j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 7 8 9 e2 7 9 8
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt
Original Article
Microstructure and properties of 6061/2A12
dissimilar aluminum alloy weld by laser oscillation
scanning
Cong Chen a, Xuni Yin a, Wei Liao b, Yunzhong Xiang b, Ming Gao b,*,
Yi Zhang a
a
Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Intelligent Laser Manufacturing, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082,
People's Republic of China
b
Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics (WNLO), Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan,
430074, PR China
article info abstract
Article history: The development of high-power galvanometer provides a new way to solve Low weld
Received 16 July 2021 strength of dissimilar aluminum alloy in the packaging of new energy power batteries. The
Accepted 23 August 2021 effect of laser scanning frequency and amplitude on microstructure and properties of 6061/
Available online 26 August 2021 2A12 dissimilar aluminum alloy weld was studied in this paper. Scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and electron backscatter diffraction pattern (EBSD)
Keywords: were used to detect the microstructure morphology, composition and distribution of the
Laser scanning welding weld. The results showed that increasing laser scanning frequency and amplitude was
Aluminum alloys beneficial to increase the proportion of equiaxed grains in fusion zone and decrease the
Microstructure average diameter of equiaxed grains. The reason was that stirring action of scanning beam
Tensile strength increased the heterogeneous nucleated particles in molten pool. The tensile test showed
Fracture that scanning laser can't increase the hardness and tensile strength, but it was beneficial to
increase the elongation, and the maximum is 120% higher than that of non-scanning weld.
By increasing the scanning frequency and amplitude, the fracture location of weld grad-
ually changed from fusion zone to the heat-affected zone. The analysis showed that
scanning laser makes Cu element in the weld evenly distributed, and the q-Al2Cu phase
and s-Al2CuMg strengthening phase increase, which increased the strength of weld fusion
zone. The research results provide a new way to improve the packaging strength, safety
and service life of new energy power batteries.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Gao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.08.105
2238-7854/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2790 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 4 : 2 7 8 9 e2 7 9 8
molten pool with rapid flow is expected to break the dendrites,
1. Introduction improve the nucleation rate and achieve the purpose of grain
refinement. However, there are few researches on laser
Dissimilar aluminum alloys are ideal materials for lightweight oscillating welding of dissimilar aluminum alloy, and the
structure due to its high specific strength, corrosion resistance mechanism of the influence of scanning laser on the micro-
and good plasticity, which has been widely used in the field of structure and properties of weld is not clear.
high-speed railway manufacturing. The joint strength of dis- In this paper, the 6061 and 2A12 aluminum alloy materials
similar aluminum alloys determines the safety of high-speed used in new energy vehicles are selected, and the influence of
rail car bodies [1e4]. At present, arc welding is widely used in beam oscillating behavior on the microstructure and proper-
the welding of high-speed railway body, and the coarse joint ties of weld joints is studied. The results can provide new ideas
microstructure and large deformation are the main factors and technical guidance for dissimilar aluminum alloy welding.
restricting the further improvement of the joint strength.
Therefore, a high-quality welding technology is an urgent need
for high-speed rail manufacturers. Laser welding has the 2. Experimental methods
characteristics of concentrated energy density and non-
contact, which is an ideal heat source for welding aluminum An IPG YLS-6000 laser with the maximum power of 6.0 kW
alloy [5e7]. However, due to the high thermal conductivity and was used in this experiment. The laser wavelength is 1070 nm
different thermal expansion coefficient of dissimilar aluminum and the diameter of fiber core is 200 mm. The motion mecha-
alloy, the welding joint is prone to undercut, crack and other nism is FANUC M-710ic industrial robot, whose repetitive
defects [8,9], which seriously reduces the joint performance. positioning accuracy reaches ±0.05 mm. As shown in Fig. 1,
Chen et al. found that obvious pores and cracks were exist in galvanometer scanning system is mainly composed of a
laser welding of 5082/6061 dissimilar aluminum alloy weld, collimator, scanning galvanometer and F-Theta focusing
and the crack was the main factor to reduce the weld strength system. The materials are 6061-T6 and 2A12-T4 aluminum
[10]. In the study of laser-MIG hybrid welding of 5083/6082 alloys with a thickness of 3 mm. Before welding, the sample
aluminum alloy joints, Yan et al. found that the stress con- surface was polished to remove the oxide film, and the surface
centration caused by pores in the fusion zone was the main oil stain was removed by wiping with acetone. The circular
reason for the decrease of joint strength [11]. In addition, scanning laser beam was used in the experiment. The process
studies of other dissimilar aluminum alloys show that the parameters involved in this experiment include: laser power
microstructure characteristics of the weld have an important (P), welding speed (V), scanning amplitude (A: the diameter of
influence on the mechanical properties of the joint. scanning circle), scanning frequency (f), and welding process
The application of high power galvanometer in laser parameters as shown in Table 1.
