Welding Processes

Instructor: Dr. Syed Amir Iqbal

 Intorduction
• Welding offers a means of making continuous, load bearing,
metallic joints between the components of a structure.
• According to American Welding Society (AWS), all joining
processes can be classified into three categories. They are
a) welding, brazing & soldering,
b) adhesive bonding and
c) mechanical fastening.
• Welding processes are in turn divided into three basic categories:
a) fusion welding,
b) solid-state welding, and
c) brazing and soldering.
• Some types of welding processes can be classified into both the
fusion and solid-state categories.
Classification of welding processes
 Types of Welding
• Fusion welding is defined as the melting together and coalescing of
materials by means of heat (usually provided by chemical or
electrical means); filler metals may or may not be used.
• This process constitutes a major category of welding; it comprises
consumable or non consumable electrode arc welding and high
energy beam welding processes. The welded joint undergoes
important metallurgical and physical changes which in turn have a
major effect on the properties and performance of the welded
component or structure.
• In solid-state welding joining takes place without fusion;
consequently there is no liquid (molten) phase in the joint.
• The basic categories are diffusion bonding, ultrasonic, cold, friction,
resistance, and explosive welding. Diffusion bonding, combined
with super plastic forming, has become an important
manufacturing process for complex shapes. Brazing and soldering
use filler metals and involve lower temperatures than welding; the
heat required is supplied externally.
 Types of Welding
Another classification of welding processes is given below:
– Heating the metal joint to a temperature below the solidus
temperature and applying pressure.
• Forge welding
– Melting of the metal at the joint (fusion welding).
• Gas welding
• Arc welding
• Thermit welding
• Flow welding
– Melting the metal at the joint and applying pressure.
• Pressure-gas welding
• Stud welding
• Flash welding
• Resistance welding
• Induction welding
– Applying pressure only to the metal joint (done at room
temperature).
• Cold welding
 Types of Welding
• Another criterion used for a classification of the welding
process is based on the composition of the joint. According
to this scheme, all joining processes can be grouped into
three different categories, namely,
• Autogeneous
In autogeneous processes no filler material is added during the
joining. All types of solid phase welding and resistance welding are
examples of this category.
• Homogeneous
In homogeneous welding processes, the filler material used to
provide the joint is the same as the parent material. Arc, gas, and
thermit welding belong to this category.
• Heterogeneous.
In third category of welding, a filler material different from the
parent material is used. Soldering and brazing are two such joining
processes.
Types of Joints
Types of Joints
 Solidification of Welded Joint

Formation of Weld Pool

Welding Terminology
 Residual Stresses

Formation of Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Welding Positions
 Welding Terminology
The following are definitions of some of the welding terms that are commonly used.
• Backing: it is the material support provided at the root side of a weld to aid in the control of penetration.
• Base metal: the metal to be joined or cut is termed as the base metal.
• Bead or weld bead: Bead is the metal added during a single pass of welding. The bead appears as a separate
material from the base metal.
• Crater: In arc welding, a crater is the depression in the weld metal pool at the point where the arc strikes the
base metal plate.
• Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time is the deposition rate and is
normally expressed as Kg/h.
• Fillet weld: the metal fused into the corner of a joint made of two pieces placed at approximately 900 to each
other is termed as fillet weld.
• Penetration: It is the depth up to which the weld metal combines with the base metal as measured from the
top surface of the joint.
• Puddle: The portion of the weld joint that melted by the heat of welding is called puddle.
• Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joined by welding is nearest.
• Tack weld: A small weld, generally used to temporarily hold the two pieces together during actual welding, is
the tack weld.
• Toe of weld: It is the junction between the weld face and the base metal.
• Torch: In gas welding, the torch mixes the fuel and oxygen and controls its delivery to get the desired flame.
• Weld face: It is the exposed surface of the weld.
• Weld metal: The metal that solidified in the joint is called weld metal. It may be only base metal or a mixture
of base metal and the filler metal.
• Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or electrode along the length of the joint which results in
a bead, is a weld pass.
Features of a good welding joint and
imperfections in a weld
 Flux/Shielding of Welding Region
• When molten metal is exposed to air, it absorbs oxygen and nitrogen, and
becomes brittle or is otherwise adversely affected.
• A slag cover is needed to protect molten or solidifying weld metal from
the atmosphere. This cover can be obtained from the electrode coating.
• The composition of the welding electrode coating determines its usability,
as well as the composition of the deposited weld metal and the electrode
specification.
• The formulation of welding electrode coatings is based on well-established
principles of metallurgy, chemistry, and physics.
• The coating protects the metal from damage, stabilizes the arc, and
improves the weld in other ways, which include:
o Smooth weld metal surface with even edges o A strong, tough coating
o Minimum spatter adjacent to the weld o Easier slag removal
o A stable welding arc o Improved deposition rate
o Penetration control
Designations for Mild Steel Coated Electrodes

The prefix “E” designates arc welding electrode.

