Contents

2 Sets, relations and functions 3

2.1 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Sets, subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2 Intersection, union, complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.3 Dierence, symmetric dierence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4 Powers set, partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.5 Cartesian Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Binary relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Equivalence relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3 Order relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.2 Examples of common functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.3 Image and inverse image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.4 Injections, surjections and bijections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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Chapter

Sets, relations and func-

tions

2.1 Sets

2.1.1 Sets, subsets

Denition 2.1. A set is an unordered collection of objects, called elements or members of
the set.

In general, we denote a set by A, B, C....

There are two methods of describing a set, the roster form and set builder.
Roster form: we list all the elements of the set within braces {} and separate them by com-
mas.

Example 2.1. {, 4, F}, {a, b, c, d, e}, {−1, 5, 3, −6, 5, 5}.

Set builder: we list the property or properties satised by all the elements of the set. We write
{x : P (x)}.

Example 2.2. A = {· · · , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4 · · · } = {2n, n ∈ Z} = {x : x ∈ Z and x is even} is

the set of even integers.
B = {· · · , −3, −1, 1, 3, · · · } = {2n + 1, n ∈ Z} = {n ∈ Z, n is odd} is the set of odd integers.

Remark. The elements of a set may be listed in any order. Thus {1, 2, 3} = {2, 1, 3}.

Example 2.3. N = {0, 1, 2, ...} is the set of natural numbers.

Z = {..., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ...} is the set of integers.
Q = { pq , p, q ∈ Z, andq 6= 0} is the set rational numbers.

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 R is the set of real numbers.

Denition 2.2. If a is an element of the set A, we say that "a belongs to A" and we denote
a ∈ A.

If a does not belong to A, we write, a ∈/ A.

The empty set is a set that contains no elements. It is denoted as ∅ or {}.

Example 2.4. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then 1 ∈ A and 5 ∈/ A.

Let B = {a, b, c, d}. Then c ∈ B and 9 ∈/ B .

Denition 2.3. (Cardinal)

Let A be a set. If the number of distinct elements of A is nite, we call it cardinal of A and denote
it card(A).
If A has an innity of distinct elements, we say that it has innite cardinality and we denote
card(A) = ∞.

Example 2.5. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then card(A) = 3.

card(N) = ∞. card(∅) = 0.

Universal set: a universal set is the set that contains all the elements or the sets we have under
discussion.

Example 2.6. Let A = {1, 2, 3} B = {1, 3, 4, 5} and C = {7, 8}.

If we consider the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8} then clearly E is universal set. We can also
consider N as a universal set.
Venn diagrams: are the diagrams that are used to represent the sets, relation between the sets
and operation performed on them.
A
c

a b
d

Denition 2.4. (Subset)

Let A and B be sets. We say that A is subset of B or A is contained in B , and we write A ⊂ B
if and only if every element of A is also an element of B .
A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ ∀x, x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B

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 Example 2.7. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Then, every element of A is element of B , so A ⊂ B .
Remark. A is not a subset of B if there is an element x such that x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B , and we
write A 6⊂ B
A 6⊂ B ⇐⇒ ∃x, x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/B

Example 2.8. Let A = {b, c, 2} and B = {a, b, λ, 2, O}.

A 6⊂ B because c ∈ A and c ∈
/ B.

Example 2.9. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 6} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

A 6⊂ B because 6 ∈ A and 6 ∈
/ B.
B 6⊂ A because 4 ∈ B and 4 ∈
/ A.

Denition 2.5. (Equal sets)

Let A and B be sets. We say that A is equal of B and we write A = B if and only if they have
exactly the same elements; that is,
A = B ⇐⇒ ∀x, x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B
⇐⇒ A ⊂ B ∧ B ⊂ A

Otherwise, the sets are unequal and we write, A 6= B .

Example 2.10. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {c, b, a}.

Since A and B have exactly the same elements, so A = B .
Let C = {1, 2, 2, 3, 2} and D = {1, 2, 3}.
Since C and D have exactly the same elements, so C = D. The repeated of 2 in C in not
necessary, we prefer to omit them.