welding is a research hotspot in recent years. By adjusting the
beam scanning mode, it is possible to improve energy distri-
bution and stirring pool, thereby reducing weld defects,
segregation and improving joint performance. At present,
some scholars have carried out the related research of laser
oscillating welding. Zhang et al. found that oscillating laser
reduce the columnar grains of low carbon steel weld, promote
the growth of equiaxed grains, and then improve the me-
chanical properties of weld. Wang et al. found that the num-
ber of equiaxed grains and toughness were improved in laser
circular scanning welding of 6061 aluminum alloy [12]. Cai and
Zhang et al. studied laser oscillating welding of high strength
steel and low carbon steel, it was found that reducing the
oscillating amplitude and increasing the oscillating frequency
were beneficial to reduce the porosity tendency of the weld
[13,14]. Deok Choi et al. found that when the laser beam
scanning perpendicular to the welding direction, the crack
length was significantly reduced, and the crack-free weld was
obtained with the oscillating frequency of 5 Hz [15]. Hagen- Fig. 1 e Schematic diagram of laser oscillation scanning
locher et al. found that beam scanning was conducive to the welding method.
generation of equiaxed grains and the reduction of thermal
crack tendency in laser oscillating welding of 6061 aluminum
alloy [16]. From the above literatures, it can be seen that the Table 1 e Process parameters of dissimilar aluminum
scanning laser beam was beneficial for reducing the porosity alloy oscillating scanning laser welding.
and crack tendency, promoting the formation of equiaxed Process parameters Value
grains, and improving the mechanical properties of welding laser power (kW) 3.4
seams. Especially for the microstructure, the scanning laser welding speed (m/min) 3.0
will change the heat and mass transfer process of the molten Beam scanning frequency (Hz) 0,10,50,200,500
pool while rapidly stirring the molten pool. Moreover, the Beam scanning amplitude (mm) 0.4,0.8,1.2,1.6
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Metallographic samples were prepared by standard
method to observe the cross-section morphology and micro- 3. Results
structure of the weld after welding. The cross section was cut
off by wire cutting in the central area of the weld, and then 3.1. The effect of laser beam scanning behavior on weld
water milled, and then mechanically polished with diamond microstructure
polishing paste. Finally, it was corroded with Keller reagent
(1 ml HF þ 1.5 ml HCl þ 2.5 ml HNO3 þ 95 ml H2O) for 15 s. The As shown in Fig. 3, it is a typical microstructure of weld
weld microstructure was analyzed by field emission electron (A ¼ 0.8 mm, f ¼ 50 Hz), and the grain morphology of partial
microscope, and the element content was tested by scanning melting zone close to the 6061 and 2A12 base materials are
electron microscope accessory energy spectrometer (EDS). significantly different. The color of grain boundary on 6061
The grain structure of weld was analyzed by electron back- side is lighter than that on 2A12 side. There are elongated
scatter diffraction pattern (EBSD) in scanning electron mi- columnar grains in the melting zone on both sides, and
croscope. EBSD sample preparation was consistent with equiaxed dendrites are in the middle of the weld. The width of
metallographic sample preparation in the early stage. The the partial melting zone on both sides of 6061 and 2A12 base
difference was chemical polishing after mechanical polishing. metals are 22 mm and 39 mm respectively. It can be seen that
The polishing solution was 1:9 perchloric acid alcohol solu- the width of the partial melting zone on the side of the 2A12
tion, the electrolysis voltage was 30 V, the electrolysis time base metal is about twice that of 6061 base metal. This is due
was about 15 s, and the electrolyte temperature was 20 C. X- to the temperature difference between solid phase line and
ray diffraction (XRD) was used to detect the phase in the weld. liquidus phase line of 6061 and 2A12 are 70 C and 136 C
The mechanical properties of the weld were measured by AG- respectively, and the cooling and solidification time of molten
100kN high temperature performance testing machine. The pool on 2A12 side is longer, so the width of partial melting
tensile speed was set to 2 mm/min according to GB T zone is larger.
