CHAPTER 10 Engineering After finishing this chapter, you will be able to: and Technology: Metals and Metalworking » Develop familiarity with the Science, Engineering and Technology (S & T) heritage of | ancient and medieval India > Understand the role of archaeological, and other evidence in assessing the S &T heritage of India idol making Understand about ancient Indian pursuits in the area of metal and metalworking and This is a gold coin of the Gupta king Samudragupta (330-376 CE) kept at the British Museum Samudragupta, with halo, standing facing left. wearing cap, decorated coat and trousers and earrings, holding a spear in left hand and making a" Offering with right hand over altar. In left field is 2 Garuda standard with ribbons and crescent above Stamping such coins with intricate details requires knowledge of mining, extraction of Gold and further metal forming techniques such as d€ casting Source: hetps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/FileSamudraguptaCoin, pgEngineerin ‘J. and Technology: Metats and Metalworking 253 cSopawie wootz Steel: The Rise and Fall of a Great Indian wootz steel 1S 2 unique Indian process of making steel, which was widely sought for manufacture gf swords 1n the eastern Mediterranean region as such a quality of steel was simply not available ajsewhere, Woot steel was produced as early as 700 BCE in several places in India and exported to and traded throughout ancient Europe and the Arab world. It became particularly famous in the Middle east for manufacture of Damascus swords This sword is known for its edge sharpness, flexibility, strength and the typical surface structure on the sword’s surface. The word ‘wootz’ might have originally been wook; the Tamil language root word for the alloy is urukku. Other Dravidian languages have similar-sounding words for steel Uku, is the word for steel in Kannada and Telugu languages. Inthe 12th century CE, the Arab Edrisi mentioned that the Hindus excelled in the manufacture of iron and that it was impossible to find anything to surpass the edge of Indian steel. Arabs took ingots of wootz steel to Damascus following which a thriving industry developed there for making weapons and armour, By the end of the 17th century CE, shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz ingots were traded from the Coromandel coast to Persia. This indicates that the production of wootz steel was almost on an industrial scale predating the Industrial Revolution in Europe. In India till the agth century CE, swords and daggers of woot steel were made at centres including Lahore, Amritsar, Agra, Jaipur, Gwalior, Tanjavur, Mysore, and Golconda. Unfortunately, none of these centres survive today Because of the oral tradition followed in India, "ot too many records were available documenting the process of wootz production. It is mainly the European travelers such as Buchanan in 1807, Benjmain Heyne in 1818, H W Voysey in 1832, and Scier , Engineering, and ‘Technology Hervthing we learn in our educational system today on $ & T hk Urthermore, the technological innovations that we benefit from 3 : ‘of Western on there have been more activities in the Indian § & T Use are also of Western origin. Of late, Technology Josiah Marshall Heath in 1840 accounts. However, attention of scientists and Sweden, who left detailed Wootz steel caught the in England, France, Russia, As England had colonized India, there was Considerable interest in studying wootz steel! Michael Faraday, the inventor of electricity was fascinated by wootz steel and enthusiastically studied it. Along with the cutler Stodart, Faraday attempted to study how to make Damascus steel and they incorrectly concluded that aluminium oxide and silica additions contributed to the Properties of the steel and published their results in 1820. Though Faraday could not replicate the wootz steel, he is hailed as the father of alloy steel After careful studies, the Scientists in the West discovered the composition and microstructure of the steel and their relation to mechanical Properties. This laid the foundations of modern materials science and the investigations on wootz steel continue to inspire researchers to this day. Recent investigations on the properties of tthe ultra-high carbon wootz steel such as super- plasticity justify it being called an advanced material of the ancient world with not merely a past but also perhaps a future. Unfortunately, on the other hand, the British Raj introduced production taxes and mining bans. This ‘must have been partly responsible for the disruption Of mining and steel manufacture. Eventually, it may have contributed to the loss of know-how in India in the last 150 years, ‘Source: Based on Ranganathan, S. and Srinivasan, S. (2006). "A Tale of Wootz steel” Resonance (June 2006), pp. 67-77 and Prakash, B. (1977). "Metals and Metallurgy, Chapter 3 [3.2] in History of Technology in India Vol. |, AK Bag (Ed), Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp. 80-174, and other published material (S & T) are the buzzwords of the last two centuries s its origin in the West id the products that we254° inroaction to indian Knowledge System Concepts and Application sector, and we seem to be catching up with the cutting-edge technology of the world wit), difficulty. The pace and spread of current technological developments have overshadowe our history and make us believe that the ancestral societies other than the West have very little to contribute to the § & T ecosystem. We also tend to believe that all that we have jp the last 250-500 years are the only living example of 5 & T. On account of these, an averaye well-educated Indian believes that Science and Technology are of Western origin and India has very little to contribute. If we go by this logic, then the medieval society ought to have had a very simple and primitive living in which $ & T played practically no role. In this chapter ang a few that follow, we focus on this aspect. 10.1 THE INDIAN S & T HERITAGE Indian civilisation has a rich heritage spanning over the recorded history of the last two millennia. Several archaeological and literary resources point to the existence of a vibrant community in antiquity. Several artifacts, relics, and physical structures dot the length and breadth of the country that bears testimony to this. In the earlier chapters of the book, we discussed in some detail the scientific heritage of ancient Indians and their contributions. We were able to see how with a well-developed body of knowledge in Mathematics, Astronomy, and other fields several theoretical foundations were laid for the benefit of the scientific community. However, we are not aware if Engineering and Technology were part of ancient Indian society Did our ancestors have any knowledge of S & T? If so, how did they employ the knowledge and how did they benefit from it? We can approach this question by exploring if there is any evidence of the use of S & T in ancient times. The evidence could be from any of the following three: (a) The archaeological evidence that shows how S & T ought to have been deployed in ancient times (b) Living examples of physical entities that point to the use of good S & T practices (0) Literary resources pointing to the use of $ & T in ancient times In this section of the book, we deploy all three of these approaches to understand the S&T heritage of ancient Indians. We explore a variety of available evidence to make sense of the S & T heritage that could have existed in ancient and medieval times in India. Furthermore, we explore the available knowledge sources in the domain of $ & T; Using these we discuss various aspects of § & T in Chapters 11 and 12. A related field of Town Planning and Architecture is separately discussed in Chapter 12 Archaeological excavations in the last 150 years in India have fetched a rich collection of artefacts that reveal several clues to the Engineering and Technology heritage of ancient Indians. Amongst other things, the excavations of Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Lothal in Gujarat have revealed functional town-planning, dwelling houses built of different sizes of burnt bricks but of a standard proportion of dimensions, tiled flooring, well-developed drainage syste and pottery which are both utilitarian as well as decorated. Furthermore, it also points © agricultural operations, shipbuilding, metalworking, especially iron and steel, coppet: 3M zinc, and a host of other skilled crafts such as intricate bead-making, and jewellery amon the people, Excavations show that Lothal had a man-made dock for berthing boats (or small Sie ships) ~a trapezoid basin measuring about 214 m x 36 m. What appears to be the lil nariume structure of the times, had facilities for loading and unloading!, There are studies ©" ‘own planning and architectural developments, skill, and developmentsEngineering and Technology: Metals and Metalworking 255 pavological and literary evidence suggests that using the yequipment, agricultural implements, ornamental Pieces (see Figure 10.1 for tary century BCE), idols, coins, and a host of other items for medical applications. They Ls also adept at extracting Mercury and using it in alchemy. Several travellers’ accounts vhxn as that of Herodotus, Ktesias, Hiuen Tsang, and Pliny) reveal how famous the Indian petalsmiths were for their quality and workmanship. We shall cee some details of these jopeets in Chapter 11 7 technology they were making an example 10.2. MINING AND ORE EXTRACTION Intechnology, ancient Indian's contributions to metalworking, metallurgy, and material science are noteworthy. Indian metalsmiths had notable achievements, particularly developing unique sxilsin mining and working with iron and steel, copper and its alloys, and zinc. Archaeological amination of the vicinity of the major mining centres of modern India viz., Zawar, Rajpura- Dariba, Rampura-Agucha, Khetri, Chamba, Deri-Ambaji, Singhbhum, Chitradurga, and Cudappah presents an interesting picture. These locations have extensive ancient mine workings and debris, and heaps of slags and retorts. Furthermore, a study of the ruins of temples and ‘cunships in various places in India corroborates the degree to which mining, and metalworking ‘ave developed in ancient India. From an analysis of the archaeological specimens obtained one san infer the skill and technical superiority exhibited by our ancestors in metallurgical works, which we seem to be largely unaware of. FIGURE 10.1 Andhra Pradesh Royal Earrings (1st Century ace) “ource: PHGCOM, Photographed at the Metropolitan Museum of Art256 introduction to Incian Knowledge System—Concepts and Applications In April 1980, the Hindustan Zine Limited (HZL.) sponsored a three-year research projecy on the recovery of zinc from the ancient slags which was