2.1.2 Intersection, union, complement

Denition 2.6. (Intersection).
Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A and B , denoted by A ∩ B , is the set of all elements
that are common to both A and B .
A ∩ B = {x, x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}

A B

A∩B

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Denition 2.7. (Disjoint sets)
Two sets A and B are called disjoint if, and only if their intersection is the empty set.
A and B are disjoint ⇐⇒ A ∩ B = ∅

A B

Disjoint sets A and B

Example 2.11. Let A = {b, c, 2} and B = {a, b, λ, 2, O}. Then A ∩ B = {b, 2}

Example 2.12. Let A = {c} and B = {a, b, λ, 2, O}. A and B are disjoint, because A∩B = ∅

Denition 2.8. (Union)

Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B , denoted by A ∪ B is the set of all elements that are
in at least one of A or B .
A ∪ B = {x, x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}

A B

A∪B

Example 2.13. Let A = {b, c, 2} and B = {a, b, λ, 2, O}. Then A ∪ B = {a, b, λ, 2, O, c}

Theorem 2.1. Let A B and C be subset of E . Then

1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A, A ∪ E = E , A ∪ ∅ = A, (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).
2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A, A ∩ E = A, A ∩ ∅ = ∅, (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
3. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Denition 2.9. (Complement)

Let A ⊂ E . The complement of A, denoted {AE is the set of all elements in E that are not in A.
{A
E = {x ∈ E, x ∈
/ A}

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Notation. The complement of A is also denoted by Ac or {E A.

{A
E

Example 2.14. Let E = {a, 1, 3, b, 2}, A = {a, 2} and B = {3, 1, 2}.

Then {AE = {1, 3, b} and {BE = {a, b}.
Remark. Let E be a set.
1. E ⊂ E, ∅ ⊂ E.
2. / E}.
∅ = {x, x ∈ E ∧ x ∈
3. {∅E = E .
4. {EE = ∅

Theorem 2.2. Let A, B ⊂ E . Then

E ⊂ {E .
ˆ A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ {B A

E = A.
ˆ {E {A

Proof. 1.
A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ E(x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B)
⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ E(x ∈
/ B =⇒ x ∈
/ A)
⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ E(x ∈ {B
E =⇒ x ∈ {E A)
⇐⇒ {B
E ⊂ {E A

2. Let x ∈ E .
x ∈ {E {A / {A
E ⇐⇒ x ∈ E
⇐⇒ x ∈ A

2.1.3 Dierence, symmetric dierence

Denition 2.10. (Dierence)
The dierence of A and B , denoted by A − B (or A\B ), is the set of elements of A that do not
belong to B .
A\B = {x, x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/ B}

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 A B

A\B

Example 2.15. Let A = {a, 1, 3, b, 2}, B = {c, 1, x, 2}. Then, A\B = {a, 3, b} and B\A =
{c, x}.

Remark. The dierence of A and B is also called the complement of B with respect to A.

Denition 2.11. (Symmetric dierence)

The symmetric dierence of two sets A and B denoted by A 4 B , is dened as
A 4 B = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A)

A B

A4B

Example 2.16. Let A = {a, 1, 3, b, 2}, B = {c, 1, x, 2}. Then A 4 B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) =

{a, 3, b, c, x}.

2.1.4 Powers set, partition

Denition 2.12. (Power set)
Let A be a set. The power set of A, denoted P(A), is the set of all subsets of A. Symbolically,
we write
P(A) = {U, U ⊂ A}

Example 2.17. Let A = {a, 1, α}.

P(A) = {∅, {a}, {1}, {α}, {a, 1}, {a, α}, {1, α}, A}.

Remark. {a} ∈ P(A) and {a} ⊂ A.

Remark. If card(A) = n, then card(P(A)) = 2n .

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Denition 2.13. (Partition).
A collection of nonempty sets {Ai } ⊂ P(A) is a partition of a set A if and only if
1. A is the union of all the Ai .
2. Ai ∩ Aj = ∅, for i 6= j .