228.1e2010. The tensile size of dissimilar aluminum alloy Figure 4 shows the typical morphology of the weld under
welding samples was shown in Fig. 2. the scanning electron microscope. It can be found that the
number of white precipitates at the grain boundary on 2A12
side is significantly more than that of 6061 side. The results of
EDS and XRD are shown in Fig. 5 and Table 2. The black matrix
in the weld is mainly composed of a-Al (Point P1, Point P3,
point P5), and the white structure (a-Alþq-Al2CuþS-Al2CuMg)
is eutectic (point P2, Point P4, point P6).
In order to clearly and accurately study the type, distribu-
tion and size of grains in the weld, EBSD technology was used
to characterize and calculate the average diameter of equi-
Fig. 2 e Dimensional drawing of tensile specimen. axed grains. Figure 6a, (b) and (c) represent typical weld cross
section IPF when the scanning frequency is 0, 50 Hz and 500 Hz
Fig. 3 e Typical macroscopic structure of laser scanning welding. (a) The structure near the partial melting zone on the 6061
side; (b) the equiaxed structure in the middle of the weld; (c) the structure near the partial melting zone on the 2A12 side;
Fig. (d), (e), (f) is an enlarged view of (a), (b), (c).
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Fig. 4 e Typical microstructure of weld by laser scanning under scanning electron microscope. (a) Microstructure near partial
melting zone on 6061 side; (b) equiaxed grain structure in middle of weld; (c) microstructure near partial melting zone on
2A12 side.
Fig. 5 e XRD test results of welds.
Table 2 e Element content of each test point (wt.%).
Point Al Si Cu Mg
P1 96.57 0.27 1.60 1.56
P2 88.44 2.51 7.60 1.45
P3 94.53 0.08 3.71 1.69
P4 88.53 0.20 10.19 1.07
P5 94.69 0.17 3.63 1.52
P6 88.70 0.28 9.69 1.33
respectively. The left-most part is 6061 base metal and the
right-most part is 2A12 base metal. Elongated columnar grains
grow next to the base metal and equiaxed grains grow in the
middle of the weld. The equiaxed grain area increases obvi-
ously with the laser scanning frequency increased. As shown
Fig. 6 e IPF of weld section, (a) f ¼ 0 Hz; (b) f ¼ 50 Hz; (c)
in Fig. 7a, when the laser scanning frequency is increased
f ¼ 500 Hz.
from 0 Hz to 50 Hz, the proportion of equiaxed grain zone in
fusion zone increases from 23.6% to 37.6%. When frequency
continues increase to 500 Hz, the proportion of equiaxed grain
zone increases to 40.6%, and the increase range is small. The fusion zone first increases and then decreases. When the
results show that scanning frequency only has influence on frequency increased from 0 to 200 Hz, the average diameter of
the equiaxed grains ratio when it is less than 50 Hz, and equiaxed grains decreased from 37.4 mm to 21.2 mm, and the
almost no influence when it is more than 50 Hz. It can be seen grain size gradually increased to 38.1 mm as the frequency
from Fig. 7b that when the laser scanning amplitude increases increased to 500 Hz. As shown in Fig. 8b, when laser oscillation
from 0 mm to 1.6 mm, the proportion of the equiaxed grain frequency increased, the average diameter of equiaxed grains
area of the weld increases from 23.6% to 42.7%, which is in weld fusion zone gradually decreases. When the laser
approximately a linear increase. scanning amplitude increases from 0 mm to 1.2 mm, the
As shown in Fig. 8a, when laser oscillation frequency average diameter of equiaxed grains decreases from 37.4 mm
increased, the average diameter of equiaxed grains in weld to 25.0 mm.
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Fig. 7 e The influence of oscillation frequency (a) and oscillation amplitude (b) on the ratio of equiaxed grains in the weld.
