Engineering Resilience

in Disaster Risk Management

for Sustainable Development

Editors:
José Macharé O.
Lizett López S.
Peruvian Engineers Association

2022
World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

6
Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development
First English edition, May 2022
Edited by:
© 2022 Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)
Av. Arequipa 4947, Miraflores
Telephone: 01-4456540. Email: [email protected]
© 2022 World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO)
Maison de l’Unesco 1, rue Miollis 75015, Paris, France
Telephone: +33145684847. Email: [email protected]
Prepared by members of the WFEO Committee of Disaster Risk Management (CDRM) and five invited
co-authors.
ISBN: 978-9972-9465-6-1
Editors: José Macharé O. & Lizett López S.
Layout: Sonia Bermúdez L.
Style review: Richard Stoddart
Cover design; Jasmine Macharé L.
www.wfeo.org

Hecho el depósito legal en la Biblioteca Nacional del Perú N° 2022-03923

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 FOREWORD
Engineering: contributing to more effective
risk management to enhance resilience
to disasters

Every year millions of people are affected The contributors to the present publication come
by disasters that claim lives, cause severe from all over the world. Members of the World
infrastructure damage, and exacerbate the poverty Federation of Engineering Organization’s (WFEO’s)
conditions of the most vulnerable. From 2000 to Committee for Disaster Risk Management
2019, disasters claimed 1.23 million lives, affected represent engineers’ global voices specializing in
4 billion people worldwide, and led to 2.97 trillion disaster risk reduction.
USD economic losses.
The publication tackles the complex challenges
In recent years, climate change has amplified of DRR. It describes the cascading effect of the
extreme weather events leading to an increasing natural phenomenon, the damage to the physical
number of weather-related disasters. A reality system, and the impact on the social and economic
reflected in the numbers: Over the last twenty system. Furthermore, the publication provides us
years, the overwhelming majority (90%) of with how engineering can help to build resilient
disasters have been caused by floods, storms, technical, economic and social systems, which
heatwaves and other weather-related events, while demonstrates that engineering has an enormous
more than 50% of mortality by natural hazards are role in infrastructure and data management and
caused by geological hazards such as earthquakes land use, capacity building, and policies.
and tsunamis.
Young engineers, in particular, can learn from the
Biological hazards also disrupt lives, as COVID-19 experiences of the experts who have contributed
has shown. Although these hazards are included to the present monograph. For instance, readers
in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk will learn the importance of devising construction
Reduction for the 2015-2030 period, the world was codes adapted to local conditions for greater
unprepared for the pandemic. Therefore, it is time resilience and engaging with communities living in
to act decisively on biological hazards by applying disaster-prone areas who face difficult decisions,
a multidimensional risk management approach, as such as restricting or prohibiting construction in
we do for other hazards. floodplains and along certain coastlines.
Therefore, Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) is UNESCO operates at the interface between
increasingly on the agenda of the UN System. natural and social sciences, education, culture
While the Sendai Framework for Disaster and communication, playing a vital role in building
Risk Reduction 2015-2030 is the roadmap a global culture of resilience. UNESCO assists
for DRR, other global agendas, including the countries in capacity building for management
Sustainable Development Goals, the Paris of disaster and climate risk, mainly supporting
Climate Agreement and the New Urban Agenda, the Member States on 1) early warning systems;
have targets that cannot be attained without 2) safe critical infrastructures; 3) UNESCO
DRR. designated sites risk prevention; 4) using Science,
Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Technology and Innovation such as Artificial In conclusion, I commend the authors, as well
Intelligence and big data; 5) built environment; 6) as the Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (Peruvian
risk governance; 7) nature-based solutions and Engineers Association), which hosts WFEO’s
8) post disaster response. In addition, UNESCO Committee for Disaster Risk Management, for
fully utilizes the knowledge and experience of having so generously devoted their time and
engineering in our DRR interventions. expertise to the preparation of this publication and,
in doing so, contributed to advance the cause of
For instance, UNESCO has been implementing a
sustainable development.
three-year project since 2020 in Latin America and
Caribbean countries, making the built environment
more resilient to earthquakes.
The project is developing technical guidelines for
engineers and masons – including those without
a background in structural engineering – on
assessing risks and constructing and retrofitting
buildings to resist an earthquake. Structural
engineering is the crucial element of this project.
However, the project also includes the public policy
element to ensure that all target countries develop Dr. Shamila Nair-Bedouelle
risk-informed policymaking and ‘build back better’ Assistant Director General
from past damages. UNESCO Natural Sciences Sector

10
x
 PROLOGUE

I am very pleased to witness the launch of this This booklet provides a comprehensive perspective
booklet - Engineering resilience in disaster risk of the disaster risk management, from land use
management for sustainable development, edited planning, resilient infrastructure systems, data
by the Standing Technical Committee for Disaster and information management to capacity building
Risk Management (CDRM) of the World Federation and institutional framework and public policies,
of Engineering Organizations (WFEO). The World with many case studies showing how science,
Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO), technology and engineering solutions could help
consisting of more than one hundred of national and people in both developed and developing countries
international member organizations, is the world’s to manage the disaster risk together with proper
largest comprehensive engineering organization institutional framework and public policies. The
and represents engineering community in the booklet has not only given strong warnings to the
global agenda of sustainable development. importance and seriousness of the problems and
challenges, but also showcased good engineering
The natural disaster risk reduction (DRR) is an
practices and provided clear messages of the way
integrated issue dealing with economic, social
forward.
and environmental dimensions and all Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), a serious issue Hereby, I congratulate Mr. José Macharé, Chair
dealing with billions of lives of people and trillions of CDRM and the authors for their excellent work.
of US dollars of economic lost as well as social I trust this booklet and its rich references will
and economic inequalities. Just as Mr. António help readers to know more about disaster risk
Guterres, UN Secretary General, pointed out in management comprehensively and help young
his message to the launch of the third IPCC report engineers to be better prepared for disaster
on April 4, 2022, “We are on a fast track to climate risk management in their engineering practices,
disaster: Major cities under water, unprecedented to accelerate the delivery on the SDGs and to
heatwaves, terrifying storms, widespread water engineer a more resilient, inclusive, prosperous
shortages. The extinction of a million species and sustainable future of the world.
of plants and animals. This is not fiction or
exaggeration”. Recognizing the importance and
integrated nature of DRR and its ever-growing
threat to humankind and the planet, WFEO
established the Standing Technical Committee
for Disaster Risk Management (CDRM) in 2009,
hosted by our Japanese member from 2009-2017,
and then hosted by our Peruvian member since
2017. This booklet, written by 18 authors from 11
Dr. GONG Ke
countries of different continents, is an outcome of
President of World Federation of
CDRM’s work in recent years. Engineering Organizations (2019-2022)

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

PREFACE

It gives me great pleasure to provide an introduction sustainable solutions in less developed countries.
to this important publication. I was a founding Engineers will be needed to design, develop and
member of the WFEO Committee for Disaster implement solutions for these challenges.
Risk Management and have been involved in
I am sure that the comprehensive information
its activities except for my time on the WFEO
that has been presented in this document and
Executive Board. The application of engineering
the associated references that provide a wealth
to the assessment and management of natural
of additional information will support engineers
disaster risks to infrastructure assets, has been
around the world. The systems and approaches
an important part of my professional career. The
described in this document, present diverse
contributions to this important document bring
examples from Japan, India, the Philippines, New
together expertise from around the world and is
Zealand, Peru and Chile, to name a few, and
a wonderful example of the power of WFEO in
represent the result of experience of experts who
being a forum for engineering that can inform and
have lived through and informed the preparation for
educate engineers and policy makers around the
and responses to natural disasters in their country.
world.
The expert contributions of these engineers, will, no
The release of this document is both very timely doubt, build capacity to understand approaches to
and relevant. The United Nations Sustainable natural disaster risk management for rare events,
Development Goals include the imperative to especially for young engineers who may nnot have
mitigate the impact of natural disasters. The role of the experience of events such as earthquakes and
engineering approaches and solutions is central to tsunami that can have devastating consequences.
achieving these Goals. The United Nations Global The case studies and examples in the book will no
Sustainable Development Report1, recognizes doubt, assist in developing systematic engineering
science and engineering as one of four levers to approaches for sustainable development that
accelerate sustainable development. In particular, leaves no one behind.
with increasing urbanization, sustainable cities that
are resilient to natural disasters are recognized
as one of six pathways that can accelerate
transformation for sustainable development.
Resilient infrastructure in urban and peri-urban
environments are also important. While retrofitting
ageing infrastructure is critical in many developed
countries, there is also an important opportunity to
use the latest approaches, such as those described Dr. Marlene Kanga
in this document, for more resilient, green and WFEO Immediate Past President

1
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/ documents/24797GSDR_report_2019.pdf

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 About the World Federation of
Engineering Organizations (WFEO)
and the Committee on Disaster Risk
Management (CDRM)

The World Federation of Engineering Organizations the Committee on Disaster Risk Management
(WFEO) is an international, non-governmental (CDRM).
organization representing the engineering The CDRM was established at the WFEO General
profession worldwide. Founded in 1968 by a Assembly held in December 2009, Kuwait. The
group of regional engineering organizations, under committee was hosted by the Science Council of
the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Japan and the Japan Federation of Engineering
Scientific and Cultural Organizations (UNESCO) Societies (JFES) for a period of eight years (2010-
in Paris, the WFEO brings together national 2017). CDRM currently executes its mandate
engineering organizations from some 100 nations through its headquarters at the Peruvian Engineers
and represents more than 30 million engineers Association (Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú-CIP)
from around the world. based in Lima, Peru.

WFEO represents engineering at the highest CDRM mobilizes and coordinates a network
international levels, at the United Nations and its composed of engineers linked to the public,
related agencies, is the Co-Chair of the Science private and academic sectors from different parts
and Technology Group among the Major Group of of the world. CDRM activities are developed to
Stakeholders at the United Nations. support the implementation of the global disaster
risk reduction initiative, the Sendai Framework
The technical activities of the Federation are for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 through
carried out by 10 Standing Technical Committees, engineering. Likewise, the CDRM will direct efforts
which cover particular areas of Engineering to contribute to the Sustainable Development
and Technology. One of these committees is Goals (SDGs).

Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development xiii

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

About the Peruvian Engineers Association

(Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú-CIP)

The Peruvian Engineers Association (Colegio account all those who were registered from the
de Ingenieros del Perú-CIP) is an association of beginning.
professional engineers constituted on the basis
Our association is maintained with its own
that it is prescribed by the Political Constitution of
resources, has 28 headquarters throughout the
Peru and it is also created by Law.
Peruvian territory, and is also a member of several
CIP represents the professional engineers of Peru international organizations, such as WFEO,
in all its specialties, at the end of the year 2021 UPADI, FEIAP, COPIMERA, APEC INGENIEROS
it had about 280 thousand members, taking into and Pacific alliance.

xiv
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 CONTENTS

FOREWORD ix
PROLOGUE xi
PREFACE xii
ABOUT THE WFEO AND CDRM xiii
ABOUT THE CIP xiv
INTRODUCTION 17
CHAPTER I 24
LAND USE PLANNING 24
1. Introduction 24
2. Case studies 24
2.1 Australia: wildfires, coastal floods and climate wise buildings 24
2.2 Building Disaster Resilience in Hong Kong 27
2.3 The Great East Earthquake and Tsunami 2011, Japan 28
3. Key messages 31
4. References 31
CHAPTER II 33
RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS 33
1. Introduction 33
2. Scope and Characteristics of Infrastructure 33
3. The Components of Resilience 34
4. Application of the DRM Principles 35
5. The Role of Codes and Standards 36
6. Case studies 37
6.1 Recent major earthquakes affecting New Zealand infrastructure 37

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6.2 Comparison of power grid problems in Europe and South America 38

7. Key Messages 39
8. References 40
CHAPTER III 41
DATA AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 41
1. General concepts 41
2. Major worldwide and regional databases on disasters (and their accessibility) 41
3. Innovations in Big Data processing for DRR 44
4. Applications of artificial intelligence and machine learning to different DRM processes 46
5. Opportunities and obstacles 47
6. Key Messages 48
7. References 48
CHAPTER IV 50
CAPACITY BUILDING 50
1. Introduction 50
2. Case studies 51
2.1 Cyclonic Hazard, the case study of India 51
2.2 Volcanic Hazard, the case study of Peru 53
2.3 Seismic Hazard, the case study of The Philippines 55
3. Key messages 57
CHAPTER V 59
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AND PUBLIC POLICIES 59
1. Introduction 59
2. Disaster Risk Management in a Local Context 61
3. National policy frameworks on resilience in OECD countries 61
4. Case studies 61
4.1 Strengthening the Chilean institutional framework for DRM 61
4.2 Observations on Institutionality in Aotearoa New Zealand 63
5. Key messages 66
6. References 67

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 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this booklet is to address Disaster Except for climate change and droughts, the
Risk Management as an integral part of building hazards listed above are occurrences of natural
resilience in a community to cope with the stressors hazards that can be determined probabilistically,
due to natural hazard events, and specifically the although the probability of occurrence for each type
engineering contribution towards it. It is not the of hazard is different. Fire related hazards do not
intention of the booklet to address man-made have defined probabilities. Some hazards such as
events, although human actions may take part in large-magnitude earthquakes are low probability
the origin of complex events, and are mentioned events with high consequences. Natural hazards
in some sections. The stressors could be sudden could cause significant damage to physical civil
shocks such as an earthquake, or slow chronic infrastructure systems and paralyze community
variations such as climate change. functionality. Essential services such as hospitals
and fire services could be severely damaged
Resilience is defined as the capacity of a society
compromising their functions when they are
to cope, as a system, with stressors related to
needed the most.
its development by withstanding, adapting, and
recovering related to their impacts. Climate change effects require separate
considerations. First, they increase the occurrence
1. The Characteristics of Disaster Risk of weather extreme events, which are becoming
Based on the intensity and duration of a hazard stronger and more frequent. In addition, its
event, extent of damage to various parts of the effects degrade the land surface and increase
community system varies. The natural hazards the susceptibility of many regions to landslides,
considered here are: flows, and their consequences. This booklet does
not attempt to address all climate related effects,
• Earthquakes - Geologic phenomena specifically.
• Tsunamis - Geologic phenomena - cascading Many damaging earthquakes have resulted in
• Landslides – Geologic phenomena – cascading fires as cascading subsequent events. In fact, in
the 1906 San Francisco, USA earthquake, data
• Volcanic Eruptions – Geologic phenomena shows that more losses were caused due to fires
• Severe Wind -Storms – Weather related following the earthquake than the earthquake
event itself. Similarly, landslides could occur
• Floods – Weather /other causes after severe storms resulting in unstable slopes.
• Droughts – Weather related These are also considered as cascading events.
In frequent hazard events such as hurricane, the
• Fires/Wildfires – accidental/manmade/resulting
damage could be equally devastating, mostly to
from other hazards such as earthquakes
residential structures, however, it may be limited to
• Climate Change impacts – Weather related a small area. The fundamental difference between
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

the two events is that in earthquake, no warning is available. The consequences of various hazards
given whereas in hurricanes, sufficient warning is are shown in figure 1.

Figure 1. Consequences of Hazards

To manage the disaster risk, a community needs to whole to make-up a community.

develop resilience through the collective action of
The three component systems noted above
all stakeholders in an integrated cohesive fashion.
are linked with each other and need to act
2.The Characteristics of a Community System interdependently in an integrated and synergistic
way for providing acceptable level of community
When a community is subject to a hazard event, it
resilience so that it cannot only withstand the
is faced with the Disaster risk which is a function
disaster event, but successfully recover from it
of hazard, exposure, and vulnerability. This risk
quickly and grow back in its normal fashion or
is normally expressed as a probability of loss of
better. A brief description of each system is given
life, and injury and destroyed or damaged assets
below:
that impacts the community functionality. Thus, a
community is interested in minimizing the loss of The Technical systems comprise all built
daily functionality. A community is defined here, environment and are thus static in nature regarding
as a large complex system that in a broad sense a hazard. Their overall behavior and resilience
is comprised of three sub-systems: technical to an external event such as a natural hazard is
systems (built environment), economic systems, built-in during design and construction-based on
and social systems. These sub-systems are the prevailing codes and regulations, at the time.
interdependent and interact with each other within Land use planning and Infrastructure systems fall
an organizational constraint forming a unified in this category.

