BANC 103: Archaeological Anthropology

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

(TMA)

Course Code: BANC 103

Assignment Code: BANC 103/ASST/TMA/ 2024-25
Total Marks: 100
Read the instructions carefully and answer accordingly. There are three Sections in the
Assignment. Answer all questions from all the Sections.

Assignment I

Answer the following in about 500 words each. 20x2=40

a. What is Archaeological Anthropology? Discuss its scope
b. What is exploration in Archaeological studies? Briefly discuss various methods of exploration.

Assignment 11

Answer any two of the following questions in about 250 words each. 10x2=20
a. Attirampakkam
b. Describe different Lower Palaeolithic stone tools with suitable diagrams
c. Briefly discuss the Megalithic culture of South India.

Answer the following questions in about 50 words each. 2x5=10

a. Three Age system
b. Excavation
c¢. Carbon dating method
d. Ethnoarchaeology
e. Olduvai Gorge
Assignment IT1

Answer the following questions in about 250 words 10x3=30

a. Briefly describe any two stone tool making techniques with suitable diagrams
b. Briefly discuss various core tools with suitable diagrams
¢. What is a Blade tool? Describe various Blade tool types with suitable diagrams.
 BANC-103: Archaeological
Anthropology

Course Code: BANC 103

Assignment Code: BANC 103/ASST/TMA/ 2024-25
Total Marks: 100
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Read the instructions carefully and answer accordingly. There are three Sections
in the Assignment. Answer all questions from all the Sections.

Assignment 1

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

a. What is Archaeological Anthropology? Discuss its scope.

Archaeological Anthropology: Scope and Significance

Archaeological Anthropology, a subfield of anthropology, focuses on the study of past
human societies through their material remains. It combines principles from
archaeology and anthropology to understand human behavior, cultural development,
and social organization over time. This interdisciplinary approach allows researchers
to reconstruct ancient lifeways, social structures, and cultural practices by analyzing
artifacts, features, and ecofacts left behind by past societies.

Scope of Archaeological Anthropology

1. Historical Reconstruction: Archaeological Anthropology plays a crucial role
in reconstructing historical narratives by analyzing material evidence. Through
excavations and surveys, archaeologists uncover artifacts such as pottery, tools,
and burial items that provide insights into the daily lives of ancient peoples. By
dating these artifacts and studying their contexts, archaeologists can piece
together historical timelines, societal changes, and interactions between
different cultures.
 Cultural Evolution: One of the primary goals of Archaeological
Anthropology is to trace the evolution of human cultures. This involves
examining how societies developed from simple to complex forms, including
the rise of agriculture, urbanization, and technological advancements. By
analyzing settlement patterns, architectural remains, and artifacts,
archaeologists can study how cultural practices, social structures, and economic
systems evolved over millennia.

. Understanding Social Structures: Archaeological Anthropology provides

valuable insights into the social organization of past societies. By studying
burial practices, domestic architecture, and spatial organization, archaeologists
can infer social hierarchies, kinship structures, and community organization.
For example, the distribution of grave goods in burial sites can reveal
information about social status and wealth distribution within a society.
. Human Adaptation and Environmental Interaction: The study of human-
environment interactions is another key aspect of Archaeological
Anthropology. Researchers analyze how ancient societies adapted to their
environments and managed resources. This includes studying agricultural
practices, settlement patterns, and subsistence strategies. By examining plant
and animal remains, archaeologists can reconstruct past climates and
environmental conditions, shedding light on how societies responded to
environmental changes.

. Technology and Innovation: Archaeological Anthropology also focuses on

technological development and innovation. By analyzing tools, pottery, and
other artifacts, researchers can trace the technological advancements of ancient
societies. This includes studying the development of metallurgy, ceramics, and
transportation technologies. Understanding technological progress helps
researchers comprehend how innovations influenced societal changes and
interactions.

Cultural Exchange and Interaction: The study of cultural exchange and

interaction is essential for understanding the dynamics of past societies.
Archaeological evidence of trade networks, migration patterns, and cultural
diffusion provides insights into how different cultures influenced each other.
By analyzing artifacts from various regions, archaeologists can trace the
movement of goods, ideas, and technologies across different societies.

. Preservation and Conservation: Archaeological Anthropology emphasizes

the importance of preserving and conserving cultural heritage. Researchers
work to protect and manage archaeological sites to prevent damage and ensure
that future generations can study and learn from these sites. This includes
developing strategies for site management, artifact conservation, and public
education about the significance of archaeological findings.
 8. Public Engagement and Education: Engaging the public and educating them
about archaeological discoveries is a significant aspect of Archaeological
Anthropology. Researchers often work with museums, educational institutions,
and local communities to share their findings and raise awareness about the
importance of preserving cultural heritage. Public outreach initiatives help
foster a greater appreciation for the past and its relevance to contemporary
issues.