successfully conducted at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, In 1982, HZL collaborated with the British Museum Research Laboratory and the Department of Archaeology, M.S. University of Baroda on archaeolopica, investigations which led to the discovery of the zinc distillation outfit, including furnaces and retorts showing the production strategy. Extensive archaeological and archaeo-materia| investigations followed”. These investigations suggest that the tradition of underground mining in India goes back to the thirteenth century BCE. For example, excavations in the South Lode (100 m depth) of Rajpura-Dariba mine (80 km north-east of Udaipur) have been C-14 dated as 1260 BCE, 1130 BCE, and 1050 BCE. In Zawar, about 30 km south-west from Udaipur, the ancient mines (earliest C-14 date obtained is 430 BCE) are found, both opencast and underground confirming widespread underground mining of lead-zinc ores in the southern Rajasthan during the Sth-4th centuries BCE onwards. The art of smelting zinc ore and recovery of zinc metal by distillation must have been discovered before the 4th century BCE. This is supported by the discovery of a brass vase containing 34.34% zinc in Taksasila’, The excavation of an early historic iron smelting site near Dhatwa in the Tapti valley in Surat District of Gujarat led to an investigation into the metallurgical technology of the site This revealed evidence of an iron-smelting industry in the form of iron objects, heaps of iron metallurgical tap slag, and pieces of iron ore in layers 3, 2, 1, and on the surface of the mound. Large amounts of iron objects and slag were recovered from layers 1 and 2 suggesting that the industry must have developed over time’. Radiocarbon dating of mine timber and charcoal shows that large-scale mining took place between Chalcolithic (early Iron Age in India) and 1800 years ago. Hindustan Zinc Limited has given information on the history of mining and smelting at Zawar, Rajpura-Dariba, and Rampura-Agucha. Several remains of the mining process are available to date in the Zawar mines. Samples have been taken from here for carbon dating. Radiocarbon dating of the remains of wooden stairways, haulage scaffolds, and other artefacts retrieved from the ancient mines indicate that lead-zinc mining existed as far back as 500 BCE. Similarly, radiocarbon of pieces of mine timber, rope, and bamboo basket from the ancient workings indicated that these mines were in production approximately 3000 years ago. Furthermore, a piece of lead metal recovered from the slag dump was found to contain 97.5% lead and 150 ppm silver indicating thereby that the smelting technology was advanced. The ancient mining and ore extraction process across metals followed a somewhat similar methodology. This involved fire-setting and quenching with water to create cracks in the rock followed by extraction of ore with hammering, chiselling, and scrapping tools. The mining operations left a series of open cut at the top and the excavations were supported by timber Earthen pitchers were used for carrying water and wooden trolleys for transportation of the ore Ancient Indians developed skills to explore ore deposits and mine portions that af remunerative. There are studies providing intricate details on how the Indians performing the copper mining in the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. Using an initial process & firing and quenching to crack the ore, they knew how to extract the ore using hammers an chisels. They also developed some methods for further processing of the ore to obtain the in areas molten metal. Underground excavations up to nearly 500 feet are visible in sev these hill regions. There are several tunnels of dimension 5 ft x 4 ft and these hav provisions for improving the atmospheric conditions at that level. The mining process NV’ re some vedEngineenn, ‘Zand Technology. Metals and Metaiworking 257 ay steps. First, the ore was dislodged by setting the - ‘sing a chisel and hammer it was extracted, These oo py the labourers in their heads for further Proce: mines DY “jo crack the ore, large quantities (about 6-7 tonm fire, Further, it was quenched in water, extracted ores were carried out of the sing es) se stacked and set fire, The workers immediately eave the * Inthe Vedic ton, we Tad woe mines only to return after three days. The studies on the references to Gold, siver, iron, unig process suggest that each worker proceeded into OPPE*, and their alloys che mine with a chisel, lamp, and a small basket. The lamp * The Indian metal smiths were pied on his head provided not only illumination but also adept in alloy technology as they relped him identify the glittering particles of ore, While at “Out® reduce alloys of contrted work the miner seated upon his heels with the lamp upon. —2™P=N™ his head, the hammer in his right hand and the chisel in his left hand, and the small basket upon his knee in which he received all the fragments of ore that w The basket was passed through a chain of workers, and in this mai to the surface eventually’. ere struck off by the chisel. inner, the ore was cascaded Once the ore is brought to the surface, they were finely powdered using heavy hammers, so that they are conducive for the roasting process. The powdered ore was mixed with cow. dung and made into rolls about four inches long which were dried first in the Sun and then roasted in the open air in a fire of cow-dung cake. The ore was then ready for smelting. There is enough evidence to show the smelting of the ore using locally built furnaces, cemented with clay having nozzles and bellows. Using a pair of sticks, the bellow valve was built and they were opened when the bag was raised for blowing the air. Through a hole made at the bottom of the furnace, the molten metal was stirred and drawn out. After lighting the furnace, the ore was gradually introduced alternatively with charcoal and flux (refuse from the old iron furnaces) 10.3. METALS AND METALWORKING TECHNOLOGY In modern times metals and alloys play an important role in our our lives. Several engineering sadgets and equipment make use of a variety of metals and their alloys. Ancient Indians have made use of base metals and alloys in multiple ways. This includes the making of military aids, omaments, vessels, tools, artefacts, statues, and coins to name a few. In particular, Indians were known to be quite advanced in iron and steel, and zinc. The archaeological findings of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro as well as in burial sites in South India have artefacts in Gold, Silver, Copper, and Bronze. The bronze statue of a dancing girl found at Mohenjo-Daro bears ‘estimony to the technological skills of the ancient craftsmen. The statue is evidence of the skills of the craftsmen in drilling fine holes and casting the statue using the lost wax process (known 'n modern times as the cire-perdue process). In the Vedic texts, we find ample references t Gold, Silver, iron, copper, and their alloys®. Therefore, it is not surprising to find a mining ‘re processing, extraction of metals, methods for metalworking, and allaying were Known te them. In this section, we will see in more detail the above aspects of Indian metalworking and ‘metallurgical principles’ fro A detailed study of the archaeological remains and the repository of era" pr from th ““nury CE to 12th century CE, in addition to numerous references | iis ete at Point to certain unique aspects of metalworking and metallurgy in India during a dleval times. Some of them include the following:tions 258 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System—Concepts and Application: * The smelters and metalsmiths had gained a high degree of knowledge regardin, furnace design, combustion of fuel, refractories, and skill in operating the furnaces -¢ the desired temperature. They were also aware of the temperature specifications ang other conditions required to carry out the process. The knowledge of the Indian metal smiths on Iron-Carbon alloy was clearly superig, and ahead of the times. This is evident from their ability to produce the famous woot, steel, which was in demand in the West. * Indians were the first to introduce Zinc to human civilisation and also to develop (y Zn alloys. * The Indian metal smiths were also adept in alloy technology as they could produce alloys of controlled composition. * Indians developed good skills in designing and casting a variety of artefacts and deployed good moulding and diecasting methods. The available evidence suggests that they were casting small as well as large objects in the country. 10.3.1 Gold Extraction Process The process for the extraction of gold in ancient times has been analysed and documented by Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. According to the available information, mercury was added to a mixture of black sand and gold ore, and the mixture was rubbed “@ Hg, a5 well as gs, have bean” with a little common salt. After some time, the gold and extensively usedin the preparation Mercury would form an amalgam. The amalgam is separated of Ayurvedic medicines by adding water to the mixture and agitating the mixture * Hg is also used for the The amalgam was rolled in a damp rag and the mercury amalgamation process for the was squeezed off. Finally, it was burnt in the fire to extract extraction of Silver and Gold, the gold. If the gold was found alloyed with silver or other base metals, it was hammered into a thin sheet between two stones. The plate was burnt in a two-layered cow-dung. The cow dung absorbed the base metals, and the pure gold was separated. This shows that the technique of Hy (Mercury) amalgamation and gilding were apparently known to the Indian craftsmen from the very eat : times®. However, the most common process of se} rock employs a simple gravity separation or toa fine size to extract the gold particle a aration of native gold from the sand and quartz Panning. In this process, the quartz is first crushed ind then separate it by suspending the mixture in water, When the pan containing the suspension is agitated under water gold particles sete at the bottom of the pan and the sand and soil are washed away. In the cs of operation, big pans were suspended in the river water could be easily agitated. The main purpose of the extraction of gold was to make ornaments used to prepare ‘Suvarna Bhasma’ in Ayurvedic the purified gold metal bat to metalworking techniques such as forging, punching, embossti etc. so that ornaments of intricate designs could be produced. It appears that ancieat crafts! could also use other metal forming techniques such as rolling and wire drains, Cold 0" were either made by die casting in clay moulds or by the technique of punch mer of a larger scale through a sling so that the mixture and