18
The Economic systems comprise economic and behavior may be different from hazard to hazard
financial institutions and are quasi-static, as some and even different to the same hazard at a different
financial institutions, such as stock and bond time because of behavior modification based on
markets can respond to a hazard dynamically the previous experience. Thus, social systems
depending on the circumstances while others such are dynamic in nature. Information management,
as banking institutions are not able to change their and capacity building, fall in the social systems
behavior. The overall economic system thus can category.
be considered as a quasi-static one. Institutions
Overarching all three systems is the
by their nature can be considered a part of the
organizational system as it determines the
economic systems.
level of functionality of each system during a
The Social systems essentially comprise services, hazard event (figure 2). Generally, this system
various networks, and societal organizations, is also static and cannot change quickly for
and are dynamic in nature as they determine response to the hazard. Early warning systems
their response to a hazard depending on the and public policies can be considered as parts
circumstance and modify it, if necessary. Such of the organizational system.

Figure 2. Community as a complex System

All these systems need to act together system that is responsive and adaptive, is that it
synergistically to minimize the damage due to a has feedback loops and various linkages among
hazard. The overall behavioral outcome is difficult component systems, and it adjusts its behavior
to predetermine thus making the community based on the type and frequency of the information
system a complex system. The decision-making received and processed through these loops.
considering all the stakeholders is arduous and It is to be noted that one sub-system namely
difficult. Overall interaction among systems and the Technical systems and specifically, the civil
decision-making is schematically shown in figure 2. physical infrastructure systems within it, are static
and do not have feedback loops for behavior
3. System Characteristics and Behavior
modification of these built physical systems.
Overall, the community can be considered a Linkages within the technical system are also
dynamic system. A critical attribute of a dynamic predictive and are generally linear.
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Socio-economic systems though, are dynamic in the codes and regulations are written for
and modify their behavior based on feedback. ensuring the safety of the occupants as the primary
The linkages usually are non-linear and are concern, in building structures and not to limit the
not predictive. Herein lies the challenge of level of damage, so long as the building is safe to
understanding the behavior of the complex occupy or allow the occupants to evacuate safely.
community system as one integrated system. In case of bridges, provisions are written for safe
However, based on the needs of the community travel across the bridge. Code provisions are also
functionality, and existing coping capacity, all written to prevent the collapse of the structures.
stakeholders need to take decisions to develop Thus, a certain amount of resiliency is built-in in
resiliency that is considered acceptable. The the physical systems that is given and cannot be
goal is to develop adequate capacity to minimize changed.
the hazard impact and maintain community
functionality. These actions may vary in degree However, there are no specific provisions
in different communities based on their specific for limiting the damage of the non-structural
needs and acceptable levels. Once an acceptable components in buildings as they are not a part of
community resiliency is developed, a coping the structural system designed to resist forces.
mechanism is inherently developed as shown In infrastructure systems such as transportation
in the diagram on figure 3, by a spring that networks, utility systems and communications
has absorptive capability. For the subsequent networks, the damage due a hazard event will
damaging hazard event, this coping mechanism affect the functionality of the system itself and
reduces the overall adverse impact on the impacts the community significantly. The extent
community.
and duration of non-functionality and its impact
Codes and Regulations govern the design and on the socio-economic fabric of a community will
construction of the physical engineering systems depend on the location of damages, degree of
with the primary objective of protecting the health redundancy in the system itself and the speed of
and safety of people. Thus, the specific provisions restoration in infrastructure systems.

Figure 3. Linkages- Sub-systems

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Economic systems depend on the functioning Organization systems overarch Technical systems,
physical infrastructure, and on the reliability of Economic systems, and Social systems and are
communications networks that include cyber critical to operations for each of these systems.
infrastructure which are generally globally Unless an effective organizational system is in
connected. Many large business entities have place, response to a hazard is uncoordinated and
alternate methods of restoring electric power is not very cohesive or comprehensive. Some
with power generation units and can start examples of such lack of organization system were
functioning even if the workers cannot get to their evident in some damaging natural hazard events:
offices. However, most functions are dependent e. g. Kobe Earthquake, Japan (1995), Indian
on information and communications networks Ocean Tsunami (2004), Hurricane Katrina, USA
connected through satellites. It is the damage to (2005), and the Haiti earthquake, Haiti (2010). Due
cell towers that disrupts the functionality. Because to lack of organizational systems at many levels,
some alternate methods are available to continue hazards resulted in creating disasters in these
with limited functionality, economic systems are events that could have been avoided.
considered quasi-dynamic. 4. Establishing a Resilience Strategy
Societal systems can adapt to new situations The community needs to define the acceptable
in response to a hazard event. If the physical level of functionality in its systems, during and
infrastructure is not working, people can assemble after a hazard event. This acceptable level may be
in smaller groups locally and render some services. different for different hazards because their impact
Thus, their behavior changes to a different pattern and the duration are different for each event. For a
than what is normally associated with them. This frequently occurring flooding event, the community
adaptation to the new circumstances makes the demands almost normal functionality as compared
societal systems dynamic in nature, and since their to a tornado event that is also frequent, but
behavior depends on a particular situation, the community demands another level of acceptance
relationship of societal systems to other systems due the intensity and level of damage a tornado
is non-linear as shown in figure 2. can instill.

Figure 4. Resilience Strategy

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

The level of damage, as shown in figure 1 also the risk level by reducing vulnerability with
varies depending upon the resilience available in structural and non-structural measures.
each system. Some impacts are short-term and Examples of this are seawalls to protect port
can be addressed immediately after the event; facilities (structural), or relocating exposed
however, the long-term impacts such as business populations to higher areas (non-structural)
relocations need to be addressed with different when facing tsunami hazards. Mitigation
solutions including policy related decisions. It measures are in often considered in this group;
is necessary and quite reasonable to develop although they are more focused on the effects
different levels of resilience for different types of (loss and damage).
hazards considering their probabilities. A general
. Actions taken when the event is imminent,
approach to achieve such community resilience is
during the occurrence, and just after it are
shown in figure.4 above.
often grouped as reactive management. They
5.Disaster risk management processes within include:
resilience strategies
d. Preparedness or Readiness, to be ready to
Several processes are components of the face the event and withstand its immediate
disaster risk management (henceforth DRM) impacts. It includes the early warning systems.
are embedded in those above mentioned for the
e. Response or emergency attention, to rescue
resilience strategy.
trapped people; to provide first aid to affected
Along this booklet, the concepts and terminology people; to assist with food, water and shelter;
used are those widely agreed and gathered by the to ensure eventual evacuation of some highly
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction unstable zones. The Relief process is part of it.
(UNDRR) and International Science Council
f. Rehabilitation or Recovery, to reactivate
Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR, 2020; 2021)
lifelines: routes, energy, water and sewage,
In a timeline, DRM processes apply before, during, telecommunications and housing providing the
and after a striking event. They are sometimes basis to restart progressively the community
called pre-, syn-, and post-disaster actions. As activities.
most natural hazards are recurrent, with or without
The corrective management comprises a series
a defined periodicity, the timeline closes itself with
of actions taken between events, with long time
each event, defining a disaster cycle. Thus, the
spans in which one see the past disaster going
period post-event X becomes the pre-event X+1.
away in time, but where one should also recognize
Actions taken before a hazardous event are that the next event may occur. The main process
involved in the prospective management, and is the Reconstruction (g) that has to be always
include the following processes: guided by the premise to build back better. To
achieve the goal of providing a healthy and safe
a. Risk assessment, actions made to evaluate
situation better than the previous one, correcting
potential losses and damages estimated upon
the weaknesses, new studies and zoning for land
the probability of occurrence of an event of a
use, new building codes, and new risk assessment
given size, and on the vulnerability of a given
should be done, rejoining the prospective phase
system.
and closing the cycle.
b. Risk prevention, actions aimed at avoiding
For any DRM system to achieve the expected
the creation of new risk conditions. Adequate
goals, besides the physical (equipment), normative
land use and building under standard codes
(documents), and financial resources, it requires
are examples of them.
a highly performing human component. In
c. Risk reduction, actions directed to lower this context, Capacity Building, especially for

22
engineers, appears as a process that transversal Health [eds: Handmer, J.; Vogel, C.; Payne, B.;
to- and embedded in all the previously mentioned Stevance, A-S.; Kirsch-Wood, J.; Boyland, M.;
processes. It is aimed to ensure a high level in Han, Q.; Lian, F.]; Paris, France, International
knowledge and skills to ensure the functionality Science Council; Geneva, Switzerland, United
of every component of the system. Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction;
Beijing, China, Integrated Research on
Acknowledgements
Disaster Risk. DOI: 10.24948/2021.07.
We are very indebted to David Brunsdon for
UNDRR-ISC (2020). Hazard definition and
a thorough revision of the manuscript, fruitful
classification review. Technical report. United
discussions, and useful suggestions for the
Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction,
improvement of this section.
Geneva, Switzerland, 87 p.
6. References
UNDRR-ISC (2021). Hazard Information Profiles
ISC-UNDRR-IRDR (2021). A Framework for Supplement to UNDRR ISC Hazard Definition
Global Science in support of Risk Informed Classification Review Technical Report 2021,
Sustainable Development and Planetary Geneva, Switzerland, 826 p.

This section was prepared by Dr. Vilas Mujumdar, WFEO Distinguished Fellow, and CDRM
Advisor, and Dr. José Macharé, CDRM Chair.

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CHAPTER I
LAND USE PLANNING
Karel Vancuraa, Barbara Normanb, Eric S.C. Mac, Hitomi Nakanishid
a
The Czech Association of Scientific and Technical Societies, Czech Republic, [email protected]
b
University of Canberra, Australia, [email protected]
c
FHKIE, Hong Kong, [email protected]
d
University of Canberra, Australia, [email protected]

1. Introduction studies would also ensure local acceptability and

can contribute to certain levels of resilience.
A city or local government area that has not
implemented land use planning indicate hazardous Such a land use plan in urban and peri-urban zones
behavior that might trigger a future catastrophe, at brings together consideration for both the physical
the local level only, but with huge consequences, development as well as the social characteristics
e.g. in megacities. Regrettably such situations, of an area, city or country. GIS-based land use
even in the world of 21st century, continue to mapping (GIS) and related information is used to
happen. As long as communities live more and analyze the current pattern of development and
more distant from nature, as they adapt their serves as the framework for formulating how land
environment to live in, the need for land use (or city structure) will be used and developed in
planning and intelligent urban planning grows the future.
significantly. Nevertheless, land use plans or
2. Case studies
management systems are rather “static” in nature
related to response to a hazard, as already 2.1 Australia: wildfires, coastal floods and
indicated in the introduction chapter. climate wise buildings
Land use plans, given usually by central authorities, As the global temperature rises and other
guide engineers with help of codes and regulations changes to the climate increase, Australia will
in decisions on land and water use, how to use face more frequent and severe events, such as
these resources of the environment in a most extreme weather, fires and floods, and slow-
beneficial way, must go hand in hand with onset events, such as, changing rainfall patterns,
sustainable development. The increasing demand ocean acidification and sea level rise (Australian
for land, coupled with a limitation in its supply, is Government, 2021).
a major cause of many conflicts over land use The Australia Government released an updated
worldwide. National Climate Resilience and Adaptation
The aim of the chapter Land Use Planning is to Strategy (October 2021). This Strategy comprises
provide to the public good examples of land use three core elements: (i) a new office to drive
planning implementation cases from different collaboration for adaptation; (ii) regular national
parts of the world. An engineering background and risk assessment (5 years) in partnership with
knowledge is quite essential but it is only one point sub-national governments and sectors; and (iii)
of view to carry out a proper land use management. an enhancement of climate services to wider
It is also important that local people (communities partners. This focus is on high-level information,
and stakeholders) be involved in all steps of the assessment and review. It includes a lens into
planning process to make a successful land use the built environment along the lines of working
plan. Such an approach, using local information, with the private sector and others to foster
supported by environmental and engineering adaptation. It also includes a snapshot of the

24
natural environment, the social considerations and whom are still in the process of recovery (Norman
the economic dimension. et al., 2021b).
However, land use planning in Australia is The policy response was a Royal Commission
predominantly managed at the sub-national level of into National Natural Disasters Arrangements
government, that is, states and local governments. in Australia (2020) (https://naturaldisaster.
The national government becomes involved only in royalcommission.gov.au/). The Royal Commission
cooperation with the states and local governments specifically recommended that ‘Government
or through direct funding initiatives. measures will be necessary across land-use
planning, infrastructure, emergency management,
Managing disaster risk in Australia does involve
social policy, agriculture, education, health,
the national government and especially with
community development, energy and the
extreme events such as bush fires, floods, drought
environment’. As a result of the Royal Commission’
and storms. A valuable publication expanding on
recommendations, sub-national governments
the governance arrangements for land use and
with local councils are preparing more details
disaster in Australia is detailed in a ‘Land Use
bushfire planning regulations to minimize new
Planning for Disaster Resilient Communities’
urban development being constructed in high fire
handbook (Australian Government, 2020).
risk areas.
This handbook summarizes the main spatial
Mallacoota and the 2019/20 extreme
instruments and their potential role in disaster
wildfires
management – regional planning for regional
centres incorporating regional risks, and strategic Traditionally a fishing village surrounded by forest,
plans for new urban growth ensuring new lakes and a stunning coastline, it is now a favoured
development avoids lands with hazards, for tourist destination surrounded by protected
example high wildfire risk or flooding, as well lands, Croajingolong national park comprising
as local planning to provide guidelines for local 88,355 hectares and following 100 kilometers of
decision making and finally structure plans that coastline. Mallacoota is representative of many
detail actions by sector. coastal townships that significantly expand their
populations during the summer month; in this case
The extreme events over the last five years have
from just over 1000 people to over 5000 people,
included fires, floods, drought, coastal storms,
bringing additional challenges during the high fire
inundation and erosion. Coastal communities in
season.
particular face multiple climate risks with coastal
storms, floods and bushfires. The cumulative During 2019/20 bushfires of Australia, Mallacoota
impact of these events overlaid by two years of became emblematic of the serious wildfire risks
COVID have left these communities exhausted. to Australia from climate change. On New Year’s
Below are two case studies where communities Eve 2019, Mallacoota was struck by an extreme
have come together to recover and build a more wildfire that had travelled from the west along the
resilient future – extreme wildfires and coastal coastline. The impact was intense, destroying
inundation. many homes and killing wildlife and biodiversity.
The intense fire event left white ash in many parts,
The 2019/2020 Australian fires ‘resulted in the
destroying coastal ecosystems below the ground
tragic loss of over 400 lives, 33 of them directly
as well as above (see photo by author soon after
from the fires and 417 from smoke inhalation. Over
the event).
3000 homes and 7000 facilities and outbuildings
were destroyed; 12.6 million hectares burned; and Nevertheless, in a short time, the community has
over 100,000 heads of livestock lost’ (Norman et worked together and developed its own recovery
al., 2021a)). This national disaster affected nearly and resilience plan with practical projects short
every Australian directly or indirectly; many of and longer term and secured funding to start
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

implementing the actions. The community quickly overlays to incorporate bushfire lessons learned’.
established an elected local community to work
An important message of the case study of
through a process of immediate action and then
through a significant community engagement Mallacoota is that ‘community-based led recovery’
process, vote for priority community projects. A is emerging as leading practice for building long
key project chosen by the community is ‘‘review term resilience. For more details see MADRA
and update Mallacoota and District Planning (2022).