A1

A3

A2 A5
A4

Example 2.18. Let A = {1, a, l, 3, b, c, d, θ, α, β}.

B = {{a, θ}, {d, α, β}, {c, 1}, {3, l}{b}} is a partition of A.
C = {{1}, {a}, {l}, {3}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {θ}, {α}, {β}} is also a partition of A.

Example 2.19. Let A = N, P = {2k, k ∈ N} and I = {2k + 1, k ∈ N}.

We have P ∩ I = ∅ and P ∪ I = N. Then B = {P, I} is a partition of N.

2.1.5 Cartesian Products

Denition 2.14. (Cartesian Products)
The Cartesian product of the sets A and B denoted by A × B , is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b)
such that a ∈ A and b ∈ B .
A × B = {(a, b), a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}

Remark. We use the notation A2 to denote A × A. More generally, An = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), ai ∈

A}.

Example 2.20. Let A = {1, a} and B = {b, 2}. Then

1. A × B = {(1, b), (1, 2), (a, b), (a, 2)}.
2. B × A = {(b, 1), (b, a), (2, 1), (2, a)}.
3. A2 = {(1, 1), (1, a), (a, 1), (a, a)}.
4. B 2 = {(b, b), (b, 2), (2, b), (2, 2)}.
Remark. .

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 1. (x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) ⇐⇒ x = x0 ∧ y = y0 .
2. A × B = B × A ⇐⇒ A = B .
3. R × R = R2 = {(x, y), x ∈ R ∧ y ∈ R}.

2.2 Relations

2.2.1 Binary relation

Denition 2.15. Let A and B be sets. A binary relation from A to B is a subset R of
A × B.
R is a binary relation from A to B ⇐⇒ R ⊂ A × B
We say that a ∈ A and b ∈ B are related by R if (a, b) ∈ R, and we often denote this by aRb.

Remark. If R is a relation from A to A, then R is called a binary relation on A.

The notation a R
6 b means (a, b) ∈
/ R.
There are two ways does specify a relation: listing members of a relation, and listing a
relation property.
Example 2.21. (Listing members of a relation).
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}. Then R = {(1, a), (1, c), (2, b)} is a binary relation from A
to B . This means 1Ra, 1Rc, 2Rb. But 1 R 6 b.

Example 2.22. (Listing a relation property).

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7} and B = {3, 7, 10, 11}. Then R = {(x, y) ∈ A × B, x = y} =
{(3, 3), (7, 7)} is a binary relation from A to B .

Example 2.23. (Listing a relation property).

For any set A, IA = {(a, a), a ∈ A} is a binary relation and it is called the identity relation
on A.

Denition 2.16. A relation on a set E is a relation from E to E .

Denition 2.17. Let R a binary relation on a set E .

• R is reexive if ∀x ∈ E, xRx.
• R is symmetric if ∀x, y ∈ E, xRy =⇒ yRx.

• R is transitive if ∀x, y, z ∈ E, (xRy ∧ yRz) =⇒ xRz .

• R is antisymmetric if ∀x, y ∈ E, (xRy ∧ yRx) =⇒ x = y .

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 Example 2.24. For E = {1, 2, 3, 4}, let
R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 4), (2, 4)} R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (3, 4), (4, 3)}

R1 is not reexive because 2 R

6 1 2. But R2 is reexive.
R1 is not symmetric because 3R4 but 4 R 6 3. R2 is symmetric.
Both R1 and R2 are transitive relations.
R1 is antisymmetric. R2 is not antisymmetric because we have 3R4 and 4R3 but 3 6= 4.

Example 2.25. Let xRy ⇐⇒ x − y > 0, with x, y ∈ R.

R is not a reexive. Let x ∈ R.

x − x = 0 6> 0 =⇒ xRx
6

R is not a symmetric. Let xRy

x − y > 0 =⇒ y − x < 0
6
=⇒ yRx

R is transitive. Let xRy and yRz . Then,

x − y > 0 and y − z > 0 =⇒ x − z > 0

=⇒ xRz

2.2.2 Equivalence relation

Denition 2.18. A relation which is reexive, symmetric and transitive is called an equiva-
lence relation.