. Ethical Considerations: Archaeological Anthropology involves ethical

considerations related to the treatment of human remains and cultural artifacts.
Researchers must navigate issues of cultural sensitivity, repatriation, and the
rights of descendant communities. Ethical practices in archaeology ensure that
research is conducted with respect for the cultural and historical significance of
the artifacts and sites being studied.

Conclusion

Archaeological Anthropology offers a comprehensive understanding of human history

by examining material remains from past societies. Its scope encompasses historical
reconstruction, cultural evolution, social structures, environmental interactions,
technological advancements, cultural exchange, preservation, public engagement, and
ethical considerations. By integrating archaeological and anthropological methods,
this field provides valuable insights into the complexities of human behavior, cultural
development, and societal change over time. Through ongoing research and discovery,
Archaeological Anthropology continues to enrich our understanding of the human past
and its relevance to contemporary society.

b. What is exploration in Archaeological studies? Briefly discuss various methods

of exploration.

Exploration in Archaeological Studies: Methods and Approaches

Exploration in archaeological studies refers to the systematic search for, and initial
assessment of, archaeological sites and artifacts. This phase is crucial for
understanding human history and prehistory, as it lays the groundwork for more
detailed excavation and analysis. The methods used in archaeological exploration are
diverse and aim to locate and evaluate sites, assess their significance, and guide
subsequent research strategies.

Methods of Exploration
1. Survey: Surveys are systematic fieldwork methods used to locate and
document archaeological sites. There are several types of surveys:

o Pedestrian Survey: This involves walking over a designated area while

systematically recording surface artifacts and features. Teams of
archaeologists typically walk in parallel transects to ensure thorough
 coverage. This method is particularly useful in regions with well-
preserved surface remains.

Aerial Survey: Aerial photography or satellite imagery is employed to

identity potential archaeological sites. High-resolution images can
reveal features such as ancient roads, settlement patterns, and field
systems that are not visible from the ground. This method is beneficial
for detecting large-scale features and assessing landscape changes.

Geophysical Survey: Techniques such as ground-penetrating radar

(GPR), magnetometry, and electrical resistivity are used to detect sub-
surface anomalies. These methods help locate buried structures,
features, and artifacts without excavation. Geophysical surveys are
valuable for assessing the potential of a site before deciding on
excavation.

2. Site Testing: Site testing involves preliminary excavation to assess the extent,
depth, and significance of a site. This method helps archaeologists determine
whether a site is worth further excavation. Key techniques include:

o Test Pits: Small, carefully measured excavation units are dug at

strategic locations to obtain samples of artifacts and soil. Test pits
provide information about the site's stratigraphy, artifact density, and
potential for further study.

Trial Trenches: Larger excavation trenches are opened to explore the

site more comprehensively. These trenches help researchers understand
the site’s layout, stratigraphy, and the distribution of artifacts and
features.

3. Remote Sensing: Remote sensing technologies allow archaeologists to explore

and map sites from a distance. Key remote sensing methods include:

o Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging): Lidar uses laser pulses to create
high-resolution, three-dimensional maps of the landscape. This method
can penetrate vegetation and reveal hidden structures, such as ancient
cities or agricultural terraces.

Thermal Imaging: Thermal cameras detect variations in temperature on

the ground surface. These variations can indicate the presence of buried
features, such as walls or ditches, which have different thermal
properties than the surrounding soil.

Magnetometry: This technique measures variations in the Earth's

magnetic field caused by the presence of magnetic materials, such as
those found in fired clay or kiln residues. Magnetometry helps identify
buried structures and features.
4. Historical and Archival Research: Before fieldwork begins, archaeologists
often conduct historical and archival research to gather background information
on potential sites. This research includes:

o Reviewing Historical Documents: Historical records, maps, and

written accounts can provide clues about past human activities and
locations of interest. This information helps guide exploration efforts
and identifies areas with historical significance.

Consulting Local Knowledge: Engaging with local communities and

indigenous groups can provide valuable insights into the location and
significance of archaeological sites. Oral histories and traditional
knowledge often complement written records and guide exploration
efforts.

5. Environmental and Ecological Analysis: Understanding the environment and

ecology of a region is crucial for archaeological exploration. Techniques
include:

o Soil Sampling: Soil samples are analyzed to determine soil

composition, stratigraphy, and potential for preserving artifacts. This
analysis helps archaeologists understand past land use and
environmental conditions.

Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction: Techniques such as pollen

analysis, phytolith analysis, and faunal analysis are used to reconstruct
past environments. Understanding past climates and ecosystems
provides context for human activities and settlement patterns.

6. Site Protection and Preservation: During exploration, site protection and

preservation are essential to prevent damage and ensure that the site's integrity
is maintained. Measures include:
o Site Mapping: Detailed maps and documentation of the site are created
to record its features and layout. This information is crucial for future
research and preservation efforts.

Artifact Handling: Artifacts are carefully collected, recorded, and

conserved to prevent damage. Proper handling procedures ensure that
artifacts are preserved for future analysis and study.

Collaborative Approaches: Collaboration with various stakeholders,

including local communities, governments, and other researchers, is
increasingly important in archaeological exploration. Collaborative approaches
ensure that exploration respects cultural heritage and involves diverse
perspectives.
 o Community Involvement: Engaging local communities in exploration
efforts fosters cooperation and respect for cultural heritage. Local
knowledge and participation can enhance the exploration process and
contribute to the protection of sites.

Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Collaboration with experts from other

disciplines, such as geology, biology, and history, provides a more
comprehensive understanding of archaeological sites and contexts.

Conclusion

Exploration in archaeological studies is a multifaceted process that involves a variety

of methods and approaches to locate, assess, and document archaeological sites. Each
method, from surveys and site testing to remote sensing and historical research, plays
a crucial role in uncovering the past and understanding human history. By employing
these methods, archaeologists can gather valuable data, protect cultural heritage, and
contribute to a deeper understanding of human societies throughout history.

Assicnment I1

Answer any two of the following questions in about 250 words each.

a. Attirampakkam

Attirampakkam is a significant prehistoric site located in the state of Tamil Nadu,

India, near the town of Chengalpattu. It has provided crucial insights into the early
human occupation of the Indian subcontinent, shedding light on the lives and
advancements of prehistoric communities.

Historical Significance
Attirampakkam is notable for its archaeological discoveries that date back to the
Lower Paleolithic period, approximately 1.5 million years ago. This makes it one of
the earliest known sites of human activity in the Indian subcontinent. The site has
been a focal point for researchers studying the spread of early human populations out
of Africa and their adaptation to different environments.

Archaeological Findings

The site has yielded a wealth of artifacts, including stone tools and animal bones,
which offer a glimpse into the technological and cultural practices of the early
inhabitants. The tools discovered at Attirampakkam include handaxes, cleavers, and
flakes, which are indicative of the Acheulean tradition—a technological culture
characterized by bifacial tools that were used for various tasks such as cutting,
chopping, and scraping.

One of the most significant aspects of the findings at Attirampakkam 1s the evidence
of a complex and varied tool-making tradition. The stone tools found here display a
high degree of craftsmanship, suggesting that the early humans who lived at this site

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had developed advanced skills in tool production and usage. This level of
sophistication in tool technology is indicative of a well-adapted and resourceful
community.

Geographical and Environmental Context

The geographical location of Attirampakkam played a crucial role in its significance.
Situated along the banks of the Kosasthalaiyar River, the site provided a fertile
environment with abundant water and resources, which would have been ideal for
early human habitation. The river valley offered rich resources for hunting, gathering,
and tool-making, contributing to the site's role as a key habitation area during the
Lower Paleolithic period.

Research and Excavations

The site was first excavated in the 1980s by a team led by S. R. Rao and later by other
prominent archaeologists such as K. A. R. Kennedy. The excavations revealed
stratified deposits containing artifacts from different time periods, allowing
researchers to trace the technological and cultural evolution of the early inhabitants.

The research conducted at Attirampakkam has provided valuable data on the early
human migration patterns and their adaptation to diverse environments. It has also
contributed to the broader understanding of the prehistoric human timeline in India,
helping to place the region within the larger context of human evolution.

Impact on Prehistoric Studies

The findings from Attirampakkam have had a profound impact on the field of
prehistoric studies. They have challenged and refined existing theories about early
human migration and settlement patterns in Asia. The site has helped establish a more
nuanced understanding of the spread of early human populations and their
technological advancements.

Conclusion

Attirampakkam stands as a testament to the rich prehistoric heritage of India. Its

contributions to our understanding of early human life and technology are invaluable.
The site continues to be a focal point for ongoing research, offering insights into the
complex and evolving story of human prehistory. As excavations and studies progress,
Attirampakkam will likely provide even more revelations about the early inhabitants
of the Indian subcontinent and their place in the broader narrative of human evolution.

c. Briefly discuss the Megalithic culture of South India.