Figure 1. Mallacoota, Victoria, Australia

February 2020, taken by Barbara Norman

The other major natural disaster risk in Australia is coastal ecosystems. The result of over 10 years
coastal inundation and increasingly intense storms of collaboration is a sharing of knowledge and
projected by climate change. Australia is a highly experience to improve land use planning in the
urban nation with most people living in cities and south west region of Australia. With the support
most of the cities being on the coast. Again, recent of the national and state governments, there has
experience with coastal storms and erosion has been detailed mapping and improved monitoring
increased community awareness of the need to of risk and the embedding of these coastal climate
better plan for coasts and climate change. risks into land use decision making.
The Peron Naturaliste Partnership Working together has made a significant difference
A successful case study on better management to better planning for mitigating disaster in the
of coastal risks is in the southwest of Australia future. The Peron Naturaliste Partnership (PNP)
where there is an innovative collaborative has endured through a shared commitment to
partnership between nine local councils – the managing risks and investing in forward planning.
Peron Naturaliste Partnership – an example The PNP is working with local communities to
of collaboration at the local and regional level develop land use plans for managing coastal
of government (https://www.peronnaturaliste. hazards and risks- identifying coastal erosion,
org.au/). This voluntary partnership emerged future areas coastal inundation and developing
as a result of increasing coastal erosion and appropriate adaptation responses (see Peron
flooding impacting the built environment and Naturaliste Partnership, 2021).

26
The above two examples dealing with wildfire 2.2 Building Disaster Resilience in Hong Kong
and coastal inundation provide an insight into
Sustainable Development of Cities
managing disaster through better land use
planning. The lessons highlighted are: To achieve sustainable development of a city, it is
• The need for better mapping and monitoring paramount to adopt a holistic strategy integrating
of risk to identify high risk areas unsuitable for engineering inputs to its meticulous land use
development. planning process. In particular, effective disaster
• The importance of community led recovery with management plans have to be implemented to
the support of higher levels of government. effect the resilience of the planned infrastructure.
• The need to support regional cooperation Challenges of City Developments
and collaboration to enable sharing of leading
practices in land use planning and development. Cities are densely populated urban areas with
• The importance of embedding up to date climate continuous growth in economic and social activities.
projections to mitigate risk and disaster in the Land is frequently a scarce resource resulting in
future e.g. investing in urban and regional developments advancing into areas facing hazard
planning. events like earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides,
• The importance of embedding climate risks hurricanes, droughts and climate change related
into everyday land use decision-making so that challenges. Old urban developments are exposed
forward planning can play its part in reducing to increasing risks due to climate change and
future disasters and better protecting local adverse impacts caused by densification and new
communities (see Routledge, 2022). urban developments in the vicinity.

Hong Kong is one of the highest density cities in the World. About one-quarter of the urban development areas
are sitting on low-lying area (as below in red) which are mostly reclamation areas less than 3m above the mean
sea water level, susceptible to flooding during storm surges and rainstorms and as the sea level rises. The city
has been ranked with the highest natural disaster risk in Asia by the Sustainable Cities Index. (NL News, 2015)

Notwithstanding its natural constraints, Hong Kong still managed to score high for its infrastructure resilience
with reference to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. This proved that cities can still own a
resilient infrastructure, utilities and services despite their high exposure to hazard events.

Figure 2. Hong Kong elevation map showing low-lying areas.

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Engineering Inputs to the Land Use Planning emergency response management system which
Process establishes policies and principles for crises arising
from natural disasters and terrorist attacks is
Engineering inputs to the town planning process
equally important. (Sim & Wang, 2017)
is certainly one of the critical factors in achieving
resilient city infrastructure. Technical studies and As outcomes from this case, it is recommended that
preliminary design of essential infrastructure works engineering inputs and hazard risk assessment be
should be carried out during the land use planning incorporated into the land use planning process,
stage to ascertain and that governments dedicate sufficient financial
• The engineering feasibility; resources for building emergency response
management systems to support a resilient and
• Coastal and climate-related risk assessment sustainable city.
and mitigation;
2.3 The Great East Earthquake and Tsunami
• Geotechnical risk and slope stability assessment
and mitigation; 2011, Japan

• Infrastructure and utilities provisions; The disaster

• Environmental impacts and mitigation; On March 11 2011, at 2.46 pm, a magnitude 9.0
earthquake hit the north Pacific coastal area of
• Landscape and visual impacts,
Japan. The Japanese government immediately
• Hydraulics assessment and mitigation; issued major tsunami warnings. The recorded
• Land and marine traffic impact, and heights of the tsunami were, 9.3 m+ (Soma,
Fukushima), 8.5 m+ (Miyako, Iwate), and 8.6 m +
• Economics and social aspects.
(Ishinomaki, Miyagi). Around 20,000 people lost
Incorporating these findings into the land use their lives and more than 2,500 people were still
planning and statutory control plans, would to missing as of 9th March, 2021 (Reconstruction
a large extent, build disaster resilience into the Agency of Japan, 2021a). More than 122,000
formulation of the land use proposals. houses were completely destroyed. In the next few
days, 470,000 people took refuge in shelters. As
Emergency Response Management System
of September 2021, there are still 40,000 people
To complement resilient infrastructure, an who are yet to return to their homes.

Figure 3. Devastated community and debris, Yuriage, Miyagi (taken by

author in September 2011)

28
Relocation of residents and land readjustment ‘seawall’ plan. In Miyagi prefecture, a ‘seawall’ of
5.0m to 14.7m in height was proposed to be built
Relocation of residents to safer inland areas or
along the coastline of Kesennuma, which is more
higher ground was discussed from the early stage
than 100km in length. The seawall is a gigantic
of recovery. Consultation with residents started
concrete construction. The wall requires a base
in 2012 and consensus building was completed
to support it, and this is also enormous: the 9.8
by March 2013, which was a relatively quick
m high wall has a base 45m wide to support it.
process for Japan. Land readjustment projects,
The most controversial aspect of the plan for
land levelling and the development of public
many residents was the height of the seawall.
housing (30,000 units, for people who had lost
The prefecture’s planned seawall was regarded
houses) started immediately. These projects as ‘too high’ and residents felt that ‘this is a city
were completed by March 2021, 10 years after that has developed beside the sea but we will
the disaster (Reconstruction Agency of Japan. no longer be able to see the sea if the seawall is
2021b). Although they understood the reasoning, built’ (comments from residents at Kesennuma city
relocation was not easy for some residents. For seawall study group meeting, 2012). There was
example, in Kesennuma, Miyagi prefecture, also concern that the big ‘seawall’ would obstruct
residents in fishing villages had a strong desire the view of the ocean, which could lead to a failure
to remain in their pre-disaster settlements as to evacuate when the next tsunami happened,
they thought they should continue their fishing as residents would be unable to see the tell-
businesses which most of them had inherited from tale tsunami warning sign of a retreating ocean.
their family. However, the prefecture government Another concern of the community was the impact
insisted that if they wished to live close to the of the seawall on the marine environment and
ocean, they needed infrastructure to protect them biodiversity. In the case of the ‘Naiwan’ area of the
(i.e. seawall below) as well as migrating to higher city, the city council established a town planning
ground. committee and the proposed height of the seawall
New infrastructure: seawall (originally 6.2m) was reviewed and a tsunami
simulation was conducted. The new seawall plan
This was not the first tsunami that had taken many was 1m lower but residents did not accept this.
lives and severely damaged infrastructure in The discussion of seawall design continued and,
northeast Japan. Historically, this area has always finally a consensus was reached whereby a 3.8m
suffered from the risk of tsunamis. In consequence, - 4.1m of concrete which could be extended by
dykes and flood gates were constantly updated. a flap gate in case of emergency (Abe, 2017).
The number of households which moved to higher It took the city more than 3 years to reach an
ground was around 18,000. Based on the National agreed plan. On the other hand, in Ogatsu, in the
Government’s guideline (Cabinet Office, 2011) in same prefecture, a seawall of 9.7m was built and
consultation with the Committee established by residents were relocated to higher ground close
the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries to their pre-disaster location (Nakanishi et al.,
of Japan and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, 2013), but with the view of the ‘seawall’. Residents
Transport and Tourism, seawall projects were discussed an alternative plan as they thought
proposed by prefecture governments (in this 9.7m was too high but they eventually accepted
paper, the author is using the example of Miyagi the prefecture’s idea. In consequence, the town’s
prefecture). The levelling of land in the coastal population has decreased significantly, from 4,300
area and the re-location of some high-risk housing to around 1,120 (as of September, 2021, City of
to higher ground was also detailed within the Ishinomaki, 2021).

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29
World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Figure 4. Seawall under construction, Ogatsu town, Miyagi (taken by author in July 2019)

Figure 5. View of seawall and Ogatsu bay, Miyagi (taken by author in July 2019)

30
Lessons learned from this case are that ten years long time, up to 10 years. The new land use
after the disaster, most of the affected population plans require: a) the assurance of terrain
resided in their repaired homes, their rebuilt homes arrangement and landscaping, b) building of
or a new home. Relocating to new neighbourhoods protective infrastructure, and c) agreement of
on higher ground was accepted in the early the population as a function of their future life
stage of recovery because of the scale of the expectancy, traditional or innovative activities,
devastation. However, this presented difficulties etc.
for some residents, particularly those who lived in
4. References
fishing villages, or who were reluctant to leave their
ancestors’ land. It is critical that infrastructure be Abe, T. (2017). Consensus building process
built to reduce future risks. However, that alone of the seawall plan in the inner port area of
will not save people’s lives. A strategy needs Kesennuma, Journal of Japan Society of
to be put in place, which includes the cost of Civil Engineers Division D1: Architecture of
maintaining the infrastructure and the impact on Infrastructure and Environment, Vol.73. No.1.
sustainability. The impact of the seawall in Ogatsu pp.37-51. Written in Japanese.
town will become more apparent as time goes by, Australian Government (2020). Land Use Planning
but still the most important way to reduce risk is for Disaster Resilient Communities Handbook.
to ensure that the evacuation measures and drills Australian Institute for Disaster Resilience Ed.,
are shared and well understood by the residents, 49 p. Accessed November 2021.
no matter what infrastructure is in place. ‘Tsunami
ten den ko’ is an oral tradition that has been Australian Government (2021). Australia’s
inherited in the area. It means ‘everyone needs to Adaptation Communication. A report to the
evacuate by themselves when a tsunami comes’. United Nations Framework Convention on
Town planning and infrastructure are important Climate Change October 2021. 57 p. Accessed
in reducing risk but they are still complementary November 2021.
measures when preparing communities for natural Cabinet Office (2011). Report of the Committee for
hazards. Technical Investigation on Countermeasures
3. Key messages for Earthquakes and Tsunamis Based on
the Lessons Learned from the 2011 off the
1. Engineering inputs should be incorporated Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake. Written
into the land use planning at an early stage, in Japanese.
making the identification of risks and mitigation
measures integral components of the whole City of Ishinomaki (2021). Population update 21
process. Given the economic effect of disasters, October 2021. Written in Japanese. Accessed
Government should understand the need to on 25 October, 2021.
invest in resilience for a sustainable city. MADRA (2022). Mallacota & District. Recovery
2. The case studies confirm the critical importance Association Inc. https://madrecovery.com/
of community engagement in the continuing Nakanishi, H., Matsuo, K. & Black, J. (2013).
process of disaster and risk management for Transportation planning methodologies for
extreme events. Community input at an early post-disaster recovery in regional communities:
stage of land use planning to minimise future the East Japan Earthquake and tsunami 2011.
risks is vital for community supported solutions Journal of Transport Geography, 31, pp.181-
that are appropriate for the cultural context and 191.
the environment.
NL News (2015). Arcadis sustainable cities index
3. In the recovery phase, processes leading to 2015: Hong Kong has the highest natural
reconstruction and resettlement may take disasters risk in Asia. Royal Commission

Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development

31
World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

into National Natural Disaster Arrangements Reconstruction Agency of Japan (2021a). The
Report. Accessed November 2021. https:// current situation of recovery and plan October
www.dutchwatersector.com/news/arcadis- 2021, In Japanese. https://www.reconstruction.
sustainable-cities-index-2015-hong-kong-has- go.jp/topics/main-cat1/sub-cat1-1/211001_
the-highest-natural-disasters-risk-in-asia genjoutorikumi.pdf. Accessed on 25 October,
Norman, B., Newman, P. & Steffen, W. (2021a). 2021.
Apocalypse now: Australian bushfires and the Reconstruction Agency of Japan (2021b). The
future of urban settlements. npj Urban Sustain trajectory of recovery and prospects January
1, 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42949-020- 2021. In Japanese. https://www.reconstruction.
00013-7 go.jp/topics/main-cat1/sub-cat1-1/2021.1_
Norman, B., Newman, P. & Steffen W. (2021b). michinori.pdf. Accessed on 25 October, 2021.
Fires bring home climate driven urgency of Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster
rethinking where we live and how. https:// Arrangements (2020). Report. Australia, 594 p.
theconversation.com/fires-bring-home-climate-
driven-urgency-of-rethinking-where-we-live- Routledge. (2021). Featured author Barbara
and-how-155044 Norman. https://www.routledge.com/authors/
i17041-barbara-norman#
Peron Naturalist Partnership. Capel to Leschenault
Coastal Hazard Risk Management & Adaptation Sim T. & Wang D. (2017). Making Hong Kong
Plan. https://www.peronnaturaliste.org.au/ a resilient city: Preliminary assessment. The
projects/capel-to-leschenault-coastal-hazard- Hong Kong Polytechnic University https://fhss.
risk-management-adaptation-plan/ polyu.edu.hk/ext/makingHKresilientcity.pdf

32
 CHAPTER II
RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS
Dave Brunsdona, Stefan Schauerb, Carlien Bou-Chedidc
a
New Zealand Lifelines Council, New Zealand, [email protected]
b
Austrian Institute of Technology, Austria, [email protected]
c
Ghana Institution of Engineers, Ghana, [email protected]

1. Introduction This chapter outlines the characteristics of key

infrastructure networks, and the associated
Infrastructure systems are typically complex
resilience concepts. The hazard context and DRM
systems that are interwoven with a high degree of
concepts outlined in the introduction to this booklet
mutual interdependency. While both the control
are used as the basis for this section.
systems for the day-to-day operation of these
networks and the modelling for future use are 2. Scope and Characteristics of Infrastructure
highly sophisticated, the maintenance and future
The term ‘Infrastructure’ can encompass a wide
investment planning depends on key human
range of services to the community, including
inputs.
health and education services. This chapter
These systems are also highly vulnerable to focuses on physical infrastructure systems –
damage and disruption from a range of geophysical those networks that enable the other elements
and meteorological hazard causes and events. of societal infrastructure to function. Physical
While any given hazard event has a low probability infrastructure systems are also those which have
of occurring, the community impacts are usually the greatest degree of reliance upon engineering
severe and can extend over a considerable period inputs.
of time. In major events, the failure of infrastructure
For the purposes of this chapter, the scope of
adds another layer of distress to a community
infrastructure systems is taken as follows:
that may have suffered loss of life and damage to
homes and other facilities. • Water networks (potable, wastewater and
stormwater, including dams and pipelines)
Climate change presents different challenges,
with the incremental nature of its effects making • Energy networks (electricity and gas, including
present day adaptation design decisions difficult. transmission and distribution lines)
The increasing frequency and severity of weather • Telecommunication networks (landline and
events, however, presents a real urgency to this mobile telephone networks, data networks)
task.
• Transportation networks (highways and rail,
It is therefore essential that infrastructure systems including bridges and tunnels, ports, waterways
receive the highest standards of disaster risk and airports)
management to enable operational risks to be
identified and mitigated as much as is practical. In many jurisdictions, these systems are referred
While new infrastructure elements are typically to as critical infrastructure. Although the
designed to standards which encompass resilience, legal definitions vary from nation to nation, all
the progressive treatment of the vulnerabilities of those definitions have in common that critical
older existing infrastructure provides a greater infrastructures are responsible for the maintenance
challenge. of essential economic and societal functions and

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

whose disruption or failure would have a significant incidents can have far-reaching consequences,
impact on the economic and social wellbeing of affecting multiple other infrastructure assets as
the population. well as society as a whole. Several incidents in
the past, such as the hacking of the Ukrainian
Over the last decade, critical infrastructures
power grid in 2015 which left about 250,000 people
have become more and more interconnected
without power (E-ISAC, 2016), the (Not-)Petya
with each other. Due to the ongoing digitalization
ransomware attack in 2017 (US-CERT, 2017)
in the industrial sector, much of the existing
which infected millions of systems in the health
infrastructure depends on the resources from other
and transportation sectors and the major blackout
infrastructures and also exchange a vast amount of
in South America in 2019 (Nordrum, 2019), have
information and data or use each other’s services.
highlighted how the impacts of one major event
Hence, critical infrastructure has developed into a
can propagate through multiple sectors. Therefore,
highly complex and sensitive network with a variety
future disaster risk management approaches need
of interdependencies as illustrated in Figure 1.
to take those cascading effects into account
As a result, incidents involving one critical when estimating the consequences of a major
infrastructure asset can no longer be treated as event and identifying mitigation actions to improve
an isolated event. Rather, due to the complex the resilience of the overall critical infrastructure
interdependencies among infrastructure systems, network.