Example 2.26. Let xRy ⇐⇒ x2 = y 2 . R is equivalence relation on R.

Example 2.27. Let E = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.
R is an equivalence relation on E .

Example 2.28. The relation "≤" dened on N is reexive and transitive, but not symmetric.
Thus it is not an equivalence relation.

Denition 2.19. (Equivalence class)

The equivalence class of x ∈ E denoted by ẋ is
ẋ = {y ∈ E, yRx}

Notation. We use also [x] or x or cl(x) to denote an equivalence relation.

Remark. if y ∈ ẋ then y is called a representative of this equivalence class. Any element of a
class can be used as a representative of this class.

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 Example 2.29. Let xRy ⇐⇒ x2 = y 2 . Then
0̇ = {y ∈ R, yR0} = {y ∈ R, y 2 = 0} = {0}.
1̇ = {y ∈ R, yR1} = {y ∈ R, y 2 = 1} = {−1, 1}. -1 is also a representative of the class 1̇,
then 1̇ = −1
˙
For x 6= 0, we have ẋ = {y ∈ R, yRx} = {y ∈ R, y2 = x2 } = {−x, x}.

Denition 2.20. (Quotient set)

The set of all equivalence classes of R on E , denoted E/R, is called the quotient set of the
relation.

Exercise
Let R be a binary relation on the set Z, such that

∀x, y ∈ Z, xRy ⇐⇒ x − y is a multiple of 2

(i) Show that R is an equivalence relation.

(ii) Find the equivalence classes of 0 and 1.
(iii) Deduce the quotient set.
Solution
(i) R is an equivalence relation:
(a) Is R reexive ?
Let x ∈ Z, do we have xRx?.
x − x = 0, wich is multiple of 2. So xRx
Then R is reexive.
(b) Is R symmetric?
Let x, y ∈ Z, do we have xRy =⇒ yRx ?
xRy =⇒ ∃k ∈ Z, x − y = 2k
=⇒ ∃k ∈ Z, − (x − y) = −2k
=⇒ ∃k ∈ Z, y − x = 2(−k)
=⇒ ∃k 0 ∈ Z, y − x = 2k 0 , k 0 = −k
=⇒ yRx
Then R is symmetric.
(c) Is R transitive?
Let x, y, z ∈ Z, do we have xRy ∧ yRx) =⇒ x = y ?
xRy =⇒ ∃k ∈ Z, x − y = 2k · · · (1)
yRz =⇒ ∃k 0 ∈ Z, y − z = 2k 0 · · · (2)
(1)+(2) : x − z = 2(k + k0 ) = 2k00 , k00 = k + k0 ∈ Z.
Then there exists k00 ∈ Z, x − z = 2k00 =⇒ xRz .
Then R is transitive
R is reexive, symmetric and transitive, then R is an equivalence relation on Z.

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 (ii) Equivalence classes of 0 and 1:
ẋ = {y ∈ Z : yRx}
= {y ∈ Z, y − x = 2k, k ∈ Z}
= {y ∈ Z, y = x + 2k, k ∈ Z}
0̇ = {y ∈ Z, yR0}
= {y ∈ Z, y − 0 = 2k, k ∈ Z}
= {y ∈ Z, y = 2k, k ∈ Z}
= {0, 2, 4, , 6...}
1̇ = {y ∈ Z, yR1}
= {y ∈ Z, y − 1 = 2k, k ∈ Z}
= {y ∈ Z, y = 2k + 1, k ∈ Z}
= {1, 3, 5, 7...}

(iii) The quotient set is Z/R = {0̇, 1̇}.

Remark. We denote also the set Z/R by Z/2Z.
In general, if p ∈ Z, the relation
∀x, y ∈ Z, xRy ⇔ x − y is a multiple of p.
is equivalence relation, and we have Z/R = Z/pZ = {0̇, 1̇, ..., p −˙ 1}.

Theorem 2.3. Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then, the equivalence classes of
R form a partition of A.