The Megalithic culture of South India represents a significant phase in the region’s
prehistoric period, spanning roughly from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
This culture is characterized by its distinctive use of large stone structures, which were
used for a variety of purposes including burial, ceremonial activities, and territorial
markers.

Characteristics and Structures

The term "megalith" comes from the Greek words "mega” (large) and "lithos" (stone),
reflecting the culture's hallmark of using sizable stone blocks. In South India, these
structures typically include dolmens, cairns, menhirs, and rock-cut chambers.
Dolmens, or megalithic tombs, consist of a set of vertical stones supporting a
horizontal capstone, creating a chamber where human remains and artifacts were often
interred. Cairns are stone heaps or mounds used as burial sites or memorials. Menhirs
are upright stones that may have served as markers or symbolic objects. Rock-cut
chambers are elaborate structures carved directly into rock faces, often used for
communal or funerary purposes.

Burial Practices and Artifacts

The Megalithic culture is renowned for its elaborate burial practices. Graves are often
found in associations with the aforementioned structures, and the burial sites
frequently include a variety of grave goods. These items typically include pottery, iron
tools, ornaments, and sometimes human skeletal remains. The presence of such goods
indicates that the society had developed a complex social hierarchy and that these
objects were used in ritualistic contexts or as offerings for the deceased.

Artifacts recovered from Megalithic sites often show a high level of craftsmanship.
Iron tools and weapons, such as chisels, hoes, and swords, reflect advanced
technological knowledge. Pottery from this period is usually coarse and wheel-made,
with simple yet distinct designs that may vary regionally.

Social and Cultural Aspects

The Megalithic culture suggests a significant degree of social organization. The
construction of large stone structures and the use of iron tools imply a well-
coordinated society with specialized skills. These structures may have had ceremonial
or symbolic significance beyond their practical use as burial sites. The existence of
trade networks 1s also implied by the variety of artifacts found in these sites,
indicating interaction with other contemporary cultures.

The Megalithic culture in South India provides valuable insights into the socio-
political and economic aspects of ancient societies. The emphasis on elaborate burial
practices and monumental architecture points to the development of complex social
structures and communal activities.

Regional Variations and Influence

The Megalithic culture is not uniform across South India but shows regional
variations. In Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, for instance, the burial practices and
architectural styles may differ from those found in Andhra Pradesh or Kerala. These

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variations suggest the influence of local traditions and environmental factors on the
development of megalithic practices.

Decline and Legacy

The decline of the Megalithic culture is associated with the rise of historical kingdoms
and the emergence of new social and political structures in South India. The
integration of Megalithic traditions into emerging historical contexts demonstrates the
cultural continuity and adaptation of ancient practices.

In summary, the Megalithic culture of South India is a rich and complex period
marked by its distinctive stone structures and advanced burial practices. It provides
crucial insights into the region’s prehistoric societies, their technological
advancements, and their social organization.

Answer the following questions in about 50 words each.

a. Three Age system

The Three Age System is a classification method used to divide prehistory into three
successive time periods: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. This
framework was developed by Danish archaeologist Christian Jiirgensen Thomsen in
the early 19th century as a way to organize and interpret archaeological artifacts.

1. Stone Age: The Stone Age is the earliest period, characterized by the use of
stone tools and weapons. It 1s further divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone
Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (New Stone Age). During
this time, early humans relied heavily on hunting, gathering, and eventually,
the beginnings of agriculture. The Stone Age reflects the technological
developments and adaptations of early humans to their environment.

2. Bronze Age: Following the Stone Age, the Bronze Age marked a significant
technological advancement with the development of metallurgy, particularly
the use of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. This period saw the rise of more
complex societies, the emergence of writing, and the construction of urban
centers. Tools and weapons made of bronze were more durable and efficient,
leading to enhanced agricultural productivity and the expansion of trade
networks.

. Iron Age: The Iron Age is the final stage of the Three Age System,
characterized by the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons. Iron, being
more abundant and harder than bronze, revolutionized agriculture, warfare, and
everyday life. This period also saw the rise of large empires and the spread of
civilizations across the globe.

The Three Age System remains a foundational concept in archaeology, providing a

basic chronological framework for understanding human technological and cultural
evolution. While it has been refined and expanded upon by modern archaeological
research, it continues to serve as a useful tool for organizing the prehistoric past.

b. Excavation

Excavation is a fundamental method in archaeology used to uncover and study the

physical remains of past human activities. This systematic process involves the careful
removal of soil and other materials to expose artifacts, structures, and other cultural
remains buried underground. Excavation is essential for understanding the
chronology, function, and cultural significance of archaeological sites.