coins. It was als¢ Preparations. Ancient craftsmen could subject ng; Engineering and Technology Metals and Metalworking 259 10.3.2 Zinc Production yall the base metals, Zinc was perhaps the last to be discovered and used during the pre- cnnstian era. A study by Hegde, Craddock, and Sonawala in 1984 concluded that India was ne first to introduce this metal to the rest of the world between 600 to 200 BCE"”. Geographically gujasthan stands out as a major mining province dating back to about 1000 BCE. Studies based the debris and slag dump in the Zawar region of Rajasthan itis estimated that about 15,000 tonnes of Zinc “5 ancent india adopied 9 novel ought to have been mined and processed, Zinc was exported technique ef downward dnft to other countries even before the 11th century CE. Studies reduction distillation process on the Zawar zinc mines provide rich insights into zinc for Zinc production, which is mining in ancient India. According to some other estimate, @ precursor to the modern about 250,000 tonnes of zinc concentrates ought to have Processes adopted all over the been extracted from about 2.5 million tonnes of ore in the wore \ found mined area, before modern mining operations commenced, * TRe stilton apparatus found Extensive archaeological excavations conducted in (Needham) wes unque and men several parts of Rajasthan clearly show that the earliest advanced, artefact containing an appreciable amount of zinc anywhere in the world is from India. A pioneering contribution of the Indian subcontinent in terms of the history of science and technology was the mastery of the metallurgy of zinc production. \n the Aravalli ranges of northwestern India, amongst rich polymetallic mineral deposits one can see several mining galleries, slag heaps, and retorts which bear testimony to the early extraction of lead and silver at Dariba and Agucha and, most uniquely of zinc, at Zawar. The Jawar area near Udaipur has yielded unique evidence suggesting that the extraction of metallic zinc flourished on an almost semi-industrial scale by the mid-14th century CE as indicated by some carbon dates from the analysis of archaeo-metallurgical debris. Surveys and excavations revealed the extensive presence of furnaces or kosthis, intended for an ingenious process of unc extraction by downward distillation!’ Zinc smelting was done during the 9th century CE, which was upgraded to an industrial scale around the 13th century CE. Several clay retorts, presumably used for zinc smelting are found scattered in the ruins of Zawar. At Zawar elements of transport systems are evident, ‘with zig-zag paths on slopes with stone or wooden steps or ladders. The size of the passage on the main routes indicates that it would have been possible to carry loads in baskets on the head. Since India had plenty of iron from the early days, the tools used for extraction of the °re such as chisels, hammers, and scrappers were made of iron. For lighting, oil lamps were “sed, and the available evidence indicates that the lamps were placed at fixed Positions in the Mining areas, Ancient Indians adopted a novel technique of downward drift reduction distillation process “r Dine production, which is a precursor to the modern processes adopted all over the “orld The Zinc has a melting point of 410°C and a boiling point of 930°C. Moreover, in the {beh air at about 550°C Zine gets oxidized to ZnO (Zine Oxide). Therefore, the only viable Hethod to extract Zine is to rapidly cool the Zinc vapour to around 500°C to produce the ‘uid metal thereby preventing its reoxidation. The ingenuity of the a Making. this UReESt known cient Indians was * possible using the downward drift reduction distillation process. Some studies hat in India the process of distillation of water, wine, and probably mercury was ven in the Vedic period (Yajurveda), The distillation apparatus tound 1 ar the ancientEngineering and Te Nd. and Technology Metals and Metalworking 259 0.3.2 Zinc Production ithe base metals, Zine was perhaps the last to be discovered and use aiatgan era. A study by Hegde, Craddock, and Sonawala iy DH concaded tare oe thefirst to introduce this metal to the rest of the world between 600 to 200 BCE". Geogray hic ily qeasthan stands out as a major mining province dating back to about 1000 BCE. studies baced Mihe debris and slag dump in the Zawar region of - ue uiasthan it is estimated that about 15,000 tonnes of Zinc juaht to have been mined and processed. Zinc was exported tp other countries even before the 11th century CE. Studies on the Zawar zinc mines provide rich insights into zine for Zinc production, which is mining in ancient India. According to some other estimate, 9 precursor to the modern jhout 250,000 tonnes of zinc concentrates ought to have Processes adopted all over the © Ancient Indians adopted a novel technique of downward drift reduction distillation process jeen extracted from about 2.5 million tonnes of ore in the. “orld mnined area, before modern mining operations commenced. * Te *stllation apparatus found : . : ni i f Extensive archaeological excavations conducted in ear the ancient Takeo (Needham) was unique and much several parts of Rajasthan clearly show that the earliest ggvanced artefact containing an appreciable amount of zinc anywhere in the world is from India. A pioneering contribution of the Indian subcontinent in terms of the history of science and technology was the mastery of the metallurgy of zinc production in the Aravalli ranges of northwestern India, amongst rich polymetallic mineral deposits one can see several mining galleries, slag heaps, and retorts which bear testimony to the early extraction of lead and silver at Dariba and Agucha and, most uniquely of zinc, at Zawar. The ‘Zawar area near Udaipur has yielded unique evidence suggesting that the extraction of metallic zine flourished on an almost semi-industrial scale by the mid-14th century CE as indicated by some carbon dates from the analysis of archaeo-metallurgical debris. Surveys and excavations revealed the extensive presence of furnaces or kosthis, intended for an ingenious process of zine extraction by downward distillation’. Zinc smelting was done during the 9th century CE, which was upgraded to an industrial scale around the 13th century CE. Several clay retorts, presumably used for zinc smelting are found scattered in the ruins of Zawar. At Zawar elements of transport systems are evident, with zig-zag paths on slopes with stone or wooden steps or ladders. The size of the passage on the main routes indicates that it would have been possible to carry loads in baskets on the head. Since India had plenty of iron from the early days, the tools used for extraction of the ore such as chisels, hammers, and scrappers were made of iron. For lighting, oil lamps were Used, and the available evidence indicates that the lamps were placed at fixed positions in the mining areas. Ancient Indians adopted a novel technique for Zine production, which is a precursor to the modern processes ado World, The Zine has a melting point of 410°C and a boiling point of 930°C. Moreover, in the open air at about 550°C Zine gets oxidized to ZnO (Zinc Oxide). Therefore, the only viable ‘"ethod to extract Zine is to rapidly cool the Zine vapour to around 500°C te prentuce ¢ 7 ‘qu ent Indians was uid metal thereby preventing its reoxidation. ient India of downward drift reduction distillation process s adopted all over the The ingenuity of the anc on distillation process: , Some studies aking this possible using the downward drift reduc “egest that in India the process of distillation of water “own even in the Vedic period (Yajurveda). The distillation and probably mercury was pparatus found near the ancient—concepts and Applications 260 Introduction to Indian Knowledge Syste Taksasila (Needham) was unique and much advanced. This system uses a separate condenser ill to carry the vapours to the condenser vessel which tube fitted to the mouth of the dis aa was water-cooled. A similar apparatus called Damru-yantra was used for the preparation of Ayurvedic formulations. We will discuss different yantras used for such extraction purposes in Section 10.5. The principle of the downward drift distillation process can be explained in simple terms using the description of a yantra available in Rasa-Ratna-Samuccaya (RRS) for extraction of Zinc, Mercury, etc. Imagine having a pair of pots placed one over the other with their mouths aligned. What it means is that the lower pot is in the normal position and the upper pot is placed upside down over the lower pot. The upper inverted pot has a solid charge and is sealed with clay. It has a reed stick at the centre for the escape of gases. During the processing the upper pot is heated by building a firing platform around it. Once it reaches 600°C, the reed is charred and burnt off, paving way for the reduced metal vapour to flow downwards. The lower pot acts as a condenser and it has mechanisms for rapid cooling so that it can convert the vapour into liquid metal. Figure 10.2 is a simple illustration of the yantra for the downward distillation process. Drift Distillation Process A similar but advanced method was used Source: Sen, $.N. and Subbarayappa, B.V. (2009). “A by the Zawar smelters. The process used by Concise History of Science in India’, indian National them consisted of the following steps. Zinc is Science Academy, 2nd ed., p. 429. Reproduced with extracted by smelting Zinc Sulphide ore. After permission. sizing, the ore was mixed with charcoal dust and fired into a heap to convert it into oxide by controlled roasting in an oxidizing atmosphere. During this process, ZnS (Zinc Sulphide), PbS (Lead-I! Sulphide), and other sulphide minerals got converted to their respective oxide but no reduction of these oxides by carbon was permitted. The roasted ore was mixed with more charcoal powder, salt, and borax as flux and thoroughly mixed with cow dung and water, and then made into balls of 5 to 10 mm dia. by hand rolling. These pellets were dried in Sun and then filled into the brinjal-shaped retorts, Many retorts have been found at Zawar. They are of two principal sizes with a capacity of 750 c.c. and 2000 cc. As described in RRS, the main retort or crucible is in the shape of a brinjal. It was made from a clay mixture consisting of locally available refractory clay, rice husk, and sometimes mixed with iron ore dust. Many such compositions have been mentioned FIGURE 10.2 A Simple Illustration of the Yantra Used for Downward in ancient Indian literature. 