That is means the quotient set E/R is a partition of the set E .

Example 2.30. Let R be a binary relation on the set Z, such that

∀x, y ∈ Z, xRy ⇐⇒ x − y is a multiple of 2

{0̇, 1̇} is partition of Z.

2.2.3 Order relation

Denition 2.21. (Order relation)
A binary relation on a set E is an order relation if it is reexive, antisymmetric and transitive.

Denition 2.22. Let R be an order relation on a set E . R is a total order if and only if
∀x, y ∈ E, xRy ∨ yRx. In the otherwise we say that R is a partial order.

Example 2.31. The relation "≤" on R is a total order.

Exercise:
Let E be a set and P(E) the power set of E . We consider on P(E) the binary relation R,
∀A, B ∈ P(E), ARB ⇐⇒ A ⊂ B

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 1. Show that R is an order relation..

2. Is R a total order ?

Solution:

1. (a) Is R reexive?
Let A ∈ P(E), do we have ARA.
We know that ∀A ∈ P (A), A ⊂ A, then ARA.
Then R is reexive.
(b) Is R antisymmetric?
Let A, B ∈ P(E)
ARB =⇒ A ⊂ B
BRA =⇒ B ⊂ A
We have A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A, then A = B .
Then R is antisymmetric.
(c) Is R transitive ?
Let A, B, C ∈ P(E). Do we have ARB ∧ BRC =⇒ ARC ?
ARB =⇒ A ⊂ B
BRC =⇒ B ⊂ C
We have A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C , then A ⊂ C , then ARC .
Then R is transitive.
Finally, R is an order relation.

2. R is not a total order. Take the counterexample E = {0, 1}, then P(E) = {∅, {0}, {1}, E}.
Note that {0} 6⊂ {1} and {1} 6⊂ {0}.

2.3 Functions

2.3.1 Denitions
Denition 2.23. Let E and F be two nonempty sets. A function from E to F is a binary
relation f such that each element in E is related to a unique element in F .
f : E → F is function ⇐⇒ ∀x ∈ E ∃!y ∈ F such that y = f (x)

Remark. Every function is a relation but not every relation is a function.

A function is generally denoted by f, g...etc.

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 E F E F E F
R R R
0 a 0 a a

1 b 1 b 1 b
c 2 c 2 c

a function not a function not a function

Denition 2.24. Let f : E → F be a function.

If (x, y) ∈ f we write f (x) = y and we say that y is the the image of f at x and that x is a
pre-image of y under f .
E is the domain of f denoted Dom(f ).
F is the codomain of f denoted Codom(f ).
Rng(f ) is the range of f , Rng(f ) = {f (x), x ∈ E}.
If E = F we say f is a function on E .

Remark. A function has only one domain and one range, but many possible codomains, because
any set that includes the range may be considered to be a codomain.
Remark. Dom(f ) = {x, ∃y ∈ F ∧ y = f (x)}.

Example 2.32. Let E = {1, 2, 3} and F = {4, 5, 6}.

f1 = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6), (2, 4)} is not a fucntion because we have (2, 5) ∈ f1 and (2, 4) ∈ f1
but 4 6= 5.
f2 = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)} is a fucntion from E to F .

m
Example 2.33. Let f : Q → Z be a relation dened by f = m for all integers m and
n
n with n 6= 0.
f is not a function because a fractions
 have more
  than one representation
  as quotients
 of
3 6 3 6 3 6
integers. For instance, = , but f 6 f
= because f = 3 and f = 6.
1 2 1 2 1 2

Example 2.34. Let f : Z → Z dened by f (x) = x2 . f is a function with domain Z and

codomaine Z. The image of 4 is 16, and f (−2) = 4. Both −3 and 3 are pre-images of 9. As 5
has no pre-image in Z, 5 is not in the range of f . The range of f is Rng(f ) = {0, 1, 4, 9, ...}.
An function will be noted as:
f: E → F
x 7→ f (x).

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 Example 2.35.
f: R → R
2
x 7→ x + 4.
f: R → R
2
x 7→ x + 4.

