Lecture Sheet-2

GRAVITY AND GRAVITATION

Chapter Outline
➢ Definition of Gravity
➢ Definition of Gravitation
➢ Newton’s Law of Gravitation
➢ Compound Pendulum
➢ Gravitational Field
➢ Gravitational Potential
➢ Gravitational Potential Due to Spherical Shell
➢ Escape Velocity
➢ Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion

Prepared by
Dr. Md. Zahid Hasan
Lecturer in Physics, Department of EEE
International Islamic University Chittagong (IIUC)

Definition of Gravity
The force of attraction between the earth and other bodies on the earth is known as
gravity.
Or,
The force that attracts a body toward the center of the earth is called gravity.

Definition of Gravitation
The natural phenomenon of attraction between physical objects with mass is known as
gravitation.
Or,
The force of attraction between any two bodies of the universe is called gravitation.
The gravitation depends on the mass of the bodies and the distance between them not
other properties such as the medium.
Lecture Sheet-2 GRAVITY AND Gravitation

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Every body in this universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.
A B

M m
R
Fig. 2.1
Let us consider two bodies A and B of masses M and m respectively. The distance
between their centers is R.
Then we get,
𝐹∞𝑀𝑚 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … . … … … . (1)
1
𝐹∞ … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … . (2)
𝑅2
From Eqs. (1) & (2) we get,
𝑀𝑚
𝐹∞ … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … . (3)
𝑅2
From which we get,
𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺 … … … . … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … . (4)
𝑅2
Where G is proportionality constant which is the universal constant of gravitation.
𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2

Compound Pendulum
Pendulum consisting of an actual object allowed to rotate freely around a horizontal axis
is known as compound pendulum.
Or,
A pendulum consisting of any swinging rigid body which is free to rotate about a fixed
horizontal axis is called a compound pendulum.
Or,
A compound pendulum is a rigid mass capable of oscillating about a horizontal axis
passing through any point of the mass. This point is called the point of suspension.

Dr. Md. Zahid Hasan, Lecturer in Physics, Dept. of EEE, IIUC Page: 2
Lecture Sheet-2 GRAVITY AND Gravitation

Gravitational Field
The space around a body within which the gravitational force is acted is called
gravitational field. The gravitational field or intensity at a point is the force experienced by a
unit mass at that point. If the gravitational field at a point is E, the force acting on a mass m is
𝐹 = 𝑚𝐸
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑚
Also the gravitational field is defined as the negative gradient of the gravitational
potential.
𝑑𝑉
∴ 𝐸=−
𝑑𝑥

Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential at a point is defined as the work done to bring a unit mass
from the point to infinity against the gravitational force of attraction.
Let us consider a particle A of mass m. P is a point at a distance r from A. The
gravitational intensity at P,
𝐹 𝐺𝑀 A
𝐸= = 2
𝑚 𝑟
Also we get,
P
𝑑𝑉 m
𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑟 r
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸𝑑𝑟
Fig. 2.2
𝐺𝑀
𝑑𝑉 = − 2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
Integrating above equation between the limits r to ∞ we get,
𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑟
This is the equation of gravitational potential at a point due to a point mass. The
gravitational potential is zero at infinity. At all other points its value is negative.

Gravitational potential due to spherical shell

(a) At a point outside the shell
Let us consider a uniform spherical shell of mass M and radius a (Fig. 2.3). Let ρ be the
density per unit area of the shell. The planes AC and BD cut the shell vertically and the
element between the two planes is a ring of radius, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎. 𝑑𝜃.
Surface area of the element = 2𝜋(𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑎. 𝑑𝜃

Dr. Md. Zahid Hasan, Lecturer in Physics, Dept. of EEE, IIUC Page: 3
Lecture Sheet-2 GRAVITY AND Gravitation

Mass of the element, 𝑚 = (2𝜋𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃)𝜌

Also 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑥
Potential at P due to the element,
𝐺𝑚
𝑑𝑉 = −
𝑥
2𝐺𝜋𝑎2 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑉 = − … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . . (1)
𝑥

B
A
d𝜃 x

𝜃
O E P

C
a D
R
Fig. 2.3
In the ∆OAP
𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑅 2 − 2𝑎𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Differentiating,
2𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑥=
𝑑𝑥
Putting this value of x in Eq.(1)
2𝐺𝜋𝑎2 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 = −
𝑎𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝐺𝑎𝜌
𝑑𝑉 = − ( ) 𝑑𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … . (2)
𝑅
Integrating for the whole shell
𝑅+𝑎
2𝜋𝐺𝑎𝜌
𝑉 = −∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑅−𝑎 𝑅
4𝜋𝑎2 𝜌𝐺
𝑉=−
𝑅
But 𝑀 = 4𝜋𝑎2 𝜌
𝐺𝑀
∴𝑉=− … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑅

Dr. Md. Zahid Hasan, Lecturer in Physics, Dept. of EEE, IIUC Page: 4
Lecture Sheet-2 GRAVITY AND Gravitation

Thus for a point outside the shell, the shell behaves as if the whole of its mass
concentrated at the centre of the shell.
Also we get from Eq.(3)
1
𝑉∞
𝑅
Gravitational Field
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝑅
𝑑 𝐺𝑀
𝐸=− (− )
𝑑𝑅 𝑅
𝐺𝑀
∴ 𝐸=−
𝑅2

(b) At a point inside the inside a shell

Potential at a point inside the shell, due to the element (Fig. 2.4)
2𝜋𝐺𝑎𝜌
𝑑𝑉 = − ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑅
B
A
d𝜃
x
𝜃
O P E

C
D
a
R
Fig. 2.4

For the whole shell integrating between the limits (𝑎 − 𝑅) and (𝑎 + 𝑅)

𝑎+𝑅
2𝜋𝐺𝑎𝜌
𝑉 = −∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎−𝑅 𝑅
𝑉 = −4𝐺𝜋𝑎𝜌
But 𝑀 = 4𝜋𝑎2 𝜌
𝐺𝑀
∴𝑉=− … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … . . (4)
𝑎
Eq.(4) shows that V is independent of R. It is the same at all points inside the shell. This
potential is equal to the potential on the surface of the shell and is constant.

Dr. Md. Zahid Hasan, Lecturer in Physics, Dept. of EEE, IIUC Page: 5
Lecture Sheet-2 GRAVITY AND Gravitation

Gravitational Field
𝑑𝑉
𝐸=−
𝑑𝑅
𝑑 𝐺𝑀
𝐸=− (− )
𝑑𝑅 𝑎
∴ 𝐸=0
Therefore the gravitational field at any point inside a spherical shell is zero.

Escape velocity
Escape velocity is defined as the velocity with which a body has to be projected
vertically upwards from the earth’s surface so that it escapes the earth’s gravitational field.
1
If v is the escape velocity, then the initial kinetic energy of the projection 2 𝑚𝑣 2 must be
equal to the work done in moving the body from the surface of the earth to infinity. In such a
case the body does not return to the earth’s surface.
Let a body is at a distance x from the center of the earth. The force of gravity on the body
𝐺𝑀𝑚
=
𝑥2
Where,
M → Mass of the earth
m → Mass of the body
G → Gravitational constant
R → Radius of the earth
If the body is to be moved through a small distance dx away from the surface of the
earth, the work done,
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑑𝑊 = ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … (1)
𝑥
Work done in moving the body from the from the surface of the earth to infinity
∞
𝐺𝑀𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑅 𝑥
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑊= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … (2)
𝑅
We have the kinetic energy of the body,
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … … . (3)
2
For escape velocity we get,

Dr. Md. Zahid Hasan, Lecturer in Physics, Dept. of EEE, IIUC Page: 6
Lecture Sheet-2 GRAVITY AND Gravitation

1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 𝑅

2𝐺𝑀
∴𝑣=√ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4)
𝑅

If the body is at the surface of the earth, then we get,

𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹=
𝑅2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑔 =
𝑅2
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅 2 … … … … … … … … … (5)
From Eqs. (5) & (6) we get,

𝑣 = √2𝑔𝑅 … … … … … … … … … . . (6)

Example 2.1. Calculate the escape velocity of a body from the surface of the earth.
[ Answer: 11.2 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 ]
Example 2.2. Calculate the escape velocity of a body from the surface of the moon. The
radius of moon is 1.7 × 106 𝑚 and acceleration due to gravity for moon is 1.63 𝑚𝑠 −2 .
[Answer: 2.354 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 ]
Example 2.3. What will be the escape velocity on the surface of moon if the radius of moon
were 1/4th radius of earth and mass 1/80th of the mass of earth?
[Answer: 2.504 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 ]
Example 2.4. What will be the acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon if its
radius were 1/4th radius of earth and mass 1/80th of the mass of earth? What will be the escape
velocity on the surface of the moon if it is 11.2 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1 on the surface of the earth?
[Answer: 1.96 𝑚𝑠 −2 2.504 𝑘𝑚𝑠 −1]

Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion

There are three laws of planetary motion:
First law (The law of orbit): Every planet moves in an elliptical orbit with the sun being
at one of its foci.
Second law (The law of areas): The line joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of time. i.e., the area velocity is constant.
Third law (The law of period): The square of the time period of revolution of a planet
around the sun is proportional to the cube of the mean distance from the planet to the sun.

Dr. Md. Zahid Hasan, Lecturer in Physics, Dept. of EEE, IIUC Page: 7