10.3.3. Copper Mining and Extraction Process India abounds in ancient specimens of copper: Utensils made of copper, owing to the Pe sanctity attached to it by ancient Indians, have been used in India from ancient times i eculiat in theEngineering an gineering and Technology: Metals and Metalworking 264 ce of religious ceremonies. Wires made of copper and brass have from \ stringe - earl in the construction of stringed musical instruments for which India has been een en famous flourishing tradition of the copper . q Copper industry in ancient India can he inferred from sortorman' noon used 4 jong ane at : : owing atchaeological specimens we) As many as 424 copper implements and weapons and 102 pieces of thin silver plates were discovered in one place measuring about three feet in length, three feet in breadth, and four feet in depth in the village of Gungeria in the Nagpur Division of the erstwhile Central Provinces in 1870 CE. The copper implements were mostly celts, shovels, axe-blades, spades, manufactured for warlike, domestic, and agricultural purposes These have been kept in the Archaeological Department of the Indian Museum, Kolkata. Figure 10.3 is a sample of copper swords belonging to pre-historic times. ¢ A big solid copper bolt was found in the Rampurwa Ashoka pillar near the frontiers FIGURE 10.3 Prehistoric Copper Swords of the Kingdom of Nepal. The bolt is barrel Discovered at Fatehgarh shaped in appearance, slightly tapering at (indian Antiquary, 1905, the two ends. It is 242 inches long, with a p. 236). circumference of 14 inches at the centre. The two ends of the bolt have a circumference of about 12 inches. This bolt ought to have been fabricated as early as the third century BCE, thereby testifying to the high metallurgical skill of ancient Indians * Acolossal copper statue of Buddha was discovered at Sultanganj in the district of Bhagalpur in the ruins of an old Buddhist monastery (see Figure 10.4). biog ee ea csi It was 7 feet 6 inches high and weighed nearly | MIW"* 1 Cort en ae ‘¢ The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang has written that Indians knew the 1 ton. Based on the mode of its construction se arabeceain fotlcne proceseed and discovery of a coin belonging to the time of —4¢ extraction of copper and its Candragupta II in the vicinity of the monastery, use in the preparation of various its date is estimated to be 5th century CE. Lumps Ayurvedic formulations of copper ore were also found suggesting that the ————— smelting and casting operations were done on the spot, It has been & . erve 2 am Museum. carrer «d by the Chinese traveler Hiewn- * Another statue, 80 feet high was reportedly witnesse’ c Tsang near Nalanda in a Vibara of brass constructed by King Siladitya (also knows CE). Aces 0 Hiuen-Tsang, “A as King Harsavardhan who ruled from 606-647 ce) Acco ing to HE ang. A Pavilion of six stages is required to cover this glgantls copper I as the 00 Purnavarman, the last descendant of King Asoka : a ee eee pins by the kings. The P' re a BCE), copper coins of the Kanishka * The principal use of copper was to mint ¢ coins of many kings of Northern India (1st262 introduction to Indian Knowledge System—Concepts and Applications a (ist century CE), and the Gupta kings have been found in many places. In Central and Southern India copper coins of the Andhra and Khatrapa dynasties are amongst the earliest. Brass coins of kings of several other dynasties living at that time have also been collected. One of the earliest copper plates was discovered in the village of Sohgaura, Gorakhpur district, with inscriptions of Maurya Brahmi characters (320-230 BCE). The Sue Vihar inscriptions of Kaniska and the Taksasila plates are also amongst the earliest copper plates discovered in Northern India # One remarkable ancient copper ghoti or Iota, was found by Major Hay in ; 1857 in the village of Kundla in the A Kangra district, Punjab. The vessel has an inscribed scene running around it which represents Prince Siddhartha (later to become Buddha) going in a royal procession in a chariot drawn FIGURE 10.4 Copper Statue of Buddha Discovered at Sultangunj by four horses. From the mode of the (Neogi, P. (1918). “Copper inscription use of copper in the utensil, Injeanclentdindiar,plndlan making is dated anywhere between 1st pe prranonccgnieg culnan century BCE and 3rd century CE of Science, Special Publication No. 1, Kolkata, p. 21). Extraction of Copper for Ayurvedic Purposes RRS gives a vivid account of the processes of extraction of copper and its use in the preparation of various Ayurvedic formulations. According to RRS, there are two varieties of copper: pure (red) copper from Nepal and the other impure or black copper (Mleccha). The Nepal copper was of high purity (99.5%), brick red, and very ductile whereas the impure copper contained copper oxides and other impurities like Pb, Sn, As, Zn, ete. which made it hard and brittle. RRS has mentioned many processes for obtaining pure copper from chalcopyrite by smelting small charges in crucibles. In Ayurveda, copper in the powder form (bhasma) is used for therapeutic formulations. Therefore, certain methods are specified for the extraction of copper using lemon juice as a reductant. In this process, after purification of chalcopyrite, the ore mineral is roasted at 750-900°C adding lemon juice at the rate of 100 cc per 100 g of the ore during the process. During the roasting process, Cu (Copper) and Fe (Iron) get converted to citrates. The roasted ore js mixed with 25% Borax (flux) and more lemon juice, and the mixture is pressed into 20-30 mm balls. After drying these balls in Sunlight, they are melted at 1250°C using a 4-stage Process, At the end of the process sulphide free copper is extracted. eres iroaiored tn the RRS is based on the precipitation of Cu from blue, 1) By the process of cementation. In this process, concentrated CuSO» solution was kept in an iron bowl, where on the surtace a copper layer was formed following the reaction given below: CuSO, + Fe = FeSO, + CuEngineering an Smeenng and Technology: Metals and Metalworking 263 ter some time, a thick layer of pure eoppe nor removing the solution, the copper is extr nis pure copper is finally washed with wa reparation of copper bhasma, * Particles gets deposited on the iron surface, acted by scraping it away from the iron surface, ter {ree from Sulphur oxide and used for the 40.3.4 Copper Alloys ss articles of the Ist century BCE to Ist ce cE fa Deen eee Manilgalane is have been found on the excavation of as the former has been discovered in a tope about 30 This urn, which in shape and size approaches closeh India to this day, was originally thickly gilt and its sur preserved", Lothal (2200-1500 BCE) showed one hig site of Ross (also in Gujarat), has yielded a few s, made of brass and assaying up to 1.54% zinc. The that Indians knew the method of preparing brass from a mixture of copper and Calamine tiuen Tsang has described a brass ‘vihar’ (unfinished convent) at Nalanda during the period of Siliditya (Harsavardhana) whose walls, doors, and windowsill all were covered with brass. On the other hand, huge brass guns and cannons of the Moghul period bear testimony to the skills of the medieval metalworkers. Table 10.1 has a list of brass objects discovered during various archaeological excavations in different parts of the country. ly the ordinary water vessels in use in face has, in consequence, remained well- ly oxidized antiquity, another Harappan samples of the chisel, cell, rod, and bangle, Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang has written TABLE 10.1 Brass Objects in Ancient India SI.No. Date and Site ‘Archaeological Specimen q| 1_| ~ 1500 BCE Lothal No. 4189 Copper Object | 2 Harappan Rosdi Chisel, Celtrod, Bangle ] 3 4th Century BCE, Taksasila Vase Bm | 42nd Century BCE, Taksasila | Bangle 5__| 2nd Century CE, Gujarat | Female Figure Carrying Flower-Container Indo-Parthian 6 | 5th Century CE Gandhara Buddha 7__| 6th Century CE, Akota Ambika 8 | 7th Century CE, Mahudi Réabhanatha 9 | 8th Century CE, Kashmir | Siva 10 __| 9th Century CE, Nalanda Buddha HM 1th Century CE, W. Tibet | Mafjusrt 12 [Gujarat 1350 CE a eee aaSee Model Temple with Four 13 |< 1480 cE 14 | ~ 1485 ce 15 | Rajasthan 15th—16th Centuries CE __| Gujarat 1554 CE ted trom Biswas, A.K. (1993). “The ‘ory of Science, 28(4) pp. 809-130 Visnu-Narayana Rajput Prince on Horse Kal Bhair rave and Zine Metallurgy’ Indian Journal of Ado Primacy of India mn Ane264 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System —Concepts and Applications a technology is baffling, One can infer the existence of Copper-bronze technology by examining the excavations of the Sindhu Saraswati civilisation, The use of bronze for ornamentation was evident from the discovery of ancient bronze articles at Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu whilst excavating the ancient pre-historic burial sites. The bronze articles included ornamental vase stands, bowls, jars, and cups of different patterns with ‘ornamental bowl lids. Bronze bangles, necklaces, ear ornaments, and diadems were also found The Madras Government Museum has a very large collection of such pre-historic bronze objects from Adichanallur and Coimbatore probably dating from the 2nd or the 1st century BCE.'* From the Bhir mound at Taksaéila, eight bronze vessels and mirrors with more than 20% tin belonging to the 4th century BCE to the 1st century CE were reported. Similarly, a few vessels from the Nilgiris cairns of southern India with around 20-30% tin-bronze were also excavated Copper-bronze iron-casting, is a living tradition in India, having an active application in artistic and decorative item manufacture and in the field of idol making, With the advent of firearms in the Mughal period, guns of huge dimensions were cast with artistic designs. A wide variety of efficient distillation practices and extraction processes were in vogue in India for more than a thousand years!