The process begins with site selection, often based on preliminary surveys or
historical records indicating potential areas of interest. Archaeologists then create a
grid system over the site to maintain precise control over the location of each find.
Excavation proceeds layer by layer, a method known as stratigraphy, which helps in
understanding the chronological sequence of human activities at the site. Each layer,
or stratum, represents a different period, and careful documentation is essential to
preserve the context of the artifacts.
Artifacts discovered during excavation, such as pottery, tools, and bones, are carefully
recorded, photographed, and sometimes conserved for further analysis. Structures,
such as foundations, walls, and hearths, provide insights into the architectural
practices and living conditions of past societies. Excavation also uncovers biofacts
like seeds and animal bones, offering clues about diet, agriculture, and the
environment.

The excavation process 1s meticulous and often slow, requiring a multidisciplinary

team of archaeologists, historians, and conservators. The findings from an excavation
can transform our understanding of history, revealing new information about ancient
civilizations, trade routes, and cultural exchanges.

However, excavation is also a destructive process; once a site is excavated, it cannot

be undone. This makes careful planning, thorough documentation, and ethical
considerations vital components of any excavation project. The goal is to gather as
much information as possible while preserving the integrity of the site for future
study.

¢. Carbon dating method

Carbon dating, also known as radiocarbon dating, is a scientific method used to

determine the age of an object containing organic material by measuring the amount
of carbon-14 (C-14) it contains. Developed in the late 1940s by American chemist
Willard Libby, this technique has become a crucial tool for archaeologists,
paleontologists, and geologists.

Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope of carbon, which is naturally present in the

atmosphere and absorbed by living organisms throughout their lives. When an

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organism dies, it stops absorbing C-14, and the isotope begins to decay at a known
rate, with a half-life of approximately 5,730 years. By measuring the remaining C-14
in a sample and comparing it to the expected amount in a living organism, scientists
can estimate the time that has elapsed since the organism's death.

The process of carbon dating involves several steps. First, the sample is cleaned to
remove any contaminants. Then, it 1s converted into a form suitable for measuring its
carbon content, often as carbon dioxide gas or graphite. The C-14 content is then
measured using sensitive instruments such as accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS).
The data obtained is compared against a calibration curve, which accounts for
variations in C-14 levels in the atmosphere over time, to provide an accurate date.

Carbon dating 1s most effective for samples up to about 50,000 years old, beyond
which the remaining C-14 becomes too minute to measure accurately. It is widely
used to date archaeological sites, ancient artifacts, and geological samples,
contributing significantly to our understanding of historical and prehistoric timelines.
However, it 1s not without limitations, such as contamination risks and the
requirement for calibration, making it important to interpret results cautiously.

d. Ethnoarchaeology

Ethnoarchaeology is a sub-discipline of archaeology that focuses on studying

contemporary societies to understand the behavior, practices, and material culture of
past human communities. This approach bridges the gap between the present and the
past by observing and analyzing the cultural practices of living societies that may
share similarities with those of ancient civilizations.

The primary goal of ethnoarchaeology is to provide analogs that can be used to

interpret archaeological data. By studying how modern or historically recent
communities create, use, and discard objects, ethnoarchaeologists can draw parallels
with the archaeological record. For instance, understanding how a particular society
uses tools or constructs dwellings can offer insights into the possible functions of
similar artifacts or structures found in archaeological sites.

Ethnoarchaeology is particularly useful in regions where direct historical records are

sparse or absent. It allows archaeologists to build hypotheses about the past that are
grounded in observable, empirical data. This method has been applied in various
contexts, such as studying hunter-gatherer societies, pastoralist groups, and traditional
agricultural communities.

One of the significant contributions of ethnoarchaeology is its ability to highlight the

dynamic nature of human cultures. It reveals how environmental factors, social
structures, and economic practices influence material culture. Moreover, it
underscores the importance of context in interpreting archaeological findings, as the
same artifact might have different meanings or uses in different cultural settings.
In summary, ethnoarchaeology provides a valuable framework for archaeologists to
interpret the material remains of past societies by drawing on the study of living
communities. It enriches our understanding of human history by offering a more
nuanced and contextually informed perspective on the archaeological record.

e. Olduvai Gorge

Olduvai Gorge, located in the Great Rift Valley of Tanzania, 1s one of the most
significant paleoanthropological sites in the world. Often referred to as the "Cradle of
Mankind," Olduvai Gorge provides a rich repository of fossilized remains, stone tools,
and other archaeological evidence that has greatly contributed to our understanding of
human evolution.