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the interdependencies among critical infrastructure sectors

3. The Components of Resilience The resilience of infrastructure systems is typically

thought of in terms of the physical aspects – the
The term ‘Resilience’ also has different meanings
vulnerability of key facilities (sometimes referred
depending on the context in which it is applied,
to as ‘nodes’ of the network) and the routes by
and an associated range of definitions. In the
which the service is delivered (e.g. transport routes
introduction, resilience at the societal level was
or reticulation systems). Technical resilience is
defined as:
inherent in many networks through redundancy
The capacity of a society to cope, as a system, (multiple paths of supply) and robustness (design
with stressors related to its development by codes for strength). However, there can be
withstanding, adapting, and recovering with geographical and other constraints in providing
regard to their impacts alternative supply routes, and 100% security of
supply is neither feasible nor affordable.

34
There are however other considerations that can 4. Application of the DRM Principles
also have a significant impact on the resilience
The principles and wider context for DRM
of an infrastructure network. A key factor is the
were outlined in the introductory section of this
degree of organisational resilience of infrastructure
document. Emphasis was given to the need for
providers. This brings many other aspects into
decisions on technical systems to be taken with
consideration, such as financial resilience,
full regard to the associated economic and social
leadership and the ability to adapt. Organizational
systems within which they operate (refer to Figure
resilience is broadly defined as:
2 of the introductory chapter).
The ability of an organization to anticipate,
Disaster Risk Management is explained by the
prepare for, respond and adapt to incremental
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
change and sudden disruptions in order to
as (UNDRR, 2015):
survive and prosper
Disaster risk management includes actions
This encompasses what can be termed ‘resilience
designed to avoid the creation of new risks,
culture’– the extent to which the infrastructure
such as better land-use planning and disaster-
provider firstly understands the vulnerabilities of
resistant water supply systems (prospective
its network to the full range of hazard events, and
disaster risk management), actions designed
secondly its attitude towards actively addressing
to address pre-existing risks, such as the
them and having comprehensive plans to respond
reduction of health and social vulnerability,
to extreme events.
retrofitting of critical infrastructure (corrective
A further consideration is the resilience of the disaster risk management) and actions
‘receiver’ of infrastructure services. These ‘end taken to address residual risk and reducing
users’ also have a role in the ultimate resilience of impacts on communities and societies, such
an infrastructure network or service through their as preparedness, insurance and social safety
self-reliance in the face of adverse events. It is nets (compensatory disaster risk management).
particularly important for critical facilities such as
This commentary provides an important linkage
hospitals to have adequate levels of standby power
with the core risk management steps that
and emergency water, in the same way that any
managers of technical systems usually follow, as
consumer of these services needs to be prepared
reproduced in Figure 2 below from the international
for system outages.
risk management standard, ISO31000.
Taking these other components of resilience into
account, the four key attributes of infrastructure
resilience can be articulated as follows (New
Zealand Lifelines Council, 2021):
1. Robust assets and networks (attributes such
as structural integrity, network redundancy,
adaptability, etc.).
2. Appropriate resource commitment by
infrastructure organization (to enhance
preparedness and speed restoration).
3. Effective collaboration with all members and
stakeholder parties (both pre-event and in
emergency responses).
4. Realistic community expectations (informed
by understanding of network vulnerabilities,
leading to end-users with appropriate back-up
arrangements). Figure 2. ISO 31000:2018 risk management process
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

It can be seen from this figure that Context is a key New infrastructure elements should be located
aspect of the first step of any risk management and designed with resilience to foreseeable
process. It is where the wider social and economic hazard events being uppermost, utilizing the latest
considerations are taken into account in framing knowledge of those hazards and current design
how the identified risks are evaluated, and in turn, standards. This includes making due allowance
treated. for climate change effects. The principal challenge
for the location and design of new infrastructure
Conventionally, risk is taken as a combination of
is that it often involves the extension of existing
likelihood and consequence. However, disasters are
infrastructure facilities. In many cases, key
by their very definition high impact, low probability
infrastructure facilities have been situated in areas
events. Risk analysis and evaluation processes
of high hazard exposure. Prime examples are port
should therefore focus on the consequences to the
facilities and wastewater treatment plants in areas
system (and hence the community) of a disaster
of poor ground conditions that are susceptible
event occurring, rather than the likelihood of the
to liquefaction following earthquakes; electricity
hazard. This means that the key part of the risk
sub-stations close to active earthquake faults; and
analysis process is assessing the likelihood of
bridges over flood-prone rivers.
damage to the various system elements should
the hazard event occur. This highlights the importance of carefully
considering extending existing infrastructure
The key risk management steps for existing
facilities during the initial planning stages before
infrastructure therefore involve:
the detailed design commences.
1. Understanding the vulnerability of the key
elements of infrastructure systems and 5. The Role of Codes and Standards
networks. Codes and Standards have over the years
• both the physical vulnerability and the served as a means to ensure minimum levels of
likelihood of damage occurring in foreseeable safety and health for communities in the design
hazard scenarios. of infrastructure, and they also provide a means
to build resilience in infrastructure. There are,
2. Evaluating the consequence of failure of key
however, a number of issues that must be taken
infrastructure components (including cascading
into consideration.
effects).
The development of codes and standards has
• Firstly, the operational consequences for
often been dependent on significant levels of
the network – this requires evaluation of the
ability to continue to deliver the service. human and financial resources. Writers of codes
and standards have required an understanding
• Secondly, the consequences for the of potential hazards and have relied on research,
community of the loss of service - this past experience and technical knowledge.
requires evaluation the importance of the Many countries therefore rely on the codes and
service).
standards developed by a few better resourced
3. Identifying cost-effective ways of mitigating the countries and may adopt and sometimes adapt
vulnerabilities identified to prevent and reduce them to suit their environments. (Examples of
the risk of failure. Building Codes, American Codes, Eurocodes, and
• Pre-event – preparing mitigation plans to be others. See a review of the former in Nienhuys,
implemented over a period of time. 2015).

• Post-event-preparing specific plans Codes and standards are generally specific

to respond to the occurrence of the to different elements of infrastructure, such as
vulnerabilities identified in order to limit the buildings, bridges and roads. In most countries,
damage and be prepared to respond. the importance of building safety is paramount and

36
building codes have been developed or adopted for may rely on electricity to operate and electricity
use. Unfortunately, the use of these codes has not systems may require functioning communication
always been made mandatory, and many buildings systems and vice versa). There is a need to
are constructed that are not code-compliant. further prioritize performance requirements to
Furthermore, it is often very difficult to enforce ensure adequate capacity for essential dependent
retrofitting requirements for buildings that are in systems, acknowledging that aspects of these may
existence before the introduction of codes, due to vary from country to country.
the costs involved. This is especially difficult where
6. Case studies
retrofitting is required for low incidence-high impact
events like earthquakes. And yet, seismic design 6.1 Recent major earthquakes affecting New
codes for buildings have been highly successful Zealand infrastructure
in reducing loss of life from building collapse in
New Zealand is formed on the collision zone
areas that have enforced their use (examples,
between the Pacific and Australian plates, creating
Chile and Japan).
a high earthquake, volcanic and tsunami risk.
Buildings are, however, the ‘nerve centre’ of Climate challenges across the country range from
infrastructure networks, and require consideration ex-tropical cyclones to droughts, flooding and
of continued functionality in addition to life safety snow events.
as a minimum requirement.
There is a legislative requirement in New Zealand
Many countries are yet to adopt codes and for ‘lifeline utilities’ (infrastructure providers) to
standards for other forms of infrastructure as they “function to the fullest possible extent” following
have for buildings. The main code developing an emergency (the NZ Civil Defence Emergency
countries have specific requirements for non- Management Act 2002). This enabling legislation is
building structures, but this is often not the case supported by an environment where infrastructure
with less developed countries. Lifeline utilities also providers collaborate at regional and national
operate under a variety of business and regulatory levels to firstly, understand their vulnerabilities
models and there are no internationally consistent (with an emphasis on the interdependency
standards for resilience-these are defined by each between lifeline utilities) and secondly, integrate
lifeline utility and in some cases the individual their plans to address these vulnerabilities in
sector regulator. All countries must be encouraged areas where their networks physically interface
to adopt specific standards for all types of (for example, at bridges) and have collective risks.
infrastructure. While performance requirements This requires a considerable degree of impact
to achieve resilience of infrastructure are likely modelling, and has led to the strong involvement
to differ from country to country, a framework of the research sector.
approach may be used to guide the development
of internationally consistent standards for By working together, this builds relationships -both
resilience. organizational and individual- that can also be
drawn upon in the response and rebuild phases
Incorporating resilience requirements in
following a disaster.
Infrastructure Codes and Standards would require
a performance-based approach. In general, codes Both the Canterbury Earthquake Sequence
and standards have tended to address the safety (commencing with the Mw7.1 Darfield earthquake
and performance requirements of individual in September 2010) and the Mw7.8 Kaikoura
components of infrastructure. Incorporating earthquake in November 2016 had a significant
resilience requirements would include examining impact on both local and national infrastructure
the performance of infrastructure systems. The networks. A sample of the key learnings are
interdependence of different infrastructure systems summarized below, under the headings of
would have to be recognized. (e.g. water systems Technical and Organisational/ Contractual:
Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development
37
World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Technical learnings when a short circuit disconnected one of three

500-kV transmission lines running from Colonia
• Highway and rail networks–repairing and
Elía to Belgrano near Buenos Aires (Nordrum,
replacing bridges to current standards is
2019). With one transmission line already down
Build Back Better in practice, and additionally
and undergoing maintenance and the second
has achieved effective asset renewal. Also,
one tripping, the third one also could not hold
some bridges were either not rebuilt or rebuilt
the high-power levels being transferred at that
in better locations to avoid geohazards. This
time and was disconnected by the Automatic
acknowledges the need to consider Building
Generation Shutdown system (in Spanish: DAG).
Back Differently.
Although the DAG is a fall-back system designed
• Residential wastewater networks - the use to automatically disconnect generators if a problem
of holding tanks at individual properties, is detected, it was operating on false data since
that pump into street mains as a means of the maintenance of the third line and the resulting
overcoming inadequate hydraulic grades change in the network grid was not reflected in the
due to local or global earthquake settlement. DAG’s system at that time.
• Telecommunication networks–Telco The blackout had a major impact on the water,
providers have since increased the size of health and transportation sector. People in
fuel storage tanks for the standby power Argentina were recommended to reduce their water
generators of their exchanges. This was a usage, medical patients who were dependent on
response to the cordoning of streets due to home equipment had to go to hospitals where
damaged multistorey buildings preventing backup generators were in place and people were
access for re-fueling. queuing in front of gas stations. Furthermore, local
Organizational/ Contractual learnings elections in some regions of Argentina had been
interrupted by the power outage and people had
• Recognition of the need for a contractual to fill out the ballots in the dark. By mid-morning,
approach during the recovery that is power was restored in Buenos Aires and around
less controlling than customary contracts noon at across 75% of Uruguay; until the evening
led to the solution of an incentivized almost all parts of Argentina and Uruguay were
alliance involving funders (government),
again connected to the power grid.
network owners and contractors. The
Stronger Christchurch Infrastructure Rebuild In the afternoon of January 8th 2021, the
Team (SCIRT) following the Canterbury Continental Europe power grid was separated
Earthquakes and the North Canterbury into two parts as a 400 kV busbar coupler
Transport Infrastructure Recovery Alliance in Ernestinovo (Croatia) tripped because of
(NCTIR) following the Kaikoura Earthquake overcurrent protection (ENTSO-E, 2021). This led
were formed to facilitate the rebuilding of to a decoupling of the two busbars in Ernestinovo
water and transportation networks substation, causing a shift of electric power flows
to neighbouring lines and subsequently the
• This has emphasized the importance
overload and further tripping of that lines, which
of relationships and collaboration to
eventually caused the system separation in two
take common mitigation opportunities in
parts. The North-West area suffered a deficit of
‘everyday’ infrastructure resilience planning.
power and a frequency decrease; accordingly,
6.2 Comparison of power grid problems in there was a surplus of power and an increase in
Europe and South America the South-East area.
In the morning of June 16th 2019, a major blackout As a consequence, a couple of services in France
affected Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay and Italy were shut down to reduce the power

38
deficit. Those services are contracted by the systems and classical phone communication
transmission system operators to be disconnected shows the importance of aligned processes
if frequency drops under a certain threshold. in this area.
Similarly, power production of a large generator
7. Key Messages
in Turkey was reduced and the frequency could
be held stable in both areas. Due to the automatic This chapter has highlighted the many
response and the coordinated actions taken by the considerations involved in achieving greater
TSOs in Continental Europe, a power outage was resilience of infrastructure networks. Key themes
avoided and the situation was quickly restored to and messages that reflect the opportunities to
close to normal operation. achieve greater infrastructure resilience are
summarized below:
Although the incidents happened in separate
parts of the world with different impacts, similar Understanding the different components of
mitigation actions were in place with distinct infrastructure resilience
effectiveness. Key learnings from both incidents
Infrastructure resilience involves several
are described below, under the headings of
different components and attributes, as follows:
Technical and Organisational/ Contractual:
Technical learnings: 1. Robust assets and networks
2. Appropriate resource commitment by
• Automatic protective systems are in place
infrastructure organization
in many large power grids all over the
world but the incident in South America 3. Effective collaboration with all members and
showed that the correct configuration is stakeholder parties
a big issue. If protective systems are not
4. Realistic community expectations and
working properly, they can be the cause for
preparedness
problems
This highlights the need to look beyond physical
• Black start capabilities are an essential resilience (the typical domain of engineers) and
feature to recover quickly from a power consider organizational resilience aspects as
outage. Due to the large amount of hydro- well as the community as end-users.
electric power plants in Argentina, the grid
could be brought back online in a brief time. The influence of ownership and regulatory systems
With a more diverse landscape of power There are different funding constraints and
plants in Europe (nuclear, coal, wind, etc.), regulatory regimes both between and within
a recovery might take more time. the public and private sectors. Infrastructure
Organizational / Contractual learnings: organizations operate under a variety of
business and regulatory models. Organizations
• In both cases, detailed emergency response in private ownership require a commercial
plans represent the most valuable tool for return on resilience investment projects, and the
successfully preventing or recovering from economic justification of resilience investments
such an incident. Pre-contracted shutdown can therefore have different characteristics
plans for large consumers can help to which influence the level of investment in
quickly react in case of an emergency.
resilience improvements. Local authorities
• As power grids nowadays span over an and organizations who own networks and
entire continent, cross-border co-operation facilities directly on behalf of the community
is also a core aspect in preventing large are inherently more conscious of community
power outages. The coordinated reaction considerations and the need to invest in
of the TSOs in Europe supported by digital resilience.

Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development

39
World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Taking account of interdependencies 8. References

Taking account of network interdependencies E-ISAC. (2016). Analysis of the Cyber Attack on
and the potential for cascade effects is an the Ukrainian Power Grid. https://ics.sans.org/
essential element in risk reduction. This media/E-ISAC_SANS_Ukraine_DUC_5.pdf
indicates that while risk reduction can be
ENTSO-E. (2021). Continental Europe
incrementally achieved by individual utilities,
Synchronous Area Separation on 8 January
the most effective mitigation measures
2021. Interim Report. European Network of
require planning and implementation across
Transmission System Operators for Electricity
key infrastructure providers as integrated
(ENTSO-E). https://eepublicdownloads.
programmes.
azureedge.net/clean-documents/Publications/
Reducing risk at the time of new infrastructure Position%20papers%20and%20reports/
development entso-e_CESysSep_interim_report_210225.
pdf
Any future infrastructure development needs
to be carefully thought through –both for Nordrum, A. (2019). Transmission Failure Causes
general natural hazard risk and climate change Nationwide Blackout in Argentina—IEEE
considerations. There is a need to be bold Spectrum. IEEE Spectrum: Technology,
in questioning the appropriateness of the Engineering, and Science News. https://
location of key existing infrastructure facilities. spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/energy/the-
An overarching question is how adaptive smarter-grid/transmission-failure-causes-
and resilient is our long-life infrastructure? nationwide-blackout-in-argentina
A key aspect of infrastructure resilience is
US-CERT. (2017). Alert (TA17-181A) Petya
to not automatically further develop existing
Ransomware. US-CERT | United States
infrastructure that is already at risk– but this
Computer Emergency Readiness Team. https://
is often a difficult call given the ‘sunk costs’
www.us-cert.gov/ncas/alerts/TA17-181A
associated with existing facilities.
New Zealand Lifelines Council (2021). Submission
Engineers clearly have a critical role in promoting
to the New Zealand Infrastructure Commission.
and achieving enhanced resilience of urban
and rural infrastructure networks. Disaster Risk Nienhuys S. (2015). Building seismic codes.
Management requires the full consideration of Global and regional overview. Evidence
the context of the community, and so technical on Demand organisation, 39 p. https://
knowledge must be applied with an understanding a s s e t s . p u b l i s h i n g . s e r v i c e . g o v. u k /
of all the dimensions of resilience, and with a media/57a0897c40f0b652dd000242/EoD_
community focus. HDYr3_59_November2015_Seismic_Building_
Codes.pdf
UNDRR (2015). Proposed Updated Terminology
on Disaster Risk Reduction: A Technical
Review. Background paper. United Nations
Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, 31 p.

40
 CHAPTER III
DATA AND INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Fang Chena, Marcial Rivera Rodríguezb, Zeeshan Shirazia, Lei Wanga
a
International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, China,
[email protected], [email protected]; [email protected]
b
Federated Association of Engineers and Architects of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica,
[email protected]

1. General concepts and location of an earthquake can be tabulated

on charts. But in recent times, the information
Improvement in data and information has always
obtained from satellite images, or the information
been a priority for Engineering over the years,
from social media concerning the impact of a
however, rapid development and growth of data
disaster on a population, requires a process to
sciences as a separate and specialized field, has
transform it into data.
created new possibilities for their use, while the
diversity of information available from modern 2. Major worldwide and regional databases on
digital infrastructure calls for rapid improvements disasters (and their accessibility)
in our capacity to obtain, save, cluster, and share
Data on disasters are collected for a variety of
the data, to convert it to actionable information
users including Governments, regional and global
to enable science-informed decision-making
organizations, NGOs and financial institutions
processes across the world.
and are used for a diverse range of applications,
Engineering structured data, consisting of a row from guiding disaster response and prevention
heading to contextualize data ordered in rows activity, developing insurance products, city design
(normally numbers or names), enable calculations and planning, to scientific research and disaster
and analysis of information. Examples of structured case studies (Wirtz et al., 2014). This data is
data can be the temperature measured per hour essential to characterize and analyze previous
from a sensor, the amount of water passing through events and to study, understand and identify
a dam, the quantity of precipitated water over a the underlying causes to predict and if possible,
period, and which was collected from a specific prevent recurrence, loss, or reduce the risks and
(and normally expensive) device. However, in associated consequences, of these disruptive
recent times, the growth of IoT (Internet of Things) events. Through scientific and technological
have enabled development of a networks of progress, over time our capacity to generate
sensors resulting in large volume of structured and collect data on different aspects of disasters
data. Beyond growing volumes of structured is improving in quantity, quality and efficiency,
data, there is also an exponential growth in the improving our capacity to learn from even minor
amount of accessible unstructured data that is events through improved measurements and better
diversifying and introducing new forms of data and analysis (Editorial Nature Geoscience, 2017). This
changing the way that governments, scientists, and level of data and information is highly desirable
communities get information. The unstructured and possible for individual types and classes of
data all the information lacking row headings that disasters; however, it is extremely challenging on a
allowed to order it in chart or any pre-defined large scale due to varying capacity and resources
manner, such as video, imaging, or a conversation. within different countries.
An important amount of the information captured Data collection activity, its scope and the resulting
in disasters is structured. The magnitude, depth, amount of historical disaster data that is archived
Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development
41
World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

is non-uniform across different administrative of a common disaster database format in several

levels and is not spatially consistent across the countries provided through the DesInventar
globe. Some emerging countries simply lack software (UNDP, 2013). It is now updated as
the ability, resources and institutional capacity DesInventar-Sendai, an advanced disaster
to adequately collect this data and therefore information management system that provides
also lack historical data within their jurisdictions “a conceptual and methodological tool for the
(Moriyama, Sasaki and Ono, 2018). Consequently, generation of National Disaster Inventories and the
basic data on disaster mortality, disaster affected construction of databases of damage, losses and
populations, economic losses, and damage that in general the causes and impacts of disasters”
provide means to link disaster with development (DesInventar, 2019). These disaster loss and
and identify causes, casual factors and vulnerable damage databases aim to capture homogeneous
populations, are not sufficiently accessible for multi-scale data at multiple locations and times,
analysis. Without this data, proper reference openly accessible for research and analysis
benchmarks cannot be established to evaluate to understand disaster trends and patterns
the impact of disasters and monitor the progress and emerging risks. With open accessibility,
and effectiveness of the disaster risk reduction DesInventar hosts data for 90 mostly developing
efforts in place or to identify what measures are countries, and can be considered as a benchmark
required. These limitations have also restricted framework for data collection and reporting within
the pace and progress of actions to support global the Sendai Framework. It obtains extensive
frameworks such as the Sendai Framework for information from official government records,
Disaster Risk Reduction and the 2030 Agenda for national and local print media and public health
Sustainable Development. UNDRR has reported a records on disasters due itsflexible definition of a
lack of comprehensive data to evaluate meaningful disaster event as being a cause of a single death
trends at local, regional and global scale. This or a cause of damage worth a single US dollar.
has highlighted the need to improve data quality Furthermore, there is also an element of spatial
and the need for well-managed and maintained detail in DesInventar as it assigns each disaster
disaster loss databases (UNDRR, 2020). entry with a country, province/state, district/town
label (Panwar and Sen, 2020).
Disaster risk drivers are essentially trans-
boundary such as, climate change, air pollution The other major global disaster database freely
and other risk factors that are common in many accessible and most widely used and cited is the
parts of the world such as poverty, uncontrolled EM-DAT. EM-DAT only assigns disaster events
urbanization and population growth (UNISDR, entries country labels but has the advantage
2020). Risk management requires open access of more extensive global coverage with data
to disaster-related data that provides potential from over 200 countries globally. The criteria for
for a more comprehensive understanding of defining an event as a disaster are also stricter
risk and opportunities for collaborative and and more extensive and include reported deaths
sustained solutions, by enabling improved (>= 10), people affected (>= 100), declarations of
modeling, assessment, mapping and early emergency by the affected country and request
warning capabilities. To improve data coverage for international assistance. It collects data from
and reporting, data standards and comprehensive international agencies such as the UN, inter-
approaches to data collections are being governmental organizations and US government
implemented throughout the UN member states agencies as sources for disaster data (Panwar and
(UNDRR, 2020). International programs such Sen, 2020). There are several other databases
as UNDP, UNDRR and CRED are facilitating for disaster loss data; however, they are either
development of regional and country level not open or not widely used, such as the NatCat
databases since the early 2000s (UNDP, 2013). and Sigma, that are not openly accessible, while
UNDRR has successfully sponsored the adoption CatDat is limited to earthquakes only.

42
Despite these shortcomings, various regional and actively maintained and updated. A comprehensive
global disaster damage and loss databases are list of these databases is presented in table 1.

Table 1 – List of disaster loss databases with details

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43
World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

3. Innovations in Big Data processing for DRR lead the investigation on data mining, R and
Phyton. Each of these programming languages
The rapid improvements to digital capacities across
can be run on different software and cloud
the social, economic and business spectrums of
systems. It is highly recommended to a person
human society and growing digital capability
who wants to develop on these fields, to get used
globally has provided us with the opportunity to
to these languages and libraries of functions.
collect and utilize data and information from new
and non-conventional sources and complement Major developments in Big Data processing have
existing digitized data and information for a more been concentrated in big technological firms,
comprehensive, in-depth understanding and including more famous companies such as Google,
analysis. Generally this large volume of multi- Yahoo, Facebook, LinkedIn and Amazon among
source data is called Big Data, and is characterized others. These developments were driven by the
by 5 Vs: Volume, referring to the quantity of data; need to manage and process the growing amount
Variety, referring to the diverse sources of data; of data being generated from user activity on
Velocity, referring to the speed of data generation, their online digital platforms due to their attractive
transmission and processing; Veracity, referring to digital products and services, growing accessibility
data quality and accuracy; and Value, referring to to internet and digitally connected devices. A
its end benefits in terms of solutions, applications, major development, enabled by improved online
development etc. (Yang et al., 2017). With connectivity and data connection speed, is the
increasing sources of raw data, the nature of the concept of Cloud Computing. Developments in
collective dataset becomes complex and requires cloud computing enabled remote access to large
more intensive and complicated processing due to data centers developed by these large technological
the inherent diversity in formats, quality and nature companies and other specialized data businesses
(static vs. dynamic data updates) of data. providing computational resources for storage
Big Data helps to understand both the nature of and processing of digital data. This incentivizes
data and the relationship between data (Terziet other business enterprises to focus their efforts
al., 2016). Big Data processing generally involves and resources to develop their core products and
four main processes including, data acquisition, services, and reduce their cost and resources on
data storage, data analysis and data exploitation hardware and software management of digital
(Casado and Younas, 2014). Due to the voluminous data. These Big Data processing resources are
nature of Big Data, earlier generation of Big Data now generally available as Infrastructure as
frameworks essentially implemented distributed Service (IaaS), Platform as Service (PaaS) and
file systems employing distributed data processing. Software as Service (SaaS) models (Elshawi et
Data processing systems have evolved over the al., 2018).
past couple decades, shifting focus from batch Cloud computing has also enabled innovative
processing to real-time processing to deal with the uses of Big Data from these data centers in
increasing influx of new form of streaming data, different commercial, social and scientific research,
with low latency and high velocity requirements.
including disaster risk management. However, the
Since 2014, innovations in hybrid computations
nature of Big Data for disaster risk management
are being pursued (Casado and Younas, 2014)
is more diverse and multi-disciplinary. Presently
to cater for both volume and velocity of incoming
there are several sources of Big Data that are
data from evolving and expanding modern digital
actively been used and can be broadly divided
infrastructure.
into: sensor generated data, which include remote
Data analyzers not only meet the challenge of sensing data from multiple platforms, such as
collecting and handling the data, but also to define satellite, LiDARs and UAVs, on ground sensors;
the software language to mine it. There are some user generated data, which include data from IoT
main open-source programming languages that and Web, and increasingly new applications of

44
social media, crowd sourcing, mobile GPS and of the Google Earth Engine, a free dedicated cloud
caller detail records; and simulation data from computing environment for remote sensing data
predictive models (Ragini, et al., 2018; Yu, Yang and applications, found that about 6 out of the
and Li, 2018). 300 research articles (2%), reviewed between
2011 and 2017, had used the platform for disaster
The significance of the Big Data processing
related applications, A more recent literature
infrastructure and the cloud computing platforms,
survey (Amani et al., 2020) of 450 research articles
especially for disaster risk management is
published between 2010 to 2020 found about 40
highlighted through potential application of
papers related to natural disasters suggesting a
data from social media extracted in real time
trend towards adoption of these cloud platforms
or near-real time for situational awareness (Ofli
and Big Data techniques in earth observation
et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019) and sentiment
data processing for disaster related applications.
analysis (Ragini, et al., 2018) during the disaster
Unlike Google, Amazon, as a part of its public
or disaster response phases for communication
dataset program has initiated the “Earth on AWS”
and information purposes (Gray, Weal and Martin, cloud platform providing data access to Landsat
2016). Even though the social media platforms 8, Sentinel 1 & 2 data NOAA and China-Brazil
are increasingly being used to disseminate and Earth Resource Satellite Program remote sensing
exchange information, their utility as a source datasets pay-as-you-go service. Microsoft’s Azure
of information during crisis situation is still being and its AI for Earth initiative is a pay-as-you-go
studied. A growing body of literature is being service with much limited data variety and regional
developed that provides information on links coverage (Amani et al., 2020).
and patterns between disaster events and the
content, frequency and temporal patterns of social Another important concept in Big Data processing
media activity. Meta-data information from shared and application is the big earth data ecosystem
images such as user tags, geo-location, temporal concept that focuses on integration of multisource
information provide valuable details for information data within a geographic context ensuring open
on disasters (Said et al., 2019). New developments accessibility and democratization of data and
such as geo-tagging tweets, mobile tracking information towards data driven solutions for global
software, and media post and crowd sourcing is challenges. One example of such an ecosystem
adding spatial dimension and enriching the quality is the Chinese Academy of Science’s Big Earth
of information that can be extracted from these Data infrastructure being developed through its
social media platforms. Big Earth Data Science Engineering Program
(CASEarth), which includes a big earth data cloud
However, unlike these new forms of user generated platform and a decision support system for science
data, remote sensing data from different platforms driven policy and decision support. CASEarth has
has been widely used for various applications prioritized the integration of multi-disciplinary and
in disaster for over several decades. Both the multi-source data for various applications (Guo
number of remote sensing platform, the resulting et al., 2020). Similarly, Global Earth Observation
amount of data and the capability to process large System of Systems (GEOSS) being developed
volumes of image data has improved over the by Group on Earth Observation (GEO) which
years. Similarly, open data policies, improved are linked earth observation and processing
digital data management, accessibility and data system providing strengthen monitoring for earth
processing software and accessibility to cloud processes. Both these systems provide data
computing resources has improved the adoption analytical services for actionable information
of these dataset especially for spatially relevant including on disaster risk management and
applications such as disaster risk management broadly sustainable development. CASEarth has
(Guo 2017a; Guo 2017b). A 2018 survey (Kumar also recently published case studies which also
and Mutanga, 2018) of literature on use and trend include a few case studies on use of big earth
Engineering Resilience in Disaster Risk Management for Sustainable Development
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

data for disaster application in 2019 and 2020. field. Applied AI is more widely used and deals
Selected case studies form this report have also with specific applications in a field where such
been presented as a part of official documents applications include pattern recognition in its
submitted to the UN during the 74th and 75th UN different forms, including but not limited to face
General Assembly in 2019 and 2020 respectively. recognition and speech recognition, classification
From a broader perspective and within context problems of enormous diversity spanning fields
of sustainable development, such systems such as micro and molecular biology, environment,
also provide an opportunity for comprehensive and text classification. AI has wide implementation
analysis for example, connecting information on in both data processing and in data analytics. In
urbanization and land degradation with disaster both aspects, AI algorithms are designed to learn
risk management activities for a more effective from data, supervised or unsupervised, and make
analysis of risks and opportunities for improvement. use of patterns identified within the data to carry
out assigned instructions. This widely used data
4. Applications of artificial intelligence and
driven process is termed as Machine Learning
machine learning to different DRM processes
(ML) (GFDRR, 2018).
The potential for innovation within Big Data,
Retailing, aircraft companies, streaming (music
a part from technological developments and
and video) system, have been leaders in using Big
data processing, also lies in data analytics. As
Data to model consumption patterns, and through
highlighted in the previous section Big Data
this, increase profits. Basket market, that analyses
introduces challenges due to growing volume,
costumer purchasing, is an example of using ML
sources and formats of data. While technological
on databases. Supermarkets know which product
developments have enabled data centers to store
has to be placed near another that is consumed
increasing volume of data, improved access to
together. Aircraft companies can estimate the
them and facilitated processing of large volumes
number of people who are going to travel, to select
of raw data through cloud computing infrastructure,
the type of aircraft and flight crew needed.
the process of translating this data to actionable
and valuable information also requires a special Disaster risk management can use models
class of analytical techniques collectively termed to calculate the impact of natural hazards on
as Big Data analytics. Big Data analytics focus populations and infrastructure. Emergency
on innovations and advancements to improve response teams, damage to infrastructure for
the quality of information intrinsic within these insurance, and the expected demand of the health
complex datasets and the pace of the process of system could be estimated.
its extraction.
In disaster-related studies, both ML and AI
One of the key concepts within the Big Data techniques have enormous potential in decision
analytics is that of Artificial intelligence (AI), support systems at various stages of disaster risk
which has been around for a long time, but with management. Complete automation of warning,
improved computing infrastructure and data alert and response systems are likely, although not
volume has rapidly developed in the past couple yet possible, due to various factors, including the
decades. AI deals with the ability of computers associated lives at stake, data quality challenges
to perform tasks independently with minimal or and inter-agency disaster response and relief
no human interaction. AI facilitates automation coordination. However, these techniques, through
at scale and can generally be divided into two improved image recognition, natural language
main groups applied and general AI. General processing, object recognitions (Ogie, et al.,
AI strives to make machines perform a wide 2019) and other improvements in data analysis
range of actions independent of human input, have accelerated the decision-making process
which is understandably complicated. It has through rapid generation of useful information
been responsible for major innovations in this providing an advantage in response and recovery