®. There is a continuing Indian tradition of high-tin beta bronze vessel making by a traditional community of Kammalar (or bronzesmiths) in Kerala, Some studies show evidence for the use of high tin bronze in the fabrication of a wafer-thin water clock from Kerala, which resembles a sinking water clock with a hole at its bottom. As it floats, water flows into the bowl and it sinks after a certain time interval. Water clocks and sand clocks were used in Kerala to measure the time for medication, particularly dhdra’®. As we all know: brass along with bronze was very largely used in making statues of gods and goddesses in the Middle Ages. Another variation of this is the making of idols using pafica-loha (a combination of five metals—gold, silver, copper, zinc, and iron). Several pafica-loha idols from Tamil Nadu temples have been stolen or taken away in the last 300 years. Ancient Indian's supremacy in bronze 10.3.5 Mercury ‘© The technique of amalgamation The compound HgS (Mercury (Il) sulphide) is referred and gilding of Mercury was known to as Rasa-sindira in the Ayurvedic text Caraka-samhita, © the Indian craftsmen from the Hg (Mercury), as well as HgS, have been extensively used Very early times, in the preparation of Ayurvedic medicines. In RRS and * Ge08raphically Rajasthan stands other literature on the Rasa-Sastra description of the use OUt_2S 3 major mining province 4 - dating back to about 1000 BCE. of Cinnebar (Hifgula) to produce Mercury (Hiigulikrsta- ——"*°* ao rasa) has been described. The apparatus to be used for distillation and extraction is also given in some detail. HgS gets decomposed easily on heating in air or with lime to red hot temperature. The reactions are as follows: HigS + 0. —» Hg + SO, 3HgS + 2Ca0 ——» 2Cas + 3Hg + SO. The Ayurvedic literature also describes the process of purification of this metal and its reconversion to HgS for Mercurial preparations. As we have already discussed, Hg is also used for the amalgamation process for the extraction of Silver and Gold. 10.3.6 Lead and Silver PbS can be converted into PbO through a simple process of roasting and further reduced © molten lead at 500°C. The process used in ancient India in places such as Zawar uses this; — Engineering and Technology Met als and Metalworking 265 methodology using a process where the roasting and reduction is carried out in furnace In such a furnace temperature as high as 1000°C can be reduced metal flows out and gets collected in the front pit. At this temperature, Ags (Silver Sulphide) also gets decomposed and reduced and forms an alloy with molten lead. Silver metal seas subsequently obtained from the alloy of Pb-Ag by reheating it in a shallow hearth furnace with bone charcoal at the bottom. During remelting of the alloy, excess air is blown so that the lead gets oxidized into PbO. Since this has a very low melting point it is skimmed off, leaving behind the purified liquid silver: It is tapped out and cast into ingots!” Kautilya's Arthasastra describes Silver-Copper alloys and the techniques applied for minting silver coins of a definite weight. The study of the punch marks on ancient coins indicates a high level of craftsmanship in the preparation of punching dies, an open pit easily obtained and the 10.4 IRON AND STEEL IN INDIA Ancient specimens of iron are widely available in India which will convince anyone that India has always been a rich iron-producing country. A host of archaeological excavations firmly establish that ancient Indians were well aware of the use of iron. Indians manufactured massive iron objects during the Christian era, which were much ahead of the times. The iron pillar at Qutub Minar (in the Mehrauli area of South Delhi) which weighs about 6,000 kg is well known, but other iron pillars, viz the one at Dhar (12th century CE) which weighs 7,000 kg and is nearly twice as big as the Iron Pillar of Delhi in Qutub Complex, and another on Mount Abu, which is less known. Another notable example is the 29 iron beams in the Konark temple in Odisha. Moreover, the gigantic iron beams at Konark, which lay buried in the sea sand for a few centuries were recently unearthed. These as well as numerous iron beams at Puri and Bhubaneswar where as many as 239 pieces were found in the Puri Gunduchibari temple are shining evidence for the supremacy of iron in ancient Indian culture!®. The corrosion resistance and sheer size of these artefacts point to highly evolved practices in metalworking involving iron. Moreover, the presence of numerous Aéoka pillars of stone cut out in a faultless manner from single pieces of stone of gigantic dimensions presupposes the use of the finest steel saws and steel chisels in India in the 4th century BCE. A large number of prehistoric iron implements such as swords, daggers, tridents, spears, javelins, arrows, spades, hangers, saucer lamps, beam rods, and tripods have been unearthed during the excavation of numerous burial sites in the Tuticorin district of Tamil Nadu. The stipa of Bodh Gaya belongs to the Asokan times. The foundations of the stupa, on excavation, have a piece of iron slag that has been preserved in the Kolkata Museum. This piece of iron stag dated the 3rd century BCE is believed to be the most ancient archaeological evidence of the manufacture of iron in India. Besides the iron slag, many iron clamps five or six inches Jong and about one inch broad have been found in the main temple and in various stupas in Bodh Gaya, which are Indians manufactured massive 14 iron objects during the Christian Preserved in the Indian Museum each tact cn iceaien With the advent of the carburisation of iron, a special 2. whi Type of high carbon steel was produced in India from as EWM early as the fourth century BCE, known as wootz ste mentioned the fabrication of used for military applications for producing tough swords, Joye than 100 surgical. tools helmets, and armour. The word ‘wootz’ by which nam made of iron-carbon alloys and Indian steel was and is still known in Europe seems to have the process of heat treatment to been prepared from time immemorial and was the metal obtain a razor-sharp edgeConcepts and Applications —_ 266 introduction to Indian Knowledge System ; famous Damascus blades were prepared. From the presence of numerous Asoka pillars of stone neatly carved out of single pieces of stone of gigantic dimensions we can infer the use of saws and chisels made out of steel in India in the 4th century BCE. The use of a large number of surgical instruments by Susruta (3rd century BCE), some of which b also points to the use of steel in India in making cutlery from which the could bisect a hair longitudinally: and such medical instruments It appears that the ancient Indians, especially from the time of the Guptas, were aware of the technology of producing corrosion resistance iron. This calls for a good understanding of metallurgy and material science, to use modern terms. Dr. P.C. Ray in his History of Hindu Chemistry remarks, "..The wrought iron-pillar in Qutub complex, which weighs ten tons and is some 1500 years old, the huge iron girders at Puri, the ornamental gates of Somnath, and the feet wrought-iron gun at Nurvar are monuments of a by-gone art and bear silent but eloquent testimony to the marvellous metallurgical skill attained by the Hindus...” ". The high status of iron and steel technology in ancient ard medieval India is reflected in the manufacture and use of numerous large iron objects, including forge-welded cannons. Such cannon, found at Nurwar, Mushirabad, Dhaka (in Bangladesh), Bishnupur, Bijapur, Gulbarga, and Thanjavur, bear ample evidence to the medieval Indian blacksmith’s skill in the design, engineering, and construction of large forge-welded iron objects. Based on its weight and size, the cannon at Thanjavur (see Figure 10.5), must be regarded as one of the largest forge-welded iron cannons in the world According to a recent authoritative history of the ancient city of Thanjavur, the cannon was manufactured in Thanjavur during the regime of Raghunatha Nayak (1600-1645 CE)”. FIGURE 10.5 The Thanjavur Cannon Source: By P. lambulingam—Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https:// Commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=35437933 crowned saith en eilat (5th century CE) is made of almost pure iron (99.72%) and 8 for such 9 long, time nate cbital The pillar is unrivalled for it is corrosion-iree property for such a lone i found ante Withstood the ravages of weather (see Figure 10.6). The ons found on the pillar indicate canta a Of Candragupta Vikeamaditys Ha inate that i was constructed during ee 2 pillar is 23 feet 6 inch, including, the decor i the Gupta dynasty. The total length Cn “corated capital which is 3 feet and 5 inches ©- Engineering and Techn M ni Iworkin \ology: Metals and Met lalworking 267 was reported that the top of the pillar was adorned : originally wi which was removed when the pillar fell into the hands of the nT Peet (ssel) 0 onc See using a forge welding process as it was the caieciaieee| a to ancient Indians, In contrast, the forging of such large iron objects Eee on peer st in the 19th century”! cl a ae FIGURE 10.6 The Delhi Iron Pillar Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:QtublronPillarJPG A 12th century CE iron pillar at Dhar in Central India is much larger (44 feet 4 inches). On Mount Abu, situated in the lower part of Rajputana, stands the temple Acaleswar, built in 1412 CE. An iron pillar, the third of its kind, about 12 feet high is situated in the courtyard of the temple with a Saiva Trisdl or trident on its top. It is stated that just before the death of the Pathan Emperor Alauddin when a rebellion broke out in all parts of India, the Hindus defeated the invaders and built this pillar as a mark of victory with the molten implements of War!" rather less known iron pillar is located in Adi-Mukambika temple at Kodachadri village Western Ghats in Karnataka. The pillar is about 40 km from Kollur, in a remote forest of the estimated to be 46 feet high with a rectangular cross-section of 8.5 cm x 5.8 cm weighing about 500 kp, Based on a series of modern metallographic tests conducted at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, it was found that the X-ray examination could not or compound besides pure iron’. There are over reveal the definite presence of any element 260 iron beams of zhe same period in the temples at Puri and Konark in Odishit ‘each about Six meters long. These living specimens ‘unambiguously point to a sophisticated and perhaps well-established iron and steel working skills of ancient Indians268. introduction to Indian Knowledge System—Concepts and Applications The Delhi iron pillar is famous for its corrosion resistance for nearly 1600 years and has Widely attracted the attention of archaeologists and corrosion technologists. It bears testimony to the high level of skill achieved by the ancient Indian ironsmiths. One plausible argument for corrosion resistance has been the low relative humidity in Delhi. However, the material of construction is likely to play a significant factor in corrosion resistance. This is because, at several other places where the relative humidity is high, we find corrosion-resistant iron pillars and beams. As we have already seen, notable among them include the iron beams in the Surya temple at Konark and the iron pillar at Makambika temple. The Susruta Samhita has mentioned the fabrication of more than 100 surgical tools made of iron-carbon alloys and the process of heat treatment to obtain a razor-sharp edge that is capable of splitting a thin hair into two longitudinally. As per the text, applying a carbonaceous paste on the edge of a surgical knife, heating it red hot, and then subjecting it to hardening and tempering treatments will make the knife razor-sharp that it can split a hair longitudinally. Figure 10.7 has a sample set of such tools designed by Susruta. FIGURE 10.7 