2.3.2 Examples of common functions

Identity function: The identity function IE is the function that assigns each element to itself.
IE : E → E
x 7→ x.
E E
IE
a a

b b
c c

indicator function: The indicator function or characteristic function of a set A ⊂ E is the

function from the set A to {0, 1} dened as
1 if x ∈ A
(
1A (x) =
0 if x ∈
/A

E {0, 1}
1A
a
1
b
0
c

For example, E = R and A = {1, 3, 4}, we have 1A (3) = 1 and 1A (−1) = 0.

Constant function: A function f : E → {c} is constant function. i.e ∀x ∈ E, f (x) = c.
f : E → {c}
x 7→ c.

E {c}
f
0
1
2 c

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 First projection: Let E and F be two sets. The function
f : E×F → E
(x, y) 7→ x.
is called the rst projection.
For example, E = {1, 2, 3} and F = {a, b, c}.
We have f (1, a) = 1, f (1, b) = 1, f (1, c) = 1, f (2, a) = 2, f (2, b) = 2...etc.
Denition 2.25. Two functions f : E1 → F1 and g : E2 → F2 are said to be equal and we
write f = g if
1. E1 = E2 .
1. F1 = F2 .
2. for all x ∈ E1 , f (x) = g(x).

Example 2.36. Let

f : {1, 2} → {1, 2, 3, 4} g : {1, 2} → {n : n ∈ N∗ ∧ n ≤ 4}
x 7→ x2 . x 7→ 3x − 2.

1. Dom(f ) = Dom(g) = {1, 2}.

2. Codom(f ) = Codom(g) = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
3. f (1) = g(1) = 1 and f (2) = g(2) = 4.
Then, f = g.

Denition 2.26. (Function composition) Let f : E → F and g : F → G be two functions.

The composition of f and g is the function g ◦ f : E → G dened by:
∀x ∈ E, (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

g ◦ f is read "g round f " or "g composed with f ".

f g

E F G

g◦f

Example 2.37. Consider the following functions f and g:

f : R → R+ g : R+ → R−
x 7→ f (x) = x2 + 1. x 7→ g(x) = −x2 .

Determine g ◦ f and f ◦ g.
Solution
g ◦ f : R → R−
x 7→ (g ◦ f )(x) = −x4 − 2x2 − 1.
because
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(y) = −y 2 = −(x2 + 1)2 = −x4 − 2x2 − 1

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 f ◦ g is not dened because Codom(g) 6= Dom(f ), i.e. R− 6= R.

Example 2.38. Consider the following functions f and g:

f: R → R g: R → R
x 7→ f (x) = x2 + 1. x 7→ g(x) = −x2 .

1. Determine g ◦ f and f ◦ g.
2. Do we have f ◦ g = g ◦ f ?
3. Determine f ◦ f .
Solution
1.
g◦f : R → R
x 7→ (g ◦ f )(x) = −x4 − 2x2 − 1.
because
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = −f (x)2 = −(x2 + 1)2 = −x4 − 2x2 − 1.
f ◦g : R → R
x 7→ (f ◦ g)(x) = x4 + 1.
because
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = g(x)2 + 1 = (−x2 )2 + 1 = x4 + 1.

2. We have g ◦ f 6= f ◦ g because for example (g ◦ f )(1) = −4 6= (f ◦ g)(1) = 2.

3. Let x ∈ R, we have
(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f (x)2 + 1 = (x2 + 1)2 + 1 = x4 + 2x2 + 2

2.3.3 Image and inverse image

Denition 2.27. Let f : E → F be a function. Let A and B be two sets such that A ⊂ E
and B ⊂ F .