46
stages that helps to save valuable lives. During technologies and information systems for disaster
preparedness and planning phases AI and ML risk management in many parts of the world. There
driven systems enable a more comprehensive are also several successful implementations of Big
situational awareness and understanding of Data and AI in disaster risk management system.
ground realities (Sun, et al., 2020) and is one of the However, these implementations, while validating
most extensive of its application areas (Tan et al., the benefits of these methods, have not been
2020). These techniques have also demonstrated widely put into practice. One of the main limiting
strong success in disaster prediction and warning. factors towards adoption of the data intensive
The only limitations to the use of these systems are solutions is lack of data itself or data analysis
access to or availability of digital data for detailed capabilities.
analysis.
Data analysis platforms enabled by cloud
Several challenges still persist in using ML and technology are quickly improving data analysis
AI for disaster-related applications. There are and allowing for rapid adoption of new and
several studies on remote sensing data integration, emerging techniques. With time, the accessibility
however, multi-source data integration for AI to these cloud platforms is also improving due
and ML research still requires adequate data to the growing and expanding IoT infrastructure
integration to ensure that smart sensor and data world over. Aided by modern communication
from social media can be effectively utilized technologies, such as the 5G networks, improving
for improved information and decision making. data speeds will enable analysis of even larger
Moreover, the research into application of AI and Big Data volumes. However, this rapid pace of
ML to natural processes and social dynamics development has resulted in an explosion of data
is not adequately integrated to provide a more analysis techniques which is expected to continue
comprehensive overview of human response to increase in number. There is, therefore, a
to crises for effective relief operations and need to standardize methods for more consistent
identification of disaster risk during planning stages and reliable results, and wide acceptability and
(Tan et al., 2020). More importantly ML driven AI implementation.
requires high quality and high-volume input data
The CDRM and other international organizations
for reliable informational output (Guo, 2018). With
working on disaster risk reduction systems should
restricted access to multisource data especially
work and introduce guidelines to establish systems
on-site and traditional data sources, the reliability
to identify reliable data analysis methods and
and effectiveness of ML and AI application will
processes as global standards. This will also
remain limited (Guo, 2017). However, there is still
enable large cloud-based data analysis platforms
potential for improved uses of these rich data and
to develop and launch the standard methods and
analytical resources for disaster risk management.
their implementations, enabling wider adoptions
For example, for more comprehensive analysis of
and use of these new technologies and methods.
different aspect of disaster risk, existing methods
Similar initiatives are also required to standardize
of information extraction from social media and
digital data and data collection processes for their
other unconventional data sources should be
use in disaster risk management analysis.
used to develop new standard databases with the
intent to diversify information and fill existing data One of the more challenging aspects of adopting
gaps. These new databases can be integrated with new technologies and methods is the limited
existing sources of data for a more comprehensive human resource capacity that require time and
analysis and management systems. concerted effort to develop and deploy. With
growing IoT infrastructure the potential for growing
5. Opportunities and obstacles
user base will depend on capacity development
There is extensive academic and research work programs ensuring rapid adoption and utilization of
exploring innovative applications of emerging these digital infrastructure and resources for local,
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

national and regional disaster risk management Elshawi, R. et al. (2018). Big Data Systems Meet
practices. Machine Learning Challenges: Towards Big
Data Science as a Service, Big Data Research.
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6. Key Messages Gray, B., Weal, M. and Martin, D. (2016). Social

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

CHAPTER IV
CAPACITY BUILDING
Ashok K. Basaa, Valentina Putrinob, José Macharéc, Arturo Muiñad
a
The Institution of Engineers (India), [email protected]
b
University College London, The United Kingdom, [email protected]
c
National University of Engineering, Peru, [email protected]
d
Instituto de la Ingeniería de España, Spain, [email protected]

1. Introduction take the example of Earthquake. The so-called

“developed countries” such as the US, Japan
As stated in the introductory section, here we
and New Zealand experience very high intensity
work with the concept agreed on by the UN that
earthquakes quite frequently. Yet the effects are
resilience is the capacity of a society to cope, as a
minimized due to the efforts of engineers and
system, with stressors related to its development
by withstanding, adapting, and recovering with technocrats of these countries and because of their
regard to their impacts. updated engineering codes and strict adherence to
these codes during design and construction. In the
In a world that is fast-paced and subjected to the case of developing and underdeveloped nations,
increasingly more frequent impact of natural and even a moderate earthquake causes huge human
man-made disasters, it is necessary for society casualties.
to become more adaptable and more inclined
towards a fast change of direction, both in terms of For instance, in the Kobe earthquake in Japan in
policy-making and in developing a self-contained 1995 measuring 7.2 in Richter Scale, about 6425
capacity to cope with these new stressors. people died whereas in the case of the 2010 Haiti
earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter Scale,
Initially disaster management involved activities more than 316,000 people died. Besides, the
after the occurrence of the disaster such as overall economic loss is also prohibitively high
Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (3R). in the underdeveloped countries which causes
However, radical changes in the concept of further misery to these nations. Hence, reduction
Disaster Management were brought in by the of the effects of any disaster is crucial. Capacity
three World Conferences on Disaster Risk building helps in reducing the effects of disaster.
Reduction, held in Yokohama in May, 1994, in
Hyogo (Kobe) in January, 2005 and in Sendai Figure 1 clearly shows that the three levels
in March, 2015. After these World Conferences, of capacity are interrelated and not mutually
the approach towards disaster management has exclusive. All the three levels need to be taken
shifted from Post-Disaster reactive approach to a into account while determining “who” needs “what
Pre-Disaster proactive approach, from response capacities” for “what purpose”.
to preparedness with prevention and long- The main objective of this chapter on “Capacity
term mitigation measures, involving Planning,
Building” is to highlight how the self-contained
Preparedness and Prevention (3P).
capacity of the society can be strengthened and
Disaster, particularly natural disasters, cannot the strategies to adopt to make people feel more
be prevented but its effects can be reduced. It ready to manage risk and become more resilient.
is generally found that the effects of disaster are Three case studies, each dealing with one natural
less in developed countries in comparison to disaster are elaborated to emphasize on these
developing or underdeveloped countries. Let us aspects.

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 of 1.84 million hectares of land and 75 % of the
standing trees on coastal Odisha. The cyclone
destroyed almost 90% of the coastal vegetation,
besides affecting mangroves and casuarina forest.
Power failure remained for more than 4 weeks
(Kalsi, 2006).
Lots of lessons were learnt from the 1999 Odisha
Super Cyclone.
(i) Creation of a specific organization to coordinate
all activities before, during and after the
cyclone. That is how Odisha State Disaster
Management Authority (OSDMA) was set up
in December, 1999.
(ii) Creation of the first state-wide community-
Figure 1: Source: Adapted from UNISDR (United Nation
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction) based Disaster Risk Governance System.
(iii) Construction of cyclone proof shelter buildings
2. Case studies along the coast.

2.1 Cyclonic Hazard, the case study of India (iv) Forecasting and developing Early Warning
System.
A cyclone is a natural disaster causing high
economic loss besides large human casualties. (v) People from an early age have to be made
7 cases out of 9 recorded cases of loss of aware of the disaster.
human lives of 40,000 or more, took place in Priority was given to Capacity Development.
Indian sub-continent within the past 300 years. Training was provided to more than 23,000 of the
Therefore, Indian sub-continent is the worst most vulnerable villages under the Disaster-Risk
cyclone-affected region in the world. This region Management Programme. This was taken up by
is affected by tropical cyclones in two seasons: emphasizing training at an individual level and at
Pre-Monsoon (April-May) and Post-Monsoon the organisational level, apart from formation of
(October-December). the State Disaster Management Authority, Disaster
In India, Odisha, a state located in the eastern part Management Planning was initiated from village/
adjacent to the Bay of Bengal, is the worst victim Panchayat/Sub-Division/District level. While at the
of cyclones. The latest report on “Vulnerability state level, it was headed by the Chief Secretary;
to cyclones” reveals that Odisha alone is 17% at the District level, it was headed by the District
vulnerable to total cyclones faced by India. Apart Magistrate. Thus, adequate emphasis was given
from this, surge height in the Odisha coast is at the organisational level to create an enabling
very high, in the order of 5-6 m. Cyclonic storms environment. Dedicated Odisha Disaster Rapid
associated with storm surges inundate large tracts Action Force (ODRAF) was created in 2001 to
of Odisha. Thus, during a cyclone, Odisha faces deal with the task of search and rescue. Presently,
heavy wind, intense rainfall and high surge waves. 20 units of ODRAF and 335 units of fire service
people are there. Emergency Communication
In 1999, Odisha encountered a devastating super
in the form of satellite phones is provided. 879
cyclone from 29th-31st October that crossed the
cyclone shelters along with safe drinking water,
port town of Paradip with a wind speed of more
lighting with power back-up etc. have been made.
than 300 kph, killing over 10,000 people. About
18.9 million people were affected with crop losses The Indian Meteorological Department is now

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

capable of tracking the cyclone since its formation Centre (DEOC), Digital Mobile Radios (DMR),
and to know the speed and direction of winds along Mass messaging system at SEOC, Alert Siren
with the place of landfall. Because of this early System at 122 locations near the coast (within
information, there is time for the administration to 1.5 km approximately), Universal Communication
get prepared for the cyclone, and evacuate people Interface. Thanks to this, a person based on a
from the affected areas to save lives. remote corner in the coastal area could be warned
about an impending disaster in a very short time.
It is necessary that such information is disseminated
Simultaneous warnings can be disseminated
to the remotest place. To achieve this, a project
from Block, District and State levels through
“Early Warning Dissemination System (EWDS)
different forms such as sirens, messages, voice
for last mile connectivity has been implemented,
etc. Any information from the State level can be
funded by the World Bank, through which 1,205
communicated to the entire coast of Odisha at the
vulnerable coastal villages within 5 km from
push of a button.
coastline have been covered. It is achieved by
Satellite-Based Mobile Data Voice Terminals All these together improved the Capacity Building.
(SBMDVT) in State Emergency Operation Centre Needless to say, in all these, engineers did play
(SEOC) and District Emergency Operation a vital role.

Table 1. Loss of human lives in different cyclones

The above table clearly indicates the drastic great accomplishment. Similarly, the UN also
reduction of loss of human lives because of the acknowledged the accomplishments for managing
emphasis given to Capacity Building. cyclone Yaas successfully with zero loss of life.
It is to be noted further that during cyclone Phailin Apart from cyclone, occurrence of other natural
(2013), about one million people were evacuated, disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, tsunamis,
whereas during cyclone Fani (2019), 1.2 million storm surges, landslides, thunderstorms are
people were evacuated creating a global record. common features in Indian subcontinent. In order
The long-awaited target to achieve zero human to save life and property in different disasters,
loss, was accomplished in the recent cyclone Disaster Management became a national priority
YAAS (2021). The UN not only congratulated of Government of India (GoI), resulting in the
the Government for such exceptional handling of
formation of the National Disaster Management
cyclone Phani (2013), but also announced that
Authority (NDMA).
it would highlight the efforts of the Government
as a model for disaster management globally. NDMA, headed by the Prime Minister has been
The Govt was commended by the UN for such created in accordance with the enactment of

52
Disaster Management Act 2005, to spearhead years available from the census. Thus, the Atlas of
and implement a holistic and integrated approach 1997 and 2007 are based on censuses of 1991 and
to Disaster Management in India. “It lays down 2001 respectively. The current volume of 2019 is
institutional and coordination mechanisms for based on the 2011 census which helps in evolving
effective Disaster Management at national, micro-level action plans for reducing the impact
state, district and local levels.” National Policy of natural disaster. This Atlas is greatly utilized by
on Disaster Management was adopted in 2009 the State Government and other agencies as a
followed by the National Disaster Management valuable guide, while making engineering plans
Plan in 2016 (NMDP 2016). NMDP 2016 is the for developmental works.
world’s first ever national plan explicitly aligned
After the Gujarat earthquake in 2001, many
with Sendai framework of March 2015.
important changes were introduced to the seismic
It is necessary for a disaster management plan to analysis of structures. Accordingly, the National
be dynamic, which it has to be updated periodically, Building Code (NBC) of India was revised in 2005.
based on the feedback/experience available from It was further updated in 2016 so that resilience
implementation. Accordingly, in November 2019, is imbibed in the structure against earthquake,
NDMP 2016 was revised. NDMP 2019 aims at wind etc.
“enhancing the understanding of stakeholders The above information has been collected from
and further strengthening our capacity to recover Odisha State Disaster Management Authority,
in the wake of natural disasters.” NDMA helps in National Disaster Management Authority and
“adopting a Technology-Driven, Pro-active, Multi- similar other government organisations.
Hazard, and Multi-Sectoral strategy for Building a
Safer, Disaster Resilient and Dynamic India.” 2.2 Volcanic Hazard, the case study of Peru

While making any disaster management The Andean chain has three segments of active
programme involving prevention, mitigation volcanoes. The Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ)
and preparedness; identification of vulnerable extends from 15° to 28°S, in southern Peru
areas which are severely affected by natural and northern Chile, and has produced large
disasters is of prime necessity. Publication of and destructive eruptions throughout history.
the Vulnerability Atlas of India in 1997 is another Populations of this mountainous region, that in few
important step carried out by GoI as a part of its cases are larger than 10,000 inhabitants, occupy
Disaster Management Strategy. Immediately, after valley bottoms often at the foot of volcanoes
the Yokohama World Conference for a safer world because of the richness of soils derived from these
in May 1994, GoI formed an expert group in July structures.
1994 to release a suitable document containing In Peru, the knowledge on the character, intensity,
the vulnerability of different places related to frequency, and products of these eruptions has
various disasters. The expert group came out with gradually improved in the las 30 years thanks
a wonderful document entitled as “Vulnerability to a) strengthening of the monitoring capacity,
Atlas of India” in March 1997 within less than three with the joint efforts of two volcanic observatories
years. This Atlas gives state-wise hazard maps and administered by the National Geophysical
district-wise damage risk table for the country as a Institute (IGP) and the Peru Geological Survey
whole. This document was commended by the UN (INGEMMET), and b) multiple scientific studies
Centre for Human Settlement, Nairobi, Secretariat by Peruvian and mixed teams with French, Irish,
for International Decade for Natural Disaster and US volcanologists (Macedo et al., 2018).
Reduction (IDNDR). This document has also been However, local managers of the Civil Defence
adjudged as a Project with high demonstration Agency understood that this wealth of knowledge
value by IDNDR. This Atlas is interlinked with was not enough to prevent damage and loss of life
population and demographic data for every ten in case of an eruptive event.
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Within the framework of the Multinational Andean • Implementation of a Center for Awareness on
Project – Geoscience for Andean Communities Volcanic Risks in Arequipa, in cooperation with
(MAP-GAC), driven by the geological surveys the National San Agustin University and the
of seven countries of the region and the one Local Office of the National Institute of Civil
of Canada, the program Communicating with Defence (INDECI). Native visitors learned
Communities (ComCom) was set up. ComCom is that Misti, the huge dormant volcano at whose
indeed a methodology aimed at strengthening local feet Arequipa is located, is not only their city
capacities that enable communities to properly guardian and the main tourist attraction, but is
manage their risks. In 2006, under the motto also a major natural hazard.
Transforming knowledge into action, INGEMMET
launched the program that started with a focus on • A drawing competition among 10 to 14-year-old
one large city Arequipa (about 1 million people) students, concerning true volcanic hazards was
and on several small populations around the held. The twelve best figures were included in a
Ubinas volcano, the most active of the country. printed calendar. Private companies supported
The program continues until today. its edition for several years.

