the predilection sites sensitive and specific method, which used to detect the
of the vector ticks and by lymph destructive disorders rate of native carrier cattle harboring T. annulata [65].
associated with fever, pronounced leukopenia, diarrhea,
lateral recumbency and marked anemia in its late Treatment: Chemotherapeutic agents such as
phases[15] Weight loss, weakness, anorexia, conjunctival parvaquone, buparvaquone which is given
petechia and cough are the most common symptoms [58]. intramuscularly and halofuginone, coccidostat given per

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Fig. 6: Giemsa stained blood smears of infected cattle reveal the presence of intra-erythrocytic forms (Arrows)
morphologically compatible with theilerial piroplasms. Some of the infected erythrocytes showed morphological
disorders represented by round-shaped appearance and irregular thorn-like Protrusions. Source: Hassan [55]

orally are available to treat clinical T. parva and T. Quarantine measures, particularly with respect to
annulata infections. Treatments with these agents do not importation of livestock from endemic areas into regions
completely eradicate Theilerial infections leading to the where suitable tick vectors exist, are of great importance
development of carrier states in their hosts [20]. [9].
Oxytetracycline has a therapeutic effect if given at the Another method of Theileriosis control is cattle
time of infection; they are no value in the treatment of movement restriction from Theileriosis-specified areas.
clinical cases [25]. Movements within endemic areas are allowed. However,
movements from endemic areas to non-endemic areas are
Prevention and Control: The main methods in the allowed on the following conditions: the animals to be
prevention control of ECF include tick control, cattle moved must test negative serologically by IFAT, they are
movement control, host immunization and chemotherapy treated with acaricide before they are moved to insure that
and integrated control that combines any of the methods they are tick-free, they are subjected to compulsory
Gachohi et al. [56]. quarantine under close veterinary supervision [50].

Tick Control Methods: Includes direct application of Economic Importance: Tropical Theileriosis threatens an
acaricides to cattle through dipping, spray races, hand estimated 250 million cattle and acts as a major constraint
spray, pour-ons and hand dressing. However, acaricides on livestock production and improvement in many
have their own disadvantages; they are expensive, ticks developing countries [67, 68]. Total economic losses
can easily develop resistance to them and they can be because of Tropical Theileriosis include three main
detrimental to the environment [56]. parameters: production losses, control costs and other
The most cost effective and sustainable control indirect economic losses [69].
method is immunization. Vaccines against Theileriosis are T. parva infection poses a significant threat to the
of two types; the sporozoite vaccine and the schizont livestock sector in two ways: through the economic
vaccine but the latter is preferred [30]. Vaccination against impact of the disease from cattle morbidity and mortality
T. parva is based on a method of infection and treatment and production losses in all production systems, as well
in which cattle are given a subcutaneous dose of tick- as from the costs of the measures taken to control ticks
derived sporozoites and a simultaneous treatment with a and the disease. The costs of acaricide application, which
long-acting tetracycline formulation. This treatment is the primary means of tick control, is estimated to range
results in a mild or in apparent ECF reaction followed by between US$6 and US$36 per adult animal in Kenya,
recovery [66]. Efforts have been made to produce anti tick Tanzania and Uganda. The disease further prevents the
vaccination to immunize animal by using whole somatic introduction of the ECF susceptible but more productive
antigen of tick and protein of salivary gland [30]. exotic breeds of cattle, hampering the development of the
livestock sector considerably [56]. The financial losses
Chemotherapy: Oxytetracyclines are effective in incurred, directly and indirectly, by ECF are extremely
controlling Theileriosis if given at the same time as high. With more than 38% of the African total bovine
infection as applied to block both parasite and disease population affected and an estimated mortality of 1.1
development [50]. million cattle per year. ECF remains probably the most

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important cattle disease in terms of economic losses and immune response of cattle to ticks and parasites.
restriction of livestock development in affected countries Therefore, based on this conclusion the following
of eastern, central and southern Africa [19]. ECF was recommendations are forwarded:
estimated to have been responsible for 170 million US
dollars worth of economic loss in 1989 alone and limits Economic losses from tick borne hemoparastic
introduction of more productive exotic (Bos taurus) cattle diseases ruminants are very high so that concerned
in much of eastern, central and southern Africa [49]. organization should give attention to control and
eradicate them.
Epidemiology of Tick Borne Hemoparasite of Ruminants Since chemical control can result in resistance and
in Ethiopia: Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases environmental contamination, environmentally friend
transmitted by the major tick species in Ethiopia are control mechanisms like vaccination and biological
Anaplasmosis, Babesiosis and benign Theileriosis. The methods should be further developed.
principal biological vector of A. marginale namely B. Awareness should be created on mode of
decoloratus, Hyalomma marginatumrufipes, transmission, control and prevention methods of tick
Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi are prevalent in Ethiopia. borne hemoparasitic diseases to livestock owners.
The vectors of B. bigemina in Ethiopia are B. decoloratus, Proper identification and characterization of ticks
B. annulatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi. The involved in the transmission of disease should be
vectors of T. mutans; Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi and done to implement particular control strategy.
Ambylomma variegatum are also commonly found in New vaccines and drugs should be designed that
different regions of Ethiopia [70]. eliminates carrier states of hemoparasites in
ruminants.
In Cattle: T. velifera, T. mutans, T. orientalis complex and
T. annulata were found in northern Ethiopia(Addis ACKNOWLDGEMENTS
Zemen, Humera andSheraro) in which T. annulata, the
cause of Tropical Theileriosis, was the first report in In the first place, I would like to thank God for his
Ethiopia, Humera. In small ruminants: T. ovis and T. invaluable gift and innumerable favor upon me
separata found also in these areas [71]. throughout all works of my life.
Indigenous cattle breeds such as Horro and Borna are Secondly, I would like to express my gratitude and
more resistance to tick infestation than others [70]. heartfelt thanks to my advisor Dr. Samuel Derso for his
unreserved advice and devotion of his time for correcting
CONCLUSION this paper. I also thank Dr Samson Leta the course
coordinator for his overall guidance on the course.
Tick borne hemoparasitic diseases are the major Finally, I would like to indicate my gratefulness to all
bottleneck of livestock development in the tropics my brothers for their moral and financial support.
especially in developing countries. The major tick borne
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