ˆ The image of A under f is the subset f (A) given by.

f (A) = {f (x), x ∈ A}

ˆ The inverse image (or, pre-image) of B by f is the set denoted by f −1 (B) and is dened
by
f −1 (B) = {x ∈ E, f (x) ∈ B}

Example 2.39. Let f : R → R, x 7→ f (x) = x2 . Let A = {0, −1, 2, 3} and B = {−1, 0, 5, 9}.
Determine f (A) and f −1 (B).
Solution:

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 f (A) = {f (x), x ∈ A}
= {f (0), f (−1), f (2), f (3)}
= {0, 1, 4, 9}

f −1 (B) = {x ∈ E, f (x) ∈ B}
= {x ∈ R, f (x) ∈ {−1, 0, 5, 9}}
√ √
= {0, 5, − 5, 3, −3}

Example 2.40.
f : R → R∗
1
x 7→ f (x) = x2
.

Determine the image and inverse image of the interval ,1 .

1 
4
Solution
Let A = ,1 .
1 
4

f (A) = {f (x), x ∈ A}
1
= {f (x), ≤ x ≤ 1}
4
1
= {f (x), ≤ x2 ≤ 1}
16
1 1
= {f (x), 1 ≤ 2 ≤ }
x 16
1
= {f (x), 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ }
16
= [1, 16]

f −1 (A) = {x ∈ R, f (x) ∈ A}
1 1
= {x ∈ R, ≤ 2 ≤ 1}
4 x
= {x ∈ R, 1 ≤ x2 ≤ 4}
= {x ∈ R, 1 ≤ |x| ≤ 2}
= {x ∈ R, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2} ∪ {x ∈ R, 1 ≤ −x ≤ 2}
= {x ∈ R, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2} ∪ {x ∈ R, − 2 ≤ x ≤ −1}
= [−2, −1] ∪ [1, 2]

Theorem 2.4. Let f be a function from E to F . A and B be two subsets of E , and C and D
be two subsets of F . We have the following properties:

1. f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B)
2. f (A ∪ B) = f (A) ∪ f (B)

19
 3. f −1 (C ∩ D) = f −1 (C) ∩ f −1 (D)
4. f −1 (C ∪ D) = f −1 (C) ∪ f −1 (D)

Denition 2.28. Let f : E → F be a function. Let A and B be two subsets such that A ⊂ E
and E ⊂ B .
The restriction of f to A is the function denoted g = f|A such that ∀x ∈ A, f (x) = g(x).
The extension of f to B is any function h : B → F such that f is the restriction of h to the
set E .

Example 2.41. Consider the following functions :

f : R → R+ g : R+ → R+
x 7→ f (x) = |x|. x 7→ g(x) = x.

g is the restriction of f to R+ .

f: Z → N g: N → N
x 7→ f (x) = x2 . x 7→ g(x) = x2 .

g is the restriction of f to N.

Example 2.42.
h2 : R → R
f : R+ → R h1 : R → R
x + 1, if x ≥ 0
(
x 7→ x + 1. x 7→ x + 1. x 7→ .
x2 if x < 0
y y y

x x x
the function f the function h1 the function h2

h1 and h2 are dierent extensions of f to R.

2.3.4 Injections, surjections and bijections

Denition 2.29. Let f : E → F be a function. f is called one-to-one, or injective, if and
only if dierent elements of E always have dierent images under f .
∀x, x0 ∈ E, x 6= x0 =⇒ f (x) 6= f (x0 )

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or, equivalently
∀x, x0 ∈ E, f (x) = f (x0 ) =⇒ x = x0 .

E F E F
f f
0 a 0 a

1 b 1 b
2 c 2 c
d
not injective function injective function

Example 2.43. Let

f: Z → Z g: N → Z
x 7→ x2 . x 7→ x2 .

The function f is not injective, because, we have −1 6= 1 and f (−1) = f (1) = 1.

The function g is injective because if x 6= x0 , we can suppose 0 < x0 < x, then 0 < x02 < x2 ,
so x02 6= x2 , hence f (x0 ) 6= f (x).

Denition 2.30. f is called onto or surjective if every element in F has at least one preimage
in E .
∀y ∈ F, ∃x ∈ E, y = f (x)

Example 2.44. Let

f: Z → N g: N → Z
x 7→ x2 . x 7→ x2 .