A Sample Set of Tools Designed by Susruta Using Fe-C Alloy Source: Bag, A.K. (1977). History of Technology in India, Vol. |, indian National Science ‘Academy, New Delhi, p. 102. Reproduced with permission Smelting of Iron The reason for expertise in iron is attributed and richest deposits of Hematite, Magnetite, spread all over India. Ancient Indians have bee to the fact that India has one of the largest and their hydrated forms like limonite, etc in Western Asia and Europe of the same peri prefabricated clay blocks, the others were mad stone pieces to the required shape. The India the Western furnaces were to be discarded a The smelting of iron in the past was done by a speci each tribe and ey al worship the ns hrs kar ao ate operant the iron smelting was carried out, by these ‘Asuras’ and in Cemrar vere by ‘Agarias. There ‘od. While the Indian furnaces were built using by digging a hole in the earth and arranging the n furnaces could be reused after repair whereas fter one use,: ee Engineering and Technology: Metals and Met working 269 ge studies on the ‘Agaria’ tribe, and their iron smelting practice spread through the central indian regions including Rewa, Udaipur, Ranchi, and Koraput. Another group associated with ironworking is ‘Lohars’ or ‘Loharins’ (blacksmiths). While Agarias were involved in smelting the iron ore to produce wrought iron blooms, Lohars worked on the wrought iron to manufacture various tools and objects using suitable heat treatment operations. Circular Clay Bricks _ oe Cinder FIGURE 10.8 Sketch of a Reconstructed Furnace (700 BCE) Source: Bag, AK. (1977). History of Technology in india, Vol. |, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, p. 110. Reproduced with permission The ancient iron-making practice consisted of several operations and each one of them was Performed under the strict supervision of the master craftsman, who is often an older person 'n the tribe. The operation of the furnace was considered to be a sacred ritual and they prayed ‘0 the tribal God ‘Asura’ for the success of the smelting. Many of the ‘Mantras’ and verses that they recite have been preserved as folk songs. The womenfolk also participated in this activity and there were certain tasks assigned to them. RRS describes in some detail the characteristics ‘eatures of the women and their duties. The advanced state of use of iron and its carbon alloys is evident from the ability to Study the properties of iron and classify them accordingly into different types. Chapter 5 of RRS has about 15 verses where these classifications have been given in some detail. The iron- Grbon alloy has been classified into three main groups’: Kanta-loha (soft iron), Tiksna-loha \ligh carbon steel), and Munda-loha (cast iron). Based on other characteristics of the iron- GrPon alloy, these have been further classified into sub-groups as shown in Table 10.2. The cra ification of iron-carbon alloy indicates that the Indian iron technology was much advanced, aa the ancient craftsmen were capable of selective use of various grades of this alloy. RRS is J. assigned to the 12th century CE. This type of classification was not known elsewhere ast ing to some studies, it was only in 1772 that the classification as grey, white and mottled ron fractures were attempted in the west".\duction to Indian Knowledge System—Concepts and Applications TABLE 10.2. Classification of Fe-C Steel Alloys as per Rasa-ratna-samuccaya ___ Type of tron ___Name [ Properties Kanta-loha (Soft Iron) Bhramaka | Very soft, magnetic iron _ Cumbaka | Mildly magnetic, sticks to iron pieces - | Karsaka 7 | Attracts iron objects — Dravaka | Strong magnetic iron - Romaka Permanent magnet, develops magnetic field around i | Tiksna-loha (Carbon Steel) | Khara____| Develops good cutting edge, ‘breaks on bonding Sara Softer iron, it has fi rus fracture | - (“Hirnnala Hard and tough, has fibrous fracture ‘aravatta Develops good cutting edge ee mee | Good hardening and tempering property, bluish in | colour, hard cutting edge - : Kala [Develops hard cutting edge after tempering Munda-loha (Cast Iron) Mrdu———— Soft, Bain nn Kuntha a | Kadara | White cast iron Source: Bag, AK. (1977). History of Technology in India, Vol. |, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, p. 126 10.4.1 Extraction of Iron from Biotite by Ayurvedic Method In RRS and other Ayurvedic texts, several processes have been mentioned for the extraction of iron from Biotite and other iron-bearing minerals for the preparation of medicine. This process is known as Satvapatana, and it consists of three steps: Sodhana (purification), Bhavana (Maceration and Trituration), and Damana (Heating and smelting). The first step involves purifying the mineral by heating and quenching it in some specified extracts seven times. The suggested liquids used for purification of biotite are??: 1. Kanji (Acidic fermentative liquid) 2. Triphala (Decoction of a mixture of Terminienelia chebula, Terminalia belerica, and Emblica Officinalis) 3. Cow's urine 4. Cow's milk This process is accompanied by intermediate Bhavana and finally pelletisation ot the {cated mineral mixed with certain other ingredients. RRS specifies the following proportion o! the charge materials: Mica (purified) 200 , Borax (flux) 50 g, and Musali powder (reductant) 50 g, To this mixture, water is added, and the mixture is pelletised to 25-30 mm balls and dried in the Sun. The pellets are charged into a crucible and heated to high temperatures in a furnace Alurnace design that can attain a temperature of 140°C, has been described in RRS text Varahamihira (550 CE) in Brhat-sambita di ussed the following processes for carburisatio? and hardening of iron swords in Ch, apter 50 (verses 23-26)".Engineering and Toc Snes and Technology. Metals and Metaworking 274 {i) Make a paste of the gelatin from the sheep's horn and excret with the juice of the plant Arka (Caletropis Gigantica} rubbing it with sesame oil. After heating the it any of the following: water, milk of horse, Then sharpen the edge. lil] Plunge the steel, red hot into a solution of pl hours, and then sharpen the edge. ta of pigeon and mouse and smear this to the steel after sword to red hot condition, sprinkle on camel or goat, ghee, blood, fat, or bile lantain ashes in whey, keep it for twenty 10.4.2 Manufacture of Steel steel may be prepared in two ways, firstly, by removing part of the carbon of cast iron before it is converted into wrought iron; or secondly, by carburising wrought iron or making it combine with the requisite quantity of carbon. The second process is called the process of cementation and has been discovered in England only in the 18th century CE, while Indian iron was prepared by this process from time immemorial. The iron produced by the Indian method is always wrought iron, unlike cast-iron which is produced in modern blast furnaces. The main reason is that the modern blast furnaces reach a temperature of 1400°C or more. On the other hand, the temperature in the furnaces is low, sufficient enough to only soften the iron. The process of Indian steelmaking may be summarised in the following way: Wrought iron is first obtained by the direct method, viz. heating the ores of iron with charcoal in small blast furnaces (the blast being admitted employing hand bellows) without the intermediate formation of cast iron as has already been described. To convert the wrought iron into steel each piece is cut into three parts, each of which is put into a crucible, together with a handful of the dried branches of ‘tangedu’ (Cassia auriculata) and another of fresh leaves of ‘vonangady’ (convolvulus laurifolia). The mouth of the crucible is then properly sealed with a handful of red mud and is arranged in circular order with their bottoms turned towards the centre in a hole made on the ground for the purpose. The hole is then filled up with charcoal and large bellows are kept blowing for six hours, by which time the operation is finished. The crucibles are then removed from the furnace, ranged in rows on moistened mud, and water is thrown on them whilst yet hot. The steel is found in conical pieces at the bottom of the Crucibles, the form of which it has taken’! The chemical action that takes place, as evident from some studies is that during the pplication of heat to the closed crucible the dry wood and green leaves would yield charcoal 48 well as an abundant supply of hydrocarbons. The joint action of carbon and hydrocarbons On the iron greatly facilitates the formation of steel quickly. The European method of {{ientation using charcoal alone used to take six or seven days, and even fourteen to twe ays. while the Indian process takes only four to six hours. —__________———__ The carbursation of hot sponge or bloom could be done # varahamihra (550 CE) Bhat by selective carburisation of cutting edge of the implements for carturisation and hardening y the application of carburising paste and reheating to 95 eee ‘© 1000°C. This method was followed by ancient Indians © The European method of "© develop sharp cutting edges such as surgical knives Foe tt ining charcoal wed and swords as we have already seen. However, the Iron tg take six or seven days, and ‘reated by the carburising process suffered from structural eyen fourteen to twenty aan ‘eterogeneity and non-consistency of quality as well a8 while the Indian process lo 7 only four to six hours. fracture strength. These difficulties were solved by ly four to sistom— Concepts and Applications 272 introduction to Indian Knowledge the introduction of the process of production of Wootz steel, which is a classic innovation a ancient Indians. . Yuktikalpataru an 11th century CE work mentions the relative properties of iron-carbon alloys produced in different regions of India and provides a comparative metric for thy, relative superiority as given below’? ¢ Kraufica— iron is supposed to be two times better than Samanya (probably Mund, loha) Kalinga (Odisha) —8 times better than Kroufica iron, Bhadra— 100 times better than Kalifga iron. Vajra— 1000 times better than Bhadra iron. Pandi—6 times better than Vajra iron. Niravi—10 times better than Pandi iron. Kanta—Ten billion times as good as Niravi iron. eo eeee 10.5 LOST WAX CASTING OF IDOLS AND ARTEFACTS This is a process adopted for producing metal sculptures based on an original sculpture. The metal sculpture is made of silver, gold, brass, or bronze. The beautiful idols and icons made during the Chola era were produced using bronze using this technique. Figure 10.9 is an example of a bronze idol of Siva-Parvatl, made using the lost wax casting process probably in the 11th century CE, In the Indian tradition, the lost-wax casting process is also used to produce idols using a combination of five metals (Gold, Silver, Lead, Copper, and Zinc) known as pafica loha