Activities of the program were developed with • Promotion of land use plans and other norms
authorities at two different government levels: based upon volcanic hazard maps.One
province/state (gobierno regional), and city/district example of results: Alto Selva Alegre district of
municipalities (gobiernos locales), as well as with Arequipa issued a Municipal Ordinance (201-
schools. The regional office of the Civil Defense 2007 / MDASA, October 2007) establishing
Agency (INDECI) gave strong support. the limits of urban expansion towards the Mist
volcano.
Capacity building was conceived with a large
scope and pointed out to two main objectives: • Technical field workshops, where small
a) Make the population aware of the risk, and b) populations, mostly around Ubinas volcano,
Increase the knowledge and skills of local DRM were guided to organize themselves into
technical officers (Macedo et al., 2010). task-oriented teams to execute processes
To achieve these objectives, the main activities of risk prevention and reduction, as well as
include: basic preparedness and response in case
of imminent eruption. A practical evacuation
• The annual scientific and technical meeting exercise was included.
“Volcanic Hazards Forum”, where outstanding
international speakers shared knowledge T h e e ff e c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s p r o g r a m w a s
with young Peruvian volcanologists receiving demonstrated during two eruptive crises of
training, and issues on volcanic hazards were the Ubinas volcano, in 2013 and 2019. Early
discussed with authorities and civil society warning and first response were managed by
officers of the Red Cross, fire and rescue local authorities, while state support was being
brigades, engineers, and first aid teams. prepared and sent to the site.

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 Figure 2: Walls were built along the limit for urban expansion to warn about the risk. Neighbors are voluntarily
entrusted with preventing invasions by squatters. Alto Selva Alegre district, Arequipa (Photo by Henry Pareja).

2.3 Seismic Hazard, the case study of The typhoons with wind speeds from 120 kph. They
Philippines move generally in a west-northwest direction at 15
kph on the average, intensifying as they approach
The Philippines is one of the most hazard-prone
the Philippine Sea. Winds of 200 kph or more
countries in the world. It is regularly subjected
can be observed in typhoons approaching the
to various hazards because of its geologic and
shores. On the average, 20 typhoons occur in the
geographic conditions. The Philippines is an
Philippines within the period from July to November
earthquake prone country where at least five
each year [1,2] (De la Cruz, 2021).
earthquakes occur per day. The 1990 Luzon
earthquake which affected Baguio and Dagupan Efforts in Disaster Risk Reduction in the Philippines
was one of the most destructive earthquakes that are centred in the National Disaster Risk Reduction
hit the country so far. A more recent earthquake and Management Council (NDRRMC). The
in 2013 was the 7.2-magnitude Bohol Earthquake NDRRMC was created to consolidate various
which destroyed cultural heritage structures government efforts in mitigating disasters. The
in Bohol and Cebu. The high seismicity of the council was enacted by Republic Act 10121,
Philippines is due to the plate interactions, otherwise known as the “Philippine Disaster Risk
displacements along the Philippine Fault Zone Reduction and Management Act of 2010.”
which decouples the northwestward motion of
Under the council, the Department of Science
the Pacific with the south eastward motion of the
and Technology (DOST) continuously develops
Eurasian, and movements along other active faults
important information about different hazards
such as the Lubang, Casiguran and Mindanao
affecting the country. Through its attached agencies,
faults (PHILVOLCS et al., 2020).
the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and
Among others, the Philippines has 22 active Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA)
volcanoes including Pinatubo, is subjected and the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
to tropical depressions, tropical cyclones and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), DOST launched Project

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

NOAH (Nationwide Operational Assessment of The Philippine Republic Act 10066 of 2009, or the
Hazards). Project NOAH provides the public live Act providing for the protection and Conservation
advisory about flood warnings, rainfall advisory, of the National Cultural Heritage, Strengthening
landslide information, storm surge, tsunamis and the National Commission for Culture and the Arts
the like. Another project under DOST is project (NCCA) and its Affiliated Cultural Agencies and for
DREAM (Disaster Risk and Exposure Assessment other purposes, establishes the national policy of
for Mitigation). Project DREAM is implemented by the country. The main provisions cover the policies
the University of the Philippines. and principles, definition of terms, cultural property,
heritage zones, registration and conservation of
PAGASA is the foremost government agency
cultural property, regulating the export, transit,
handling climatologically related events, whereas
PHIVOLCS handles geologically related events. import and repatriation of cultural property, powers
Independently, PHIVOLCS develops hazard maps of the commission and cultural agencies, role
for seismic-triggered events. These include - but of cultural agencies, cultural property incentive
are not limited to - landslide susceptibility, ground program, cultural education, cultural workers
shaking, soil liquefaction potential, fault maps and incentive program, Sentro Rizal, penal provisions,
tsunami. endowment and final provisions.

Another agency known as the National Mapping In the provision for powers and roles of commission
and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) and cultural agencies, few main agencies
provides geographic maps of the country. These coordinate closely in the protection of built heritage
maps are crucial in determining flood plain areas structures that have national significance both
and low-lying areas prone to landslides. A recent historical and cultural. Among them, are:
project of the agency was able to develop a digital 1) The National Commission for Culture and the
surface model and digital terrain model of the Arts (NCCA), the highest policy making body of
country through the use of Light Detection and the country, established in 1992. It has a Sub
Ranging (LIDAR). NAMRIA is an attached agency commission for Cultural Heritage composed of
of the Department of Environment and Natural national committees on monuments and sites,
Resources. museums and galleries, libraries, archives, and
This information can be obtained from various historical research.
government agencies and non-government 2) The National Historical Commission of the
organizations. Some information is accessible Philippines (NHCP), formerly the National
on the websites of these agencies. The hazard Historical Institute, was reconstituted by
information is usually in the form of hazard changing the nomenclature of the National
maps. Historical Institute into the National Historical
Single and multi-hazard assessment procedures Commission of the Philippines, Strengthening
are an on-going developing and collective its Powers and Functions, and for Other
effort, both at national and global level in the Purposes. It is responsible for significant
Philippines. movable and immovable cultural property that
pertains to Philippine history, heroes and the
The legislative framework of cultural heritage conservation of historical artefacts.
conservation in the Philippines is composed of
enacted laws and governing bodies mandated to 3) The National Museum (NM) of the Philippines
implement the legislation. This framework may was reorganized with the aim of providing for
be simplistically drawn and discussed but the Its Permanent Home and for Other Purposes.
dynamics of the agencies and their coverage It shall be responsible for significant movable
represent a complicated landscape of the heritage and immovable cultural and natural property
sector. pertaining to collections of fine arts, archaeology,

56
 anthropology, botany, zoology and astronomy Visayas and the super Typhoon Yolanda, which
including the conservation aspects. severely affected 14 provinces in the Visayas.
4) The Intramuros Administration (IA) was Several centuries-old cultural heritage structures
established during the Marcos Administration. were seriously damaged, with some even totally
The mandate was primarily for the restoration destroyed. The Department of Tourism (DoT)
and administration of the development expressed the urgent need to improve the
of Intramuros, the inner city of Manila. resilience of these types of structures to natural
Organizationally, this agency is under the disasters to ensure that their cultural, historical
supervision of the Department of Tourism. and economic value is sustained and continues to
For the Multihazard Vulnerability Project, the contribute to the overall development of the areas
Administration facilitated the documentation of where they are located.
significant fortifications like the Fort Santiago
In the case of the Philippines, capacity building
and Baluarte de San Diego. started with the events in 2015 and the collaboration
The organizations and their jurisdictions provided the began in 2016. Such collaboration and mutual
legislative framework for the heritage conservation enriching exchange of support is still ongoing.
framework of the country. The local community has learnt the methods and
mastered the tools for managing multi-hazard
1) The Department of Tourism (DOT) and its
vulnerability, has proven willing to continue
attached agencies are primarily responsible
learning and is still keen to investigate and keep
to encourage, promote, and develop tourism
up-to-date with ongoing research happening in
in the country. The DoT is responsible for the
the rest of the world. However, they have also
protection of cultural property supplemental to
provided invaluable help to external experts to
the jurisdiction of the cultural agencies.
get to know more in detail their building portfolios,
2) The Tourism Infrastructure and Enterprise Zone their peculiarities and their unreported building
Authority (TIEZA), is a government corporation types. That has represented an incredible step
created to replace the Philippine Tourism towards knowledge exchange which is at the core
Authority (PTA). TIEZA acts as Department of capacity building and resilient societies.
of Tourism’s and is mandated to designate, 3. Key messages
regulate and supervise the Tourism Enterprise
Zones (TEZs) nationwide, particularly of For proper disaster risk management including
cultural, economic and environmentally improving Capacity Building of all stakeholders,
sustainable developments of TEZs to encourage the following actions ought to be taken up by each
investments. country:

The Filipino community is very much involved 1. Creating a nodal organisation to coordinate all
in taking active part in DRM efforts as well as activities before, during and after the disaster.
providing help on a voluntary basis. After the 2. Making a Vulnerability Atlas of the entire country
2013 earthquake and typhoon events, the local identifying the vulnerable areas affected by
community actively engaged in helping with debris different natural disasters.
removal, and preparing the field for experts to
conduct field investigation and work on multi- 3. Updating the engineering codes of practice to
hazard vulnerability assessment frameworks which design and build disaster-resilient structures.
could help the community become more resilient. 4. Imparting training to the people about “Dos and
Don’ts “during the disaster.
Examples of such keen engagement have been
reported in recent publications following the 2013 5. a Risk-awareness and involvement in its
earthquake which struck Bohol Island in Central management should start from childhood.

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Afterwards, the active participation in DRM H. & Amache R. (2010). Proceso de difusión de
activities is perceived to be normal to everyone. la información geocientífica para prevención de
Thus, the continuous capacity maintenance desastres. XV Congr. Peruano Geol., Sociedad
comes from inside. Geológica del Perú Pub. Esp. N° 9, 482-485.
6. Fulfilling the everyone´s role is best performed Macedo O., Taipe E., Del Carpio J., Ticona J.,
when the local DRM system is built by all the Ramos D., Puma N., Aguilar V., Machacca
community stakeholders instead of when it is R., Torres J., Cueva K., Cruz J., Lazarte I.,
prepared by third parties and handed over as Centeno R., Miranda R., Álvarez Y., Masías P.,
a turnkey system. Vilca J., Apaza F., Chijcheapaza R., Calderón
4. References J., Cáceres J., Vela J. (2018). Evaluación del
riesgo volcánico en el sur del Perú, situación
De la Cruz G. (2021). 2020 tropical cyclones in de la vigilancia actual y requerimientos de
the Philippines: A review. Trop. Cyclone Res. monitoreo en el futuro. Tech. Rept. IGP,
& Rev., 10 (3), 191-199 INGEMMET, UNSA, 75 p.
Kalsi S.R. (2006). Orissa super cyclone – PHIVOLCS, Johnson K., & Styron R. (2020).
A Synopsis. MAUSAM, 57, 1, 1-20. DOI: Philippines. GEM Global Mosaic of Hazards
551.515.2 (541.5) Model web, https://hazard.openquake.org/gem/
Macedo L., Muñoz F., Alfaro M., Vásquez J., Pareja models/PHL/

58
 CHAPTER V
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AND
PUBLIC POLICIES
José Macharéa, Myles Lindb, Lizett Lópezc
a
National University of Engineering, Peru, [email protected]
b
Institute of Public Works Engineering Australasia, New Zealand, [email protected]
c
National University of Engineering, Peru, [email protected]

1. Introduction also reflects the performance of processes that

are evaluated based on their outcomes. Thus,
Institutionality is defined simply as the quality
a suitable institutional structure provides an
of being institutional – (i.e. being intended to
adequate framework for the set-up of public
regulate behaviors within an organization or
policies, governance and actions.
entire societies). Applied to communities, it
is referred to as the stage of social evolution Disaster Risk Management (DRM), as a social
marked by the conversion of customary relations process, operates through a system formed
into true institutions (The Century Dictionary). As by four interlinked components: a hardware
customary relations are numerous and complex, (infrastructure, equipment and instruments), a
conversion is gradual, and therefore it exists in software (policy documents, norms, and manuals),
different degrees. The degree of Institutionality financial support and human capital (planners,
reflects the extent to which a society supports decision-makers, managers, and operators) (figure
its processes and relies on its institutions. This 1).

Figure 1. General components of a system, in this case applied to a Disaster Risk Management System at country level

This system becomes complex since similar these organizations are interlinked and have
structures are embedded in every organization specific roles within the DRM macroprocess (figure
composing the national system (e.g. government 2). Each stage of the DRM cycle is linked to a set of
agencies, scientific and academic entities, policies and an institutional framework that, when
non-governmental organizations and private executed through specific plans and programs,
companies). From national to local in scope, all can provide a reduction in vulnerability.