Fig. 8 e The influence of the oscillation frequency (a) and the oscillation amplitude (b) on the average diameter of the
equiaxed grains of the weld.
By studying the influence of laser scanning behavior on the relationship between heterogeneous nucleation rate and
weld structure, it is found that the laser scanning frequency supercooling degree is shown in the equation [17]:
and amplitude have a great influence on the formation of " #
equiaxed crystals and the size of equiaxed crystals. According 16pg3 T0 2 1
I ¼ I0 exp 2
$ 2
(3)
to the classic model of equiaxed grain formation proposed by 3Dhm kB T ðDTc Þ
Hunt [17], the critical condition for equiaxed grain formation
where I0 is the exponential factor, g is the phase interface
can be obtained by Eq. (1),
energy, Dhm is the enthalpy per unit volume, and kb is the
Boltzmann constant. According to Eqs. (2) and (3), the smaller
G 0:061N01=3 1 ðDTN Þ3 ðDTC Þ3 DTC (1)
the temperature gradient is, the greater the component
where G is the temperature gradient, N0 is the nucleation rate, supercooling is, and the higher the heterogeneous nucleation
DTN is the critical subcooling degree of heterogeneous nucle- rate I is. The size of a grain is usually expressed by the average
ation, and DTC is the subcooling degree of the columnar crystal diameter of grain. When the metal crystallizes, the grain size
growth front. Eq. (1) shows that the temperature gradient has depends on relative size of nucleation rate N0 and growth rate
a great influence on formation of equiaxed grains. In addition, G0. The number of grains per unit area can be expressed by Eq.
the heterogeneous nucleation rate is also an important factor (4) [18]:
affecting formation of equiaxed grains. When temperature 1=2
gradient of molten pool is lower and heterogeneous nucle- N0
Z ¼ 1:1 (4)
ation rate is larger, it is more conducive to the formation of G0
equiaxed grains. The alloy is greatly affected by component The size of grain can be described by the Z value. When Z is
supercooling in solidification process, and the criterion of very large, the grain is fine. In general, the larger the sub-
composition supercooling is [18]: cooling degree is, the larger the N0/G0 will be, and the smaller
the grain will be. Compared with the traditional laser welding,
G mL C0 ð1 kÞ
(2) the scanning laser beam stirs the molten pool to promote the
R DL k
flow of the molten pool, thus destroying the growth of
where G is the temperature gradient; R is the solidification columnar grains and forming broken dendrites. On the one
rate; mL is the liquidus slope; C0 is the solute concentration in hand, it is beneficial to inhibit their growth and expand the
the liquid phase; k is the equilibrium distribution coefficient; area of equiaxed grains. On the other hand, these broken
DL is the solute diffusion coefficient in the liquid phase. The dendrites can be used as heterogeneous nucleation particles
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to increase the nucleation rate. The resulting nucleation rate reduced by about 20 HV0.1, which is a 19% decrease. There is a
is recorded as Ns, then the total nucleation rate is the sum of significant increase in microhardness from 6061 HAZ to 6061
the heterogeneous nucleation rate I caused by the tempera- base metal. The width of 2A12 HAZ is about 1.5 mm, and the
ture gradient and the nucleation rate Ns caused by dendrite maximum hardness in the HAZ decreases by about 10 HV0.1,
fragmentation, namely N0¼IþNs. which is a 7% decrease. Because 2A12 HAZ is narrower and
When laser scanning frequency increased, the energy has less hardness reduction, 2A12 HAZ is not as obvious as
distribution of weld becomes uniform, G and G0 gradually 6061. The special feature of this study is that the content of Cu
decrease, while N0 gradually increases. It leads to low tem- element in the two base materials is quite different. In laser
perature gradient (G) in the middle of weld and increases the scanning welding, Cu atoms in 2A12 aluminum alloy diffused
super-cooling degree of weld and promotes the heteroge- to the 6061 side under the effect of keyhole stirring force,
neous nucleation. In addition, when scanning frequency and surface tension and expansion. After solidification, q-Al2Cu
scanning speed increased, the number of broken grains in and S-Al2CuMg strengthening phases were generated in the
molten pool increases, which also promotes the heteroge- weld, and the strengthening effect of these phases was
neous nucleation. It increases Ns and finally leads to increase stronger than that of b-Mg2Si phase in 6061. Therefore, the
N0. According to Eq. (4), the value of Z is increasing and the size more Cu elements in the weld, the higher the hardness of the
of equiaxed grains in the weld is decreasing gradually. When weld was.