The gorge was first brought to global attention by the work of the Leakey family,
particularly Louis and Mary Leakey, who conducted extensive excavations there
starting in the 1930s. Their discoveries include fossils of early hominins such as
Homo habilis and Paranthropus boisei, as well as stone tools that date back to nearly
2 million years ago. These findings have been crucial in understanding the
development of early human species and their tool-making abilities.

Olduvai Gorge is characterized by its stratified layers of sediment, which provide a

chronological record of human and environmental history. The stratigraphy of the
gorge allows scientists to date the artifacts and fossils found within, offering a
timeline of human evolution and activity in the region. The site has also revealed
evidence of early hominin behavior, such as hunting, gathering, and the use of fire,
which are key aspects of human cultural development.

In addition to hominin fossils, Olduvai Gorge has yielded numerous remains of other
animals and plants, giving insight into the palecenvironment and how early humans
adapted to their surroundings. The site continues to be a focal point for
paleoanthropological research, offering new discoveries and insights into the origins
of humanity.

Assignment 111

Answer the following questions in about 250 words

a. Briefly describe any two stone tool making techniques with suitable diagrams

Stone tool-making is a significant aspect of early human culture, reflecting the

technological and cognitive advancements of our ancestors. The techniques used to
create these tools evolved over time, resulting in a variety of methods that allowed
early humans to produce tools for different purposes. Here, we will discuss two
important stone tool-making techniques: Percussion Flaking and Pressure Flaking.

1. Percussion Flaking
Percussion flaking is one of the earliest and most fundamental techniques used in
stone tool-making. This method involves striking a stone (often called the core) with
another stone (referred to as the hammerstone) to remove tlakes and shape the tool.
The primary objective 1s to produce a sharp edge on the core or to create flakes that
can be further modified into tools.

Process:

« Core and Hammerstone Selection: The process begins with selecting a

suitable core, usually made from a fine-grained stone like flint, chert, or
obsidian, which has the ability to fracture predictably. A hammerstone,
typically made of a harder material like quartzite or basalt, is chosen for
striking the core.

Striking: The hammerstone is used to strike the edge of the core at an angle,
causing a flake to detach. The point of impact and the angle at which the strike
is made are crucial, as they determine the size, shape, and sharpness of the
flake.

Flake Removal: Each strike removes a flake from the core, revealing a fresh
surface. By carefully controlling the angle and force of the strikes, the
toolmaker can shape the core into the desired tool, such as an axe, scraper, or
blade.

Retouching: After the initial shaping, the tool can undergo retouching, where
smaller flakes are removed to refine the edges and achieve the final shape. This
process often involves finer and more controlled strikes to create a sharp and
durable edge.

Diagram:

« The diagram of percussion flaking would show a hand holding the

hammerstone striking the core, with flakes detaching from the core.

Applications:
 « Tools created using percussion flaking were used for cutting, chopping, and
scraping. The simplicity of this method made it a widely used technique in
prehistoric cultures across the globe.

2. Pressure Flaking
Pressure flaking is a more advanced technique used to refine and finish stone tools.
Unlike percussion flaking, which involves striking the stone, pressure flaking relies on
applying steady pressure to remove small, thin flakes from the tool's edge. This
method allows for greater precision and control, making it ideal for producing sharp,
delicate edges on tools.

Process:

« Tool Selection: Pressure flaking is usually performed on a pre-shaped tool that

has undergone initial flaking. The tool might already resemble its final form
but requires further refinement to create a sharp edge.

Pressure Application: A pointed tool, often made from bone, antler, or wood,
1s used to apply pressure to the edge of the stone tool. The toolmaker places the
tip of the pressure flaker against the edge of the stone and gradually increases
the pressure until a small flake pops off.

Edge Refinement: By systematically applying pressure along the edge, the

toolmaker can create a uniform, sharp edge. The size and shape of the flakes
removed during pressure flaking are typically much smaller than those
removed during percussion flaking, allowing for more detailed work.

Fine Detailing: Pressure flaking is particularly useful for creating fine details,
such as serrated edges or notches, which are essential for specific tool functions
like arrowheads or spear points.

Diagram:

« The diagram of pressure flaking would illustrate the toolmaker applying

pressure with a bone or antler tool on the edge of the stone tool, with small
flakes detaching from the edge.

Applications:
 Tools made using pressure flaking are often associated with more complex
tasks that require precision, such as hunting weapons (e.g., arrowheads, spear
points) and fine cutting tools. This technique represents a significant
technological advancement, reflecting the increasing cognitive abilities of early
humans.