idols. Intricate works and a good post-casting finish can be achieved by this method. Such is the specialty, antiquity, and grandeur of these pafica-loha idols that a good number of them have been stolen, smuggled, or simply taken out of the country. The oldest known example of this technique is a 6,000 year-old amulet from the Sindhu Sarasvati Civilisation. There are other examples from somewhat later periods from Mesopotamia in the third millennium BCE. In this process, a pattern of the desired shape is made out of beeswax first (therefore the process is known as Madhicchista Vidhanam—meaning process using remains of beehives) A mould is then prepared by applying coatings of prepared clay slurry on it. Later, when the refractory clay slurry has dried the wax is removed by baking the refractory shell. Before casting the molten metal, the refractory shell is generally embedded in a box filled with the sand-clay mixture for further support to the refractory wall. After pouring the metal and its solidification the mould is carefully dismantled to take out the metal casting. Further refinements and finishing touches are given by filing, chiselling, engraving, and polishing Several literary sources in India have documented the lost wax metal casting proce’ '" detail. Chapter 14 of Visnu-samhit3, which is a part of Visnu Purana, dated to Sth ent) ilar CE mentions the need to make a wax model first before making a metal replica. Sint Chapter 68 of Manasara has details on Madhucchista Vidhanam. Manasollasa also ro je method © lav Abhilasitartha-cintamani of 12th century CE also provides a detailed account of th preparation of wax pattern and slurry coating. As per these texts, the composition of th slurry coating consisted of clay mixed with a certain proportion of finely ground ¢hs husk and sodium chloride. Some studies Point to the use of the lost-wax technique by the tribals of Bastar for producing various brass and bronze objects.E q _—— amneenng and Technology. Metals and Metaworking 273 10.6 APPARATUSES USED FOR EXTRACTION OF METALLIC COMPONENTS three groups of experts were working on the extraction of metals from the ore. First mnetalworking engineers and metalsmiths, They mine the ore and extract the metal. The eaeg group was the Ayurvedic practitioners. They also extracted metals and prepared therapeutic formulations using the powder form of the metals (bhasma). Thirdly the alchemists were involved in extracting metals and used them in their alchemical preparations, While the second and third groups might have worked on a smaller scale, the metalworking engineers engaged on a bigger scale, Nevertheless, the process and requirements were similar, and they had been adopting similar processes for extraction. FIGURE 10.9 A 11th Century CE Bronze Idol of Siva~Parvati Source: https://upload wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/ Bronze_siva png vive {loer look at the alchemy works belonging to the early centuries of the Common Era abparany 4 good indication of how a laboratory of a scientist looked like and what type of com “tuses were fabricated by them and used for extraction of various chemicals and metallic Ponents. Several apparatus and apphances called yantray were employed by the alchemistsConcepts and Applications 274 introduction to Indian Knowledge System For instance, RRS has described a variety of cruc ibles (Musa) and furnaces for the Manufacture of Ay dic medicines. It also describes in total 51 kinds of metallurgical tools (upakaranas) 36 kinds of equipments (yantras), 17 types of crucibles, and 9 types of furnaces. The alchemist the Ayurvedic expert, and the metalworking engineer seem to be benefiting from each other's know-how and used similar apparatuses, albeit in varying sizes to suit their requirements, We have already seen some of these in the previous sections. However, we shall discuss this aspect in a focused manner he The crucible, known as miisa-yantra is the frequently used apparatus by the alchemists as it serves as a generic container for a variety of operations. The musa-yantra was predominantly earthen. To prepare the crucibles, the earth of anthill, rice husk, iron rust, chalk, human hair, and a few other ingredients are mixed in a certain proportion, and to this goat's milk is added. The mixture is kneaded into a dough-like mass which would then be shaped into the desired forms, and finally sun-dried**. There were various types of crucibles for different operations. For the extraction of zinc from calamine, a crucible of the shape of brinjal (Solanum melongena) is used. To this crucible, a tubular end is added, which expands towards its mouth like a flower. We shall see in brief some of the apparatuses found in the ancient Indian laboratory” The apparatus is simple and made of earthen material shaped into different forms. In all the cases the source of heat was either cow-dung or wood. As we know, this may not yield a high temperature, and therefore wherever required the substances are heated for a few days, in some cases, weeks. Dola-yantra uses a suspension mechanism using which the ingredient to be subjected to some treatment is kept in a piece of cloth, tied, and suspended using a rod. This is immersed in a pot half-filled with the desired liquid. The liquid is then heated from the outside. See Figure 10.10(a) for an illustrative sketch of Dola-yantra. (a) Dola-yantra (b) Patana-yantra FIGURE 10.10 Examples of Yantras Used by Alchemists in India Source: Sen, S.N. and Subbarayappa, B.V. (2009). A Concise History Of Science in India, Indian National Science Academy, 2nd ed., pp. 426-430. Reproduced with permission,Engineering and Technology Metals and Metalworking 275 svedani-yantra is used for steaming purposes. The mouth of a pot is covered with a piece of cloth and the substance to be steamed is placed on the cloth. Water is kept in the pot and is covered using another pot. The substance is steamed by boiling the water. patana-yantra is used whenever a sublimation or distillation process is involved. It consists ot a well-baked pot of suitable dimensions. Water is filled in this pot to its neck and another bigger pot is Kept over it in an inverted position. The two necks of the pots are firmly sealed using an adamantine made of lime, raw sugar, and buffalo’s milk. A downward sublimation process is applied as follows. When the substance is smeared inside the upper vessel and heated from outside by burning cow-dung cakes, it vaporizes and collects in the water in the lower pot. On the other hand, the substance may also be heated in the lower pot and the upper one is kept cooled by applying wet rags. The sublimate deposits in the interior of the upper pot. Figure 10.10(b) is a schematic representation of a version of Patana-yantra for the downward distillation process. In this version, the vapour passes through a pipe into another pot kept alongside. The second pot is cooled with water and the vapour condenses into liquid and is collected in the second pot. Dheki-yantra is also used for the distillation of substances such as mercury. A hole is made slightly below the neck of a pot and one end of a bamboo tube is introduced into it. The other end is fitted into a brass vessel that is filled with water. Mercury mixed with the other desired substances is subjected to distillation in this type of © Yoktikalpataru an Lith century apparatus, Se CE work mentions the relative Valuka-yantra is of a type of sand-bath for heating properties of iron-carbon alloys Substances uniformly and for usually a long time. A long- produced in different regions of India i e heated, necked bottle, containing the substance to be heated, is | ee a uegie kept buried in sand in an earthen pot up to three-fourth of ee aan its height. The apparatus is heated from below for along engineer seem to be benefiting time till a straw when placed on the surface of the sand, from each other's know-how catches fire. Instead of sand, sometimes salt is used. Dhapa-yantra is used for fumigation purposes. Fumigation of the leaves of gold or silver with the fumes of sulphur or arsenic substances is done in this apparatus. Two vessels are employed for this purpose. In the lower vessel, iron bars are placed in a slanting position below its mouth, and leaves of gold or silver are placed on them. Sulphur or the arsenic substance 's placed in the lower vessel and the other vessel is used for covering purposes. On heati the fumigation takes place. : For heating mercury and sulphur together, the following details of an masa-yantra are Riven in the Rasarnava’”: The apparatus consists of two crucibles; one of them has orifice, In one crucible sulphur is taken and in the other mercury. Mercury and sulphur are be moistened with filtered garlic juice. The crucible containing sulphur is to be inserted into apparatus carefully lowered into an earthen pot over which luted with a cloth, It iy heated trom outside narrow the one having mercury, and the “nother earthen pot is to be kept, and the by cow-dung fire for three days.276 Introduction to Indian Knowledge Sy’ SU: » RE IMMARY Indian civilisation has a rich heritage spanning ‘over the recorded history of the last two millennia. Moreover, there are several other archaeological and literary resources that point to the existence of a vibrant community in antiquity. In technology, ancient Indian’s contributions to metalworking, and in more general terms to metallurgy and material science are noteworthy. The high status of iron and steel technology in ancient and medieval India is reflected in the manufacture and use of numerous large iron objects, including forge-welded cannons. A long and flourishing tradition of the copper industry in ancient India can be inferred from ‘a number of archaeological specimens. Extensive archaeological excavations conducted in several parts of Rajasthan clearly show that the earliest artifact containing an appreciable amount of zinc anywhere in the world is from India The Vedic corpus has multiple references to iron, copper, gold, silver, and tin. There are a few important treatises pertaining to the Sth century CE to 13th century CE that deal with metallurgy and metalworking Ancient Indians developed skills to explore ore deposits and mine portions that are remunerative. Rasa-ratna-samuccaya has mentioned many processes for obtaining pure copper from chalcopyrite by smelting small charges in crucibles. In Ayurveda, copper in the powder form (bhasma) is used for therapeutic formulations. VIEW QUESTIONS What are the ways by which one can make an assessment of the $ & T heritage of a Do you think that anci archaeological evidence to support this? Mow can we infer ancient Indians’ knowledge What ts the status of zine with respect to ane Mt Indians had a good understanding of mining and met stem— Concepts and Applications - ftsmen could subject the purified to metalworking techniques punching, embossing, etc. so fe designs could be > Ancient ral gold metal bar such as forging, that ornaments of intricate produced. > Studies on the Zawar zinc mines provide rich insights into zinc mining in ancient India. Ancient Indians adopted a novel technique of downward drift reduction distillation process for zinc production, which is a precursor to the modern processes adopted all over the world. > The compound Hes is referred to as Rasa- sindura in the Ayurvedic text Caraka-samhita. Hg, as well as HgS, have been extensively used in the preparation of Ayurvedic medicines. > Ancient Indians have been extracting iron from ore deposits and producing sponge iron or wrought iron using a variety of furnaces. > The carburisation of hot sponge or bloom could be done by selective carburisation of cutting edge of the implements by the application of carburising paste and reheating to 950°C to 1000°C. This method was followed by ancient Indians to develop sharp cutting edges such as, surgical knives and swords. > A closer look at the alchemy works belonging to the early centuries of the Common Era gives us a good indication of how a laboratory of a scientist looked like and what type of apparatuses were fabricated by them and Used for extraction of various chemicals and metallic components. > The beautiful idols and icons made during the Chola era were produced using bronze using the lost wax casting technique ancient culture? Hurgy? ts there \d use of iron and copper? Indian society?1. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Engineering and Technology: Metals and Metalworking 277 What are the key features of iron pillars in India? What can we infer from these existing specimens? What are the various uses that ancient Indians put copper and its alloys to? Briefly comment on the mining operations done by ancient Indians. Briefly describe the process and the steps involved in extracting copper from the What is the status of zinc with respect to ancient Indian society? What do you understand by the term ‘downward drift distillat the extraction of zinc metal? mines. n process’? Why is it important in Explain the process of extraction of copper powder for use in Ayurvedic formulations. What are the salient differences between the Indian method and the western method of extracting iron from iron ore? Outline the salient aspects of the Indian iron and steel processes in ancient India What are the different varieties of iron listed by ancient Indians? What are the alternative methods deployed for the sharpening of swords, knives, and sharp tools? What do you understand by the term ‘Yantra’ in the context of metalworking? Describe four yantras used by alchemists in India. Briefly describe the ‘lost wax’ casting technique DISCOVER IKS Ancient Indian culture has contributed in myriad ways to the development of Science, Engineering, and Technology. This video captures 4 or 5 areas in which the ancient Indians have contributed to the development of Science, Engineering and Technology: https://www-youtube.com/ watch?v=Qxgk0dX872k. Watch the video carefully and prepare a one-page report each on the following questions: {a) How have the Indians promoted Scientific thought using Mathematics and Astronomy? (b) What was the status of metalworking in ancient India? How did the technology find use in Europe? {c) What is the status of healthcare in ancient India? How did it contribute to modern practice? Indians were adept in casting idols that are rich and intricate in features, This has been mainly possible on account of the method of casting used by them. The practice which started 2000 years ago continues, Watch the video that demonstrates the making of an idol using the last wax casting process by clicking on this URL: https://wwwyoutube.com/watch?v=XTjmiAoBY]Q. After watching the video prepare a report that answers the following questions (a) What do you understand by the Lost wax casting process of making an idol? Why is it called so? (b) What are the unique features of this process? (c) What are the critical success factors for this process to deliver a perfect idol? SUGGESTED READINGS Bag, A.K. (1997). History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, Indian N Balasubramaniam, R. (2000). “On the corrosion 42, pp. 2103 jonal Science Academy, New Delhi stance of the Delhi iron pillar’, Corrosion Science, 129)tem — Concepts and Applications 278 Wn oduction to Indian Knowledge S “ER, Reguer, R., and Dillman, P. (2004), ") 44, ded Iron Cannon’, JOM, 56(1), pp. 17-24. Balasubramani An Of Medieval Indian Metallurgy: Thanjavur’s Forge-We ent Brass and Zine Metallurgy’, Indian Journal Biswas, AK. (1993). “The Primacy of India in Anct History of Science, 28(4) pp. 309-330. Bose, DM, Sen, $.N. and Subbarayappa, B.V. (2009). Press, 2nd ed., Hyderabad. Chaudhuri, M. (1976). “Shipbuilding in the Yukukalpataru of Historical Studies, 14(2), pp. 137-147 5 illies, L. |. Early Indian Metallurgy: The Craddock, PT, Hegde, K.TM., Gurjar, L.K., and Willies, L. (2017). Ea ay: Th euinchon of Lead silver and Zinc through Three Millennia in North West India, Archetype Publications Ltd. London Deva, K. (1959). “Temples of Khajuraho in Central India’, Ancient India, 15, pp. 43-65. Gandhi, SM. (2014). “Copper, Zine, Lead Ores—their Exploitation and Metal Extraction by the ‘Ancients in the Northwestern India’, Journal Geological Society of India, 84 (September 2014) pp. 253-266 Hegde, K.TM. (1973). "A Model for Understanding Ancient Indian Iron Metallurgy’, Man, New Series, 8 (3), pp. 416-421 Neogi, P. (1914). “Iron in Ancient India’, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Bulletin No. 12, Kolkata Neogi, P. (1918). “Copper in Ancient India’, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Special Publication No. 1, Kolkata Rajput, DS. Gokarn, R., Jagtap, CY. Galib, R., Patgiri, B., and Prajapati, PK. (2016). “Critical Review ‘of Rasaratna Samuccaya: A Comprehensive Treatise of Indian Alchemy", Anc. Sci. Life, 36(1) pp. 12-18. Ray, P. (1967). “Origin and tradition of Alchemy”, Indian Journal of Historical Studies, 2(2), pp. 1-21 Ray. P. (1956). “History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medeival India’, Indian Chemical Society, Kolkata. Singh, PK., Dey, P. Jaina, S.K., and Mujumdar, PP. (2020). “Hydrology and water resources management in ancient India’, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci, 24, pp. 4691-4707. Srinivasan, K.R. (1958). “The Pallava Architecture of South India’, Ancient India, 14, pp. 114-138. Srinivasan, S. (2016). “Metallurgy of Zinc, High-tin Bronze and Gold in Indian Antiquity: Methodological Aspects’, Indian Journal of History of Science, 51(1), pp. 22-32. A Concise History of Seience in India, Universi nd Samarang na Sitradhara’ Indian Journa Subbarayapa, B.V. (1982). “Glimpses of science and technology in ancient and mediaeval India! Endeavour, New Series, 6(4), pp. 177-182. ‘Tripati, S. (2011). “Ancient maritime trade of the eastern Indian littoral’, Current Science, Vol. 100(7), pp. 1076-1086, ENDNOTES | Subbarayapa, BY. (1982). “Glimpses of Seienc Endeavour, New Series. 6(4), pp. 177-182 2 Biswas, AK. (1993). “The Prin History of 5 tnd nd Technology in Ancient and Mediaeval Init cy of India in Ancient Brass and Zine Metallurgy”, Indian Journal & nce, 244) pp. 209-430, and Zine Metallurgy” 4 Hegde, KTM, (1973). °A Model for Unde “ Mende, eM (1973).°A Model for Understanding, Ancient Indian tron Metallurgy’: Man, New SéEngineering and Technology Metals and Mer falworking 279 soe for details, Singh, R.D. (1997). “Mate, Technology in India, Voll, AK. B: . al Technology. 8 (Fa), Indian National Science Academy, New be i These are numerous references in the Veda for the metals and alloys and their use, See the popular passage in Yajur Veda which mentions these metals: a7et 4 y yfatay 7 woora @ Prtara § agentes & fetoy aUnota § tpt a aorta mone tn ae at g me mrttika ca me girayasca me parvatas 2 P same sikitaca me vanaspatayaica me hirinyam ca me'yases ine sisani ca me trapiisea me Syamam ci me loham ci me... Vajacone 'yi madhyandina-samhita 18/13 hito:/Aitus-uni-frankfurt.de/texte/eted/ind /aind/ved/yvw/vs/vshtm?vsbihten ee October 1, 2021 BI Mining’, Chapter 3 in History of Pp. 48-79, for example am farast me ast accessed on refer to Prakash, B. (1997) Chapter 3 [3.2] in History of Technology in India, Vo Academy, New Delhi, pp. 80-174. We have substanti: the issues in this section. Ibid, Ibid. 10. Hegde, K.TM., Craddock, P'T,, and Sonawana, V.H. (1984). "Report on the Excavations of Ancient Zinc Smelting Furnace at Zawar, Rajasthan’, as mentioned in Prakash, B. (1997). "Metals and Metallurgy’, Chapter 3 [3.2] in History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, A.K. Bag (Ed.), Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp. 80-174. ). “Metals and Metallurgy’, |. 1, AK, Bag (Ed.), Indian National Science ly drawn material from this chapter to discuss Srinivasan, S. (2019). “Book Review: Early Indian metallurgy: The Production of Lead, Silver and Zinc through Three Millennia in North West’, Indian Journal of Historical Studies, 54(3), pp. 376-378. 12, Neogi, P. (1918). "Copper in Ancient India’, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Special Publication No. 1, Kolkata. Biswas, A.K. (1993). “The Primacy of India in Ancient Brass and Zinc Metallurgy’, Indian Journal of History of Science, 28(4), pp. 309-330. See for details, Paramasivan, S. (1941). “Investigations on Ancient Indian Metallurgy I: A Pre-historic Bronze Bowl", Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section A, 13(2), pp. 87-93. Subbarayapa, B.V. (1982). "Glimpses of science and technology in ancient and mediaeval India Endeavour, New Series. 6(4), pp. 177-182. Srinivasan, $. (2016). “Metallurgy of Zinc, High-tin Bronze and Gold in Indian Antiquity Methodological Aspects’, Indian Journal of History of Science, §1(1), pp. 22-32, Prakash, B. (1997). “Metals and Metallurgy’, Chapter 3 [3.2] in History of Technology in India Vol. AK. Bag (Ed.), Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp. 80-174, Neogi, P. (1914). “Iron in Ancient India’, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Bulletin No. 12, Kolkata td. thud. Neogi, P. (1914). “Iron in Ancient India’, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Bulletin No 12, Kolkata Balasubramanian, R., Saxena, A., Anantharaman, TR, Regue ‘* Marvel of Medieval Indian Metallurgy: Thanjavur’s Forge-Wel pp 17-25 ilar Balasubramaniam, R. (1998). “The decorative bell capital of the Delht ron pil pp. 40-47 S., and Dillmann, P. (2004) ed tron Cannon’, JOM, 56( 1) JOM; $0.3 Association tor the cultivation of Science, Bulletin Neogi, P. (1914). “iron in Ancient India’, Ind No. 12, Kolkata