the laser scanning frequency increases to 500 Hz, due to the
small scanning amplitude and high frequency and the high 3.3. Tensile strength and elongation of welded joints
laser energy overlapping density, many broken columnar
dendrites are remelted and cannot be used as nucleating As shown in Fig. 10a, when the beam scanning frequency in-
particles, leading to Ns reduction and further reduction of N0. creases from 0 Hz to 500 Hz, the tensile strength of welded
According to Eq. (4), the value of Z is decreasing and the size of joints fluctuates between 243 MPa and 248 MPa, while the
equiaxed grains is increasing. elongation of tensile specimens increases continuously from
Similarly, when the scanning frequency is a constant 3.0% to 6.6%. When the scanning frequency increases to
value, the energy distribution of weld is more uniform with 500 Hz, the elongation of welded specimens increases by 120%
scanning amplitude increased, resulting in a gradual decrease compared with that of non scanning samples. As shown in
in the temperature gradient (G) in the middle of the weld. Fig. 10b, when the scanning amplitude increases from 0 mm to
When the scanning amplitude increased, the scanning speed 1.6 mm, the tensile strength of welded joint fluctuates be-
increases, and the number of broken grains in the molten pool tween 243 MPa and 249 MPa, and the elongation also shows an
increases. Thus, the NS increases and finally leads to the in- overall increasing trend from 3.0% to 6.8%. When the scanning
crease of N0. According to Eq. (4), the equiaxed grain size in the amplitude increases to 1.6 mm, the elongation of the sample is
weld decreases. When the scanning amplitude increased, the 127% higher than that of the sample without scanning.
overlapping density of laser energy decreases, which is As shown in Fig. 11, when scanning frequency increased,
beneficial to protect broken dendrites, and is more conducive the fracture position tends to shift to the heat affected zone of
to heterogeneous nucleation, thereby refining crystal grains. 6061 aluminum alloys. When f is 0 Hz, the fracture position is
in the weld zone; when f is 10 Hz, the fracture position is in the
3.2. Microhardness of welded joints partial melting zone, cracking from the partial melting zone to
the heat affected zone; when f is 50 Hz, The fracture position is
As shown in Fig. 9, the microhardness of 6061 base metal is in the melting zone; when f is 200 Hz and 500 Hz, the fracture
about 105 HV0.1, and 2A12 base metal is about 150 HV0.1. There position is in the heat affected zone. It shows that the tensile
is a big difference between 6061 and 2A12 heat-affected zone strength of the weld is stronger with scanning frequency of
(HAZ). The HAZ width of 6061 is about 3 mm. Compared with 200 Hz and 500 Hz than that of non-scanning or low frequency
the 6061 base metal, the HAZ microhardness has been scanning, and is higher than the heat affected zone.
Fig. 9 e Distribution of microhardness along weld joint cross section, (a) influence of beam scanning frequency; (b) influence
of beam scanning amplitude.
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Fig. 10 e The influence of (a) laser scanning frequency and (b) laser scanning amplitude on the tensile strength and
elongation of welded joints.
Fig. 11 e The influence of scanning frequency on fracture location, (a) 0 Hz; (b) 10 Hz; (c) 50 Hz; (d) 200 Hz; (e) 500 Hz.