The function f is surjective. √

Let y ∈ Z, we have y = f (x) ⇐⇒ y = x2 ⇐⇒ x = ± y.
The function g is not surjective, because if we take −1 ∈ Z, the equation x2 = 1 have not a
solution in ∈ N.

Denition 2.31. f is called bijective if it is both injective and surjective.

∀y ∈ F, ∃!x ∈ E, y = f (x)

Example 2.45. Let

f: N → N
x 7→ x2 .

21
 The function f is bijective.

Denition 2.32. Let f be a bijection from E to F . The inverse function f −1 of f is the

unique function f : F → E such that f ◦ f −1 = idF and f −1 ◦ f = idE .
−1

If f is a bijective function, then f −1 is also bijective, and we have (f −1 )−1 = f .

Example 2.46. Let

f: R → R
x 7→ f (x) = x2 .

ˆ Is the function f injective? Is it surjective?

ˆ Determine a domain and a codomain for f to be bijective and nd the inverse function
f −1 .

Solution
Injectivity of f:
If we take x = 1 and x0 = −1, we have x = 1 6= x0 = −1. Furthermore, f (1) = f (−1) = 1,
so f is not injective.
Surjectivity of f:
If we take y = −1, we have y = −1 6= x2 for any x ∈ R. Hence, there exists no x ∈ R
such that y = x2 , and therefore, f is not surjective.
Bijection of f:
f is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. Thus, f : R+ → R+ , where x 7→ f (x) =
x.
2

Inverse function f −1 :
√
, where y √7→ f −1 (y) = y.
f −1 : R+ → R+
√ √
We have x = y, so x = y (discarding the other solution x = − y), thus x = y.
2

Example 2.47. Let

f : R \ {−2} → R
x 7→ x+1
x+2
.

1. show that f is injective.

2. f is surjective ?
3. Find a codomain F such that f is bijective, and determine the inverse function f −1 .
4. Let
f : R∗+ → G
x+1
x 7→ x+2 .
Determine G for f to be bijective.
Solution
1. Let x1 , x2 ∈ R \ {−2} such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then

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 x1 + 1 x2 + 1
= .
x1 + 2 x2 + 2
This implies
(x1 + 1)(x2 + 2) = (x1 + 2)(x2 + 1)
Simplifying further, we have
x1 x2 + 2x1 + x2 + 2 = x1 x2 + x1 + 2x2 + 2

Therefore, x1 = x2 , which shows that f is injective.

2. To determine if f is surjective, we need to check if for every y ∈ F , there exists x ∈ E

such that y = f (x).
Let y ∈ R such that
x+1
y=
x+2
Solving for x, we have
1 − 2y
x=
y−1
However, for y = 1, there is no antecedent x ∈ R \ {−2} such that y = f (x). Hence, f is not
surjective.

3. Is f bijective? Let's redene f as f : R \ {−2} → R \ {1}.

The inverse function f −1 is given by f −1 : R \ {1} → R \ {−2}, where y 7→ f −1 (y) = 1−2y
y−1
.
Now, let f : R → G be dened as x 7→ f (x) = x+2 .
+ x+1

4. To determine G such that f is bijective, we need to nd the image of R∗+ . We have
x = 1−2y
y−1
. For f to be bijective, x must be greater than 0. Therefore, we need 1−2y
y−1
> 0, which
implies y ∈ 2 , 1 , then G = 2 , 1 .
1  1 

Theorem 2.5. (Theorem of bijection)

Suppose f is continuous and strictly monotonic on interval I . Then
1. J = f (I) is an interval.
2. f : I → J is bijective.
3. f −1 : J → I is continuous and strictly monotonic.

Exercise: Consider f : R∗ → R dened by x → f (x) = x + x1 .

1. Construct the table of variations of f .
2. Is the function f injective? Is it surjective?
3. Determine f (R∗ ), f (]0, +∞[), f ([2, 4]).
4. Determine f −1 (R∗ ), f −1 (]−∞, 0[), f −1 ([−1, 1]), f −1 ([2, 52 ]).
5. Let f :]0, 1] → F . Determine F such that f is bijective and nd f −1 .

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