Conclusion

Both percussion flaking and pressure flaking played crucial roles in the development
of stone tools throughout human prehistory. Percussion flaking laid the foundation for
creating basic tools, while pressure flaking allowed for the refinement and
specialization of these tools, leading to the development of more sophisticated
implements. The evolution of these techniques illustrates the ingenuity and
adaptability of early human societies as they learned to manipulate their environment
to meet their needs.

b. Briefly discuss various core tools with suitable diagrams.

Pebble Tool Types There are many tools prepared on pebbles. Pebbles are stones,
outer surfaces of which are smoothened by running water. Basic pebble tool types are
known as choppers.

i) Chopper: These are the earliest tool types made by man. A broad and thick pebble
broken transversely to produce cutting edge is called chopper. There are two sub types
of choppers, (a) Unifacial and (b) Bifacial.

a) Unifacial choppers: The pebble is flaked along one surface only. The flake scars
meet the flat ventral surface and give rise to transverse chopping edge (Fig. 16).

Tocl Typs - Chopper Lo

tuseum Nao. - Nil
Siew - T 2 Tlomn x4 3o
CuTua, Perel - Lower Palaealthic
Raw 3atenal - Quartz.le

Lrarsat susfice Venoa Sutare .

Cross-Seclion

Fig. 16: Unifacial Chopper (Drawn by D. K. Mondal)

Choppers are one of the predominant tool types in Lower Palaeolithic Culture of East
Africa. The culture found at Olduvai Gorge in Africa is called Oldowan after the name
of the site. Mostly these are all grouped together in a techno-complex termed Mode 1.
a) Bifacial choppers: The pebble is flaked from both the surfaces to produce the
transverse working edge (Fig. 17, 18).
| 2ig-Zag cu'gthg £dge
| Tool Type - 4t Suae T
| Muscum No. R-3 -
i Size - 1lomx 10.2cm x Bom
Cultur4l Petiud - Luwer
Pualauulithic
| Materiat Quartzite

Torsal Gurface Ve rd! Surface

Fig. 17: Bifacial Chopper (drawn by D.K. Mondal)

r Zig-Zag Cutting fdge
iMusPum No. - R3
Tool Type = rescer
Primary flake scar

Fig. 18: Chopper (Photo by D.K.Mondal)

Following are the most common core tool types.

Handaxe:
Handaxe is one of the most prolific tool types found all over the world during the
entire length of lower Palaeolithic. It is designated to Mode II. It is essentially a
bifacial tool prepared in such a manner that one end of the specimen is broader and
thicker while the other end is narrow. The sharp and the pointed end is considered as

16| Page
anterior end and the opposite end which is often thick and bulbous is called as the
buttend. The working edge is on both the lateral margins and on the anterior end.

When the handaxe is massive and the technique used is block-on-block or stone
hammer technique such handaxes (Fig. 19, 20) are taken to characterize Abbevillian
or lower Acheulian tradition (Soressi and Dibble, 2003). With the advent of cylinder
hammer technique all the rough edges are regularized and smoothened by careful
series of retouchings (Fig. 21, 22,). According to the shape of the hand axes, they are
subdivided into sub-types, namely, almond shaped (Amygdaloid), lance head shaped
(Lanceolate) and heart shaped (Cordiform) categories. Some of the middle to Upper
Acheulian Handaxes also show a distinct extended S-twist at the lateral or working
border. One of the most evolved of these handaxe is an Ovate. This is the tool, where
the maximum thickness shifts from the proximal or butt end to the centre. Though
handaxes are commonly made on core there are some made on flake. Such hand axes
may be distinguished by the presence of main flake surface.

Handaxe is a heavy duty multipurpose tool used in a variety of tasks. They could have
been probably used for digging, cutting, scraping and also for butchering and skinning
of animals etc.

ool bipe Abbey tean andare

usént ha - ¥
Se a1 s Bor oy e
Cottura Fea vl o Faaeol e
FowedAatera Jduerizte

Fig. 19: Abbevillian Hand Axe (Drawn by D.K. Mondal)

Museum No. 8
Tool Type - Abbevillian Hand Axe I

Working end

- Pnmary - Line ot
Flake scar gols Profile

—— Buttend

Dorsal Surface Profile View Ventral Surface

Fig. 20: Abbevillian Hand Axe (Photo by D. K. Mondal)

Whrking trd

Too: Tyne Hand Axe

Museum Na. - Nil
Size - 17cmx dcmx 6 m |
Culturat Periog - cower
Palgeulithin
Raw Matenal - Quartiite

Dursal Sutface itofie Vea wentrs: SaTace Lrass-ectians

Fig 21: Acheulian Hand Axe (Drawn by D. K. Mondal)