As shown in Fig. 12, when the scanning amplitude is strengthening phases, which enhances the tensile strength of
increased from 0.4 mm to 1.6 mm, the fracture position is also the weld, and the proportion of equiaxed grains in the weld is
shifted to the heat affected zone of 6061 aluminum alloy. larger. During tensile test, the more equiaxed grains are
When A is 0.4 mm, the fracture position is between the partial beneficial to hinder the slip between the grains and
melting zone and the heat affected zone. When A is 0.8 mm, strengthen the weld.
the fracture position is located in the melting zone. When A is The tensile strength of aluminum alloy welds is deter-
1.2 mm and 1.6 mm, the fracture position is located in the heat mined by the type and quantity of strengthening phases in the
affected zone. When scanning frequency and amplitude weld, as well as the size and proportion of grains. The order of
increased, the Cu element on the 2A12 side of the weld is more strengthening phase decomposition of 6061 after heating is:
and more diffused to the 6061 side, resulting in more a0 / a þ GP / a þ b00 / a þ b0 / a þ b [19e23]. The order of
Fig. 12 e The influence of scanning amplitude on fracture location, (a) 0.4 mm; (b) 0.8 mm; (c) 1.2 mm; (d) 1.6 mm.
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Fig. 13 e Fracture morphology of tensile specimens at different scanning frequencies, (a) 0 Hz; (b) 50 Hz; (c) 200 Hz; (d) 500 Hz.
Fig. 14 e Fracture morphology of tensile specimens at different scanning amplitudes, (a) 0.4 mm; (b) 0.8 mm; (c) 1.2 mm; (d)
1.6 mm.
phase decomposition of 2A12 after heating is: a0 / a þ GP / main strengthening elements, while GP zone and b00 are the
a þ s00 / a þ s0 / a þ S, a0 / a þ GP / a þ q00 / a þ q0 / a þ q main strengthening agents in 6061 base metal. However, GP
[24e28]. a0 is a supersaturated solid solution of aluminum, a is zone, s 00 and b00 will decompose under the effect of welding
a solid solution. In 2A12 base metal, GP zone and s00 are the thermal cycle, so the strength of melting zone and heat
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affected zone will be lower than that of base metal. According the strengthening phase GP zone and b00 in 6061 base
to the previous microhardness distribution diagram, the GP metal are more sensitive to temperature, the affected
zone and b00 of strengthening phase in 6061 base metal are zone is wide and the softening degree is large.
more sensitive to the temperature, the affected area is wide (3) The scanning laser beam has little influence on tensile
and the softening degree is large. When the scanning fre- strength of welded joint, but it has a great influence on
quency and scanning amplitude are large, more Cu elements elongation. Increasing laser scanning frequency and
are distributed on the 6061 side in the weld. When the laser is amplitude is beneficial to increase the proportion of
shifted to 2A12, the average content of Cu in the weld is medium axial grains and refine grains, which is
increased. It is beneficial to produce more q-Al2Cu phase and conducive to increase the strength and toughness of
S-Al2CuMg phase, which enhances the tensile strength of the weld. As the 6061 aluminum alloy is easy to soften due
weld. With the increase of laser scanning frequency and to heating, when the scanning amplitude is greater than
amplitude, the proportion of equiaxed grains increases grad- 1.2 mm or scanning frequency is greater than 200 Hz,
ually, and the greater the proportion of equiaxed grains, the the tensile fracture of welded joint is in the heat
greater the slip resistance of weld, the more conducive to affected zone of 6061 aluminum alloy.
enhance the toughness and tensile strength of weld. When
the beam is in the center of the two base materials, the
amount of metal melted by 2A12 and AA6061 is equivalent, Declaration of competing interest
and there are more Cu, Mg, Si and other elements in the weld,
which will produce more W (Cu4Mg5Si4Al) phase, which will The authors declare that they have no known competing
reduce the toughness of the weld [29]. financial interests or personal relationships that could have
As shown in Fig. 13, when the beam is not scanned, the appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
fracture at the weld zone is composed of dimple zone and
brittle fracture zone, and the number of dimples is small, ac-
counting for about 20%. When the scanning frequency is Acknowledgements
50 Hz, the weld fracture is full of a large number of small
dimples. When the scanning frequency was 200 Hz and This work is financial supported by the National Natural Sci-
500 Hz, the weld fracture was in the heat-affected zone and ence Foundation of China with grant No. 51805182 and No.
the dimple was larger. The dimples are formed by the grain 51775206, and the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan
boundary of the weld and the fracture of the grains. The larger Province with grant No. 2021JJ40068.
the dimples are, the more deformation the grain has under-
gone when it is stretched to fracture. Thus, the ability to resist
references
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[30e32]. The fracture morphology is consistent with the
elongation test results of the joint. As shown in Fig. 14, when
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