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

Figure 2. Schematic links among clustered institutions (squares) with given roles within the DRM system

The general objective of reducing vulnerability 4) The most challenging component is human
(i.e. losses and damage) can be achieved if the capital. The formation of experts requires a
process is duly completed. This result is possible long and sustained effort in the countries’
only with a fully functional and resilient system, with educational policy. Poorly integrated societies
the inter-institutional links functioning correctly. suffer from a higher likelihood of corruption
The effectiveness of every relational link depends occurring within the different processes of the
on each of the other interlinked components DRM macroprocess. Large events of natural or
functioning in harmony and operating as a single man-made hazards impact and disrupt these
inter-linked system. countries to the greatest extent.
At a country level, there are different schemes
Analyzing the possible sources of weakness in a
to manage risks, emergencies and disasters
DRM system draws the following observations:
themselves, and everyone is based on a system
1) The financial aspect is on the frontline. The interlinked with the DRM components. International
lower the country’s relative income, the higher agreements such as the Hyogo Framework for
the vulnerability and risk level. This d, generally Action for building the resilience of nations and
post an event, with international aid. communities to disasters (2005-2015), the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-
2) The hardware is reliant on the existing 2030) and the Sustainable Development Goals
technological assets available. This weakness (2015-2030), for the signatory countries, creates
can be addressed by purchasing or creating a commitment to advance the development and
the required elements. implementation of the agreement outcomes. Thus,
3) Policies and norms are usually developed by in order to improve the actions of the Governments
experts based on international experiences and in disaster management, they have designed and
frameworks and adapting the best practices implemented public policies, as well as created
and sought to strengthen institutions.
to local conditions; thus, the risk of having
ineffective policies is reduced. The benefit to a country in institutionalizing

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DRM ultimately rests in the community, over and its response. However, the members of the
the generations of people, being more readily community change with time, and if there is a
able and consistently practiced at reducing risks longer period between natural hazard events, the
and preparing for, responding to and recovering communities learned responses can be forgotten
more quickly from natural hazard emergencies, or dulled.
independent of country or community leadership.
In general, countries that have a higher recurrence
2. Disaster Risk Management in a Local Context probability of natural hazard events and that have
applied a risk-based approach to DRM, often
By their nature, natural hazard events that
demonstrate two key common responses. In these
require a DRM response from the community,
countries, it is often seen that there is a consistent
have occurrences that can be determined
and long-standing recognition of the need to have
probabilistically. Said another way, these events
an institutional framework that weaves DRM
are not a typical part of the communities ‘normal’
responses and training into people’s everyday
day-to-day functioning or activities. Due to the
lives, supported by the need to have a trusted,
general infrequency of these natural hazard
community-wide understanding of communications
events on a single community, to improve its
and information sharing.
resilience and minimize the disruption of such
events, a community needs to implement a risk- 3. National policy frameworks on resilience in
based approach to its technical systems (built OECD countries
environment), economic systems, and social
Collaboration with other levels of government is
systems to improve its resilience to stressor
recognized as one of the key drivers to ensuring
events.
a coherent and integrated approach to resilience
Around the world we continue to see technical (OECD, 2021). Many national governments have
systems progressively improve to become more plans for reinforcing their countries’ resilience.
resilient to stressor events. The continued evolution In OECD countries that have national policy
and refinement of engineering design standards, frameworks on resilience, nearly all refer to the role
building code regulations and construction of cities or subnational governments for building
standards are all good examples of applying a national resilience in the respective national policy
risk-based approach to keep the community safe frameworks. These nations are aware of the
and able to function pre, during and post an event. importance of local actions for resilience through:
Economic systems are increasing transitioning to 1) Emphasizing that local authorities are primarily
on-line and digital platforms. The days of having responsible for building resilience (e.g. the
to write a check or make payments with (physical) “Fundamental Plan for National Resilience –
money have changed significantly. Much of society Creating a Strong and Resilient Country” in
can complete transactions from almost anywhere Japan (2014); and
in the world, at any time.
2) Promoting intense co-operation and sharing of
However, the evolution of the social system of the best practices at all levels of government (e.g.
community is more challenging. Countries that have Israel’s “Sustainability Outlook 2030” (2012)).
a higher recurrence probability of a natural hazard
It is also noted that some resilience frameworks
events are often better at embedding the disaster
include very specific roles and missions for cities.
response practices into the community as part of
everyday life. The members of these communities 4. Case studies
have a heightened awareness of the risks these
4.1 Strengthening the Chilean institutional
events can cause, and through repeated exposure
framework for DRM
to the risk events, the community is practiced in
knowing how to respond and manage the event Due to its location in the “Pacific Ring of Fire”,

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

the Chilean territory faces various geophysical and Development. In addition, this disaster event
hazards, such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, enabled improvements to ONEMI, modernizing
and volcanic eruptions among others. In addition its protocols and incorporating new technology,
to these hazards, there is a significant increase in as well as legal regulations that allow for a rapid
vulnerabilities, which are expressed in a greater response to emergencies and reconstruction
concentration of people in sectors of the cities processes.
that are not safe enough to be inhabited (social
Following the recommendations in the
construction of risk) (Martinez et al, 2017). The
implementation of the Hyogo Framework, the
occurrence of disasters has caused high levels
Charter of the National Platform for Disaster Risk
of fatalities, as well as considerable damage to
Reduction in Chile was signed in 2012, creating an
property. On average, between 1980 and 2011,
advisory body to ONEMI. This national platform’s
Chile recorded losses of close to 1.2% of its GDP
function is to achieve full incorporation of DRM into
per annum due to natural disasters (CREDEN,
the policies, planning and development programs
2016).
of Chile. Following up on this elaborated the
Due to its history of natural disasters, Chile has National Policy for Disaster Risk Management
created institutions, developed laws and practices 2014 was drawn up, and from this a National
over the years which seek to address earthquakes. Strategic Plan for Disaster Risk Management
Among these, the 1929 General Law of Urbanism (2015-2018) has been derived.
and Construction, which prescribed the first
seismic codes, including the definition of materials, The National Policy for Disaster Risk Management
construction procedures, among others, including (figure 3) was the first national instrument setting
the 1965 Law on Earthquakes and Disasters (Law out a requirement for DRM reductions. This
No. 16.282). The institutional framework for dealing national policy is intended to become a guiding
with disasters gained greater focus in 1974 with framework that aligns different sectoral and
the creation of the National Emergency Office territorial initiatives in order to effectively reduce
of the Ministry of Interior (Oficina Nacional de the country’s exposure to disaster risk.
Emergencia del Ministerio del Interior, ONEMI), Chile is recognized worldwide for its ability to
which holds the mandate to coordinate the national recover relatively quickly after the occurrence of
response to disasters and coordinate international a disaster, progress has been made to mitigate
disaster relief efforts. The activities of ONEMI were the major impact of natural disasters, improve the
mostly focused on the emergency response rather State’s emergency response and reconstruction,
than on prevention. and build the resilience of communities. For
In 2002, the order to decentralize ONEMI’s example, the use of early warnings and rapid
activities, the National Civil Protection System response has been implemented, government
was implemented. This order sought to better assistance policies have also been created, and
enable DRM through public and private sector appropriate infrastructure design regulations have
participation, including volunteer organizations been incorporated, among others (CREDEN,
throughout the community, and through planned 2016).
actions with a focus on risk management. As However, the country has been discussing
well as disaster response, the 2002 National the need to move towards a resilience and
Civil Protection Plan also instituted prevention disaster risk reduction approach, as well as the
management activities in Chile. modernization of the institutional framework
The rapid recovery after the 2010 Maule for DRM. From different sectors, it was
earthquake was a key factor in Chile becoming observed that the institutional framework does
the first Latin American country to be invited to not effectively enable collaboration between
join the Organization for Economic Cooperation territorial planning (i.e. land occupation) and

62
 Figure 3. Chilean National Policy for Disaster Risk Management (CEDMHA, 2017)

risk management (i.e. prevention, emergency led institutional framework that embeds DRM
management, post-disaster reconstruction), responses into the community’s everyday life. It is
which is considered a strong limitation to the based on a similar system used in that recognizes
creation of resilient cities. the benefits of; common training standards, regular
As a follow-up, in July 2021, the Law that reviews and international compatibility.
establishes the National System for Disaster Embedding the Framework
Prevention and Response (SINAPRED) and the
The government of New Zealand passed the
National Service for Disaster Prevention and
Civil Defence Emergency Management (CDEM)
Response (SENAPRED) was enacted to replace
Act in 2002. The CDEM Act creates a legislated,
the National Civil Protection System and ONEMI.
nation-wide framework within which New Zealand
This new scheme seeks to update, strengthen,
people can prepare for, deal with, and recover
standardize and make these new institutions more more quickly from local, regional and national
binding to achieve standards of excellence in DRM emergencies.
focused on prevention and territoriality.
The National Emergency Management Agency
4.2 Observations on Institutionality in Aotearoa (NEMA) is the government headquarters for
New Zealand Institutional Framework emergency management in New Zealand. NEMA
Like other countries that have a higher recurrence is an operationally autonomous agency with its
probability of a natural hazard events, New own chief executive within the Department of the
Zealand (Aotearoa) has a federal government Prime Minister and Cabinet and separate from
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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

the Department of Internal Affairs. NEMA’s key management doctrine that agencies use to manage
functions to the Department of the Prime Minister incidents. Doctrine is the body of principles and
and Cabinet, are steward, operator and assurer practices that guide an agency’s action. Doctrine
of the New Zealand emergency management informs the scope, material and types of training.
system. Specifically, NEMA is required to provide Training is then designed and delivered to best
leadership in reducing risk, being prepared for, support an operational response (figure 4). New
responding to and recovering from emergencies. Zealand experience suggests that doctrine is
(NEMA, 2022). not applied during an operational response if
the training programmes are inappropriate. An
New Zealand has a National Disaster Resilience
important feedback loop is ensuring that the
Strategy (NDRS) which outlines the vision and
lessons from the operational response are used
long-term goals for civil defence emergency
to update and revise the doctrine.
management in New Zealand. The NDRS sets out
what the Government of New Zealand requires with
respect to New Zealand being a resilient country,
and what it expects to achieve and improve over
the next 10 years.
The NDRS is supported by the National Civil
Defence Emergency Management Plan (CDEMP).
The CDEMP, which is also a Government
document, sets out the roles and responsibilities
of everyone involved in reducing risks and
preparing for, responding to and recovering from
emergencies. This includes central and local
government, lifeline utilities, emergency services
and non-government organizations.
First developed in 1998, the Coordinated Incident Figure 4. The core interdependencies for
Management System (CIMS) represents New institutionalizing DRM
Zealand’s official framework for operational
The core foundation is that the institutionalization
delivery of incident management and coordination
of DRM in New Zealand is based on the recognition
across responding agencies to an emergency
that where you have people marginalized, you will
or hazard event. CIMS describes in detail how
often leave people behind and the community is
New Zealand agencies and organizations (i.e.
adversely affected. In response the institutionalized
fire-fighters, police, hospitals, schools, border
approach in New Zealand seeks to support and
control, defense, local councils, etc.) coordinate,
protect the community through:
command, and control incident response of any
scale, how the response can be structured, and • Central Government leadership at the highest
the relationships between the respective CIMS level, written into legislation, which has a strong
functions and between the levels of response. community focus.
Importantly, throughout New Zealand, there • An agile and flexible event response framework
are regular training and specific hazard event that can be used for small to large responses,
practice sessions for responding agencies, and the and from local incident level through to national
community is to continually develop and grow the disaster level.
available capability and capacity of the response
• Well trained, coordinated and supported
system for when it will be needed in the future.
response agencies and local community
CIMS is an element of New Zealand emergency members through practiced scenario events.

64
• Highlighting the importance of the inclusion of Warrant of Fitness and safety/condition
indigenous peoples in response and recovery. inspection requirements
A key aspect of the New Zealand approach is • Qualifications – Washington Accord level
its foundation of DRM mitigation policies and engineering qualifications combined with
activities. These foundations are built around national registers of engineers who are qualified
the core aspects: regulations, qualifications and and have the experience to undertake specialist
simulations (figure 5). engineering work i.e. structural/building
foundation/geotechnical engineering, traffic
• Regulations –building quality standards
safety and fire engineering.
(Standards New Zealand, 2022), mandatory
building system requirements (i.e. fire • Simulations – regular use and refinement of
management systems), continuously improving computer models (nationally and regionally)
seismic standards and government set to identify and map zones of vulnerable land,
timeframes to implement, regular Building earthquake effects and flood hazard risks etc.

Figure 5. Improve resilience .. Embed resilience.

Ensuring Trusted Communication experts (i.e. science, engineering and/or medical)

It was reported by the UN that between 2000 – community impact and fatality rates will generally
2019 there were 7,348 major disasters events be higher.
around the world (Nebehay, 2020), twice as many Key lessons from New Zealand on increasing the
as in the previous 20 years. But disaster fatalities social system response and resilience to stressor
are diminishing. It has been recognized that
events include:
communication throughout the community is a key
factor in reducing the impacts of stressor events • Community leadership needs to be based on a
on the community. Where community leaders have system of public trust in the communications of
not accepted the advice of the specialist technical the leaders and it is difficult to have (or restore)

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World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO) and Colegio de Ingenieros del Perú (CIP)

community trust when DRM messages become institutions can be managed through international
political. cooperation, the human component appears as the
most complicated. Strong anticorruption policies
• The focus of communications with the
should be enforced to improve results.
community requires the placement of the
health and wellbeing of the people at the top The process to institutionalize DRM throughout
of the communications priority. More successful a country requires consistent investment over
responses to a stressor events requires leaders many years, independent of the leadership of
to take the people with them – having public that country. There are efficiencies and other
health and wellbeing as the key priority supports advantages in seeking to use systems and
this outcome. approaches that have been proven to work in
• If the communications are not risk-informed, they other countries. Creating a level of international
do not best serve the community. Employing compatibility ensures that agencies, personnel and
the best non-political expert advice available community members in general, can operate and
(pre, during and post) – i.e. geotechnical, respond effectively when overseas. In addition,
medical, flood, other risk / hazard mapping, response agencies can more easily analyze and
earth quake modelling is essential. incorporate learnings from overseas experiences.

• It is important that leaders and response During times of response to natural and other
agencies communicate clearly what they know disaster events, ensuring and retaining public
and admit to what they don’t know. trust is essential. This is because during response
events, communications are often focussed on
• When dealing with technical topics (i.e. storm
preserving life, preventing an escalation of the
surge), language that the community in general
emergency and providing essential services.
can understand is important, including how the
There are times during a response when some
public will be impacted.
members of the community may perceive that
• Accurate forecasts of events need to be what is being requested of them in support of
communicated in terms that clearly set out the the response impacts their freedoms or human
scale and extents of any public impact. rights. Being able to maintain law and order and
• The most critical element of risk event best responding to the needs of the many during
communications is trust. Asking people to these events is heavily reliant on public trust
“please stay home / leave your home” from in the communications of government leaders.
government officials to the community requires Communications during times of response benefit
trust. These communications are best made on from being risk-informed, non-political and having
the factual basis on which the government is community health and wellbeing at their core.
putting the response measures in place. Incentives must be created to ensure that the
5. Key messages rules of the game in DRM are well executed, by
strengthening the institutional framework and
Disaster risk management systems are complex improving regulations through the promoting of
systems, operated by a number of institutions with intense cooperation and sharing of best practices
an intricate web of links relating them to each other. at all levels of government.
A robust and healthy institutional framework allows
Generate an integrated, systematized and updated
the optimal operation of DRM systems, and thus
public database. This is of vital importance to
the achievement of goals concerning the reduction
stimulate research, provide information to citizens
of loss and damage upon the occurrence of a
and facilitate the formulation of long-term public
hazardous event.
policies for mitigation, preparedness, prevention,
While the financial and technical components of the response and recovery.

66
Although the general components of the DRM Públicas: ¿Se reduce el riesgo de Desastres en
system need to be centralized, there are benefits Chile? In: Vial, C, y Hernández, J. (Ed.) “¿Para
to DRM activities being decentralized and qué Descentralizar? Centralismo y Políticas
emphasizing that local authorities are primarily Públicas en Chile: Análisis y Evaluación por
responsible for building resilience through Sectores”. Universidad Autónoma de Chile. P.
enabling public and private sector participation, 153-180.
including volunteer organizations throughout the
Nebehay S. (2020). Natural disasters surge in
community, through planned actions with focus on
past 20 years, likely to continue to wreak
risk management.
havoc: U.N. Reuters Environment. https://www.
6. References reuters.com/article/us-environment-disasters-
un-idUSKBN26X18O
CEDMHA (2017). Chile-Disaster Management
References Handbook. Center for Excellence NEMA (2022). https://www.civildefence.govt.nz/
in Disaster Management and Humanitarian
OECD (2021). National policy frameworks on
Assistance. 97 p.
resilience in OECD countries. https://www.
Comisión Nacional para la Resiliencia Frente a oecd.org/cfe/regionaldevelopment/national-
Desastres de Origen Natural (2016). Hacia policy-resilience-frameworks.pdf
un Chile resiliente frente a desastres: Una
Standards New Zealand (2022). Building-related
oportunidad. CNID Ed., 175 p.
standards. https://www.standards.govt.nz/
Martinez, C., Tamburini, L., Moris, R. (2017). get-standards/sponsored-standards/building-
Gestión del riesgo, descentralización y Políticas related-standards/

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