 RRGFLTa e SR SRR A HILTW
DT Ty - Btetrean Hae Jae
i

Profile View Ventral Surf.ace

| EEEEBR
Fig. 22: Acheulian Hand Axe (Photo by D. K. Mondal)

Cleaver: (Fig. 24, 25). This is also a biface like a handaxe, with the only difference
that working edge 1s transverse and located on the anterior side. It looks like a modern
axe and is supposed to have used for cleaving wood, meat or such other objects. A flat
and sloping flake scar i1s so removed from the anterior end in such a manner that this
intersects with scar of detachment of the under surface to give rise to a transverse
working end. The lateral borders are worked in such a manner that the cross section of
the tool appears like a parallelogram. The cleavers as a rule have shape like a U or a
V. For statistical analysis, as also for computation of proportion of core tools to flake
tools, handaxes and cleavers made on flakes are counted within core category.

nat byne fInawer

T THEE-MIY T
N PR IELE]
Cutiural Perigd - Lewer
Ta aen i
Fam BAEE e - QAL

Fig. 23: Cleaver (Drawn by D. K. Mondal)

 e —————————\Norking 2dzs

Buit end ———

Dorsal Surface Ventral Surface

Fig. 24: Cleaver (Photo by D. K. Mondal)

¢. What is a Blade tool? Describe various Blade tool types with suitable diagrams.

Blade tools are defined as those flakes which have a length more than or equal to
twice its breadth. That is, every blade is essentially a flake but every flake is not a
blade. These are usually 8-9 cm in length, 2-3 cm in breadth and 1-2 c¢m in thickness.
The technique of their manufacture is punching, i.e., indirect percussion with an antler
used as an intermediate punch.

There are numerous types of tools that are produced on blades during Upper
Palaeolithic cultural stage, but the most dominant among these are (i) Retouched
Blades, (i1) Backed Blades, (ii1) Burins (iv) End Scraper and (v) Leaf points.

(i) Retouched blades

A retouched blade 1s a thick blade which 1s retouched in a semi abrupt manner along
the lateral sides (Fig. 31).
 Tool Type - Retouched Blade
Museum No. - Nil - Parallel_
Size - 5.3cm x0.9cm x 0.2cm Margins
Cultural Period - Upper
Palaeolithic

WIR N W i/
Raw Maternial - Chert
Retouching

AR
'Wfl lm
Long

\ L“ “m“l |\:
Middle

LYY NARAAY
Ridge

kALl
b
Y PV
T

TR
o™,
W) AR
i
(m

Dorsal Surface Ventral Surface Cross-Section

Fig. 31: Retouched Blade (Drawn by D. K. Mondal)

(i) Backed Blades

These are blades in which one of the borders of the blade is blunted with the help of
steep flaking and the margin parallel to the blunt surface is left sharp (Fig. 32).

Tool Type Backed Blade

Museum No. Nil
Size-4.9cm x 2cm x 0.9cm
Parzllel
i Cultura! Period - Upper
Margirs
Palaeolithic
| Raw Material Chert

Dorsat Surface Ventral Surface Cross-Section

Fig. 32: Backed Blade (Drawn by D. K. Mondal)

(iii) Burins

These are blades in the anterior end of which a screw driver like edge is prepared by
the careful removal of two sloping facets. These facets intersect to form the working
edge which is equal to the thickness of the blade (Fig. 33).

21| Page
(iv) Leaf Points

This is a very characteristic tool type of Solutrean tradition of French Upper

Palaeolithic. Here flat flakes or blades measuring in average 6 cm X 2 cm are given
series of scars on both the surfaces by pressure flaking technique. As a result the
blades are so reduced in thickness that they tend to be less than 1 ¢cm in thickness. The
anterior end is pointed. These look like leaves of certain trees and hence the name. In
France these are called Laurel leaf points. In slightly later period these leaf points
became short and unifacillay worked. These may or may not have a shoulder. These
are called Willow Leat Points. It belongs to Mode-IV. However these types are not
common in India.

Touol Type - Butin

Museum No. - Nil
Size - 5.7cm x 1.4cm x 0.3cm
Cultural Period Upper Palaeolithic
Raw Material - Chert Working Eng
Burin Spall

Dorsal Surface Cross-Section

Fig. 33: Burin (Drawn by D. K. Mondal)

 , Worsing Exal
Tool Type - Leaf Points
! Museun No. Nil
Cuitural Period - Upper
Pataeoithic
Raw Material - ~hnt

Willow Leaf Point Laure] Leaf Point

Size Ycmx Icm x 0.7 Size - l6doemx 6. lom x 0.8cm

Fig. 34: Leaf Points (Drawn by D. K. Mondal)