The first two digits of four-digit numbers and the first three digits of five-digit numbers
indicate minimum tensile strength:
E60XX 60,000 psi minimum tensile strength
E70XX 70,000 psi minimum tensile strength
E110XX 110,000 psi minimum tensile strength

The next-to-last digit indicates position:

EXX1X All positions
EXX2X Flat position and horizontal fillets
The last two digits together indicate the type of covering and the current to be used.
The suffix (Example: EXXXX-A1) indicates the approximate alloy in the weld deposit:
—A1 0.5% Mo
—B1 0.5% Cr, 0.5% Mo
—B2 1.25% Cr, 0.5% Mo
—B3 2.25% Cr, 1% Mo
—B4 2% Cr, 0.5% Mo
—B5 0.5% Cr, 1% Mo
—C1 2.5% Ni
—C2 3.25% Ni
—C3 1% Ni, 0.35% Mo, 0.15% Cr
—D1 and D2 0.25–0.45% Mo, 1.75% Mn
—G 0.5% min. Ni, 0.3% min. Cr, 0.2% min. Mo, 0.1%min. V,
1% min. Mn (only one element required)
Characteristics of Welding Processes
 Fusion-Welding Processes
General Characteristics of Fusion Welding Processes
TABLE 27.1
Skill level Welding Current Cost of
*
Joining process Operation Advantage required position type Distortion equipment
Shielded metal-arc Manual Portable and High All ac, dc 1 to 2 Low
flexible
Submerged arc Automatic High Low to Flat and ac, dc 1 to 2 Medium
deposition medium horizontal
Gas metal-arc Semiautomatic Most metals Low to All dc 2 to 3 Medium to
or automatic high high
Gas tungsten-arc Manual or Most metals Low to All ac, dc 2 to 3 Medium
automatic high
Flux-cored arc Semiautomatic High Low to All dc 1 to 3 Medium
or automatic deposition high
Oxyfuel Manual Portable and High All — 2 to 4 Low
flexible
Electron-beam, Semiautomatic Most metals Medium All — 3 to 5 High
Laser-beam or automatic to high
* 1, highest; 5, lowest.
Oxyacetylene Flames Used in Welding

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame.
The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene.
Torch Used in Oxyacetylene Welding
(a) General view of and (b)
cross-section of a torch used in
oxyacetylene welding. The
acetylene valve is opened first;
the gas is lit with a spark lighter
or a pilot light; then the oxygen
valve is opened and the flame
adjusted. (c) Basic equipment
used in oxyfuel-gas welding. To
ensure correct connections, all
threads on acetylene fittings are
left-handed, whereas those for
oxygen are right-handed.
Oxygen regulators are usually
painted green, acetylene
regulators red.
 Pressure-Gas Welding

Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process.

Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
Schematic illustration of the shielded
metal-arc welding process. About 50%
of all large-scale industrial welding
operations use this process.

Schematic illustration of the shielded

metal-arc welding operations (also
known as stick welding, because the
electrode is in the shape of a stick).
 Multiple Pass Deep Weld

A deep weld showing the buildup sequence of individual weld beads.

 Submerged-Arc Welding

Schematic illustration of the submerged-arc welding process and

equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused. Source: American
Welding Society.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding

Schematic illustration of
the gas metal-arc welding
process, formerly known as
MIG (for metal inert gas)
welding.
Equipment Used in Gas Metal-Arc Welding

Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations. Source:

American Welding Society.
 Flux-Cored Arc-Welding

Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc welding process. This operation is

similar to gas metal-arc welding
Electrogas Welding

Schematic illustration of the

electrogas welding process. Source:
American Welding Society.
Equipment for Electroslag Welding

Equipment used for electroslag

welding operations. Source:
American Welding Society.
 Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding

The gas tungsten-arc welding process, formerly

known as TIG (for tungsten inert gas) welding.

Equipment for gas tungsten-arc welding

operations. Source: American Welding
Society.
 Plasma-Arc Welding

Two types of plasma-arc welding processes: (a) transferred, (b) nontransferred. Deep
and narrow welds can be made by this process at high welding speeds.
 Flame Cutting

a) Flame cutting of steel plate with an oxyacetylene torch, and a cross-section of

the torch nozzle. (b) Cross-section of a flame-cut plate showing drag lines.
Solid-State Welding Processes
Roll Bonding

Schematic illustration of the roll bonding, or cladding,

process
 Ultrasonic Welding
(a) (b)

(a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for lap welds. The lateral vibrations of
the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the workpieces. (b)
Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller. (c) An ultrasonically welded part.
 Friction Welding
(a)

(b)

(a) Sequence of operations in the friction welding process: (1) Left-hand component is rotated at high
speed. (2) Right-hand component is brought into contact under an axial force. (3) Axial force is
increased; flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand component stops rotating; weld is completed. The flash can
subsequently be removed by machining or grinding. (b) Shape of fusion zone in friction welding, as a
function of the force applied and the rotational speed.
Friction Stir Welding

The principle of the

friction stir welding
process. Aluminum-
alloy plates up to 75 mm
(3 in.) thick have been
welded by this process.
Source: TWI,
Cambridge, U.K.
 Resistance Spot Welding

(a) Sequence in resistance

spot welding. (b) Cross-
section of a spot weld,
showing the weld nugget
and the indentation of the
electrode on the sheet
surfaces. This is one of
the most commonly used
process in sheet-metal
fabrication and in
automotive-body
assembly.
Welding Machine Desgn

Schematic illustration of an air-operated

rocker-arm spot welding machine. Source:
American Welding Society. (b) and (c)
Electrode designs for easy access into
components to be welded.
 Examples of Spot Welding

(a) (b)

(c)
(a) and (b) Spot-welded
cookware and muffler. (c) An
automated spot-welding
machine with a programmable
robot; the welding tip can
move in three principal
directions. Sheets as large as
2.2 m X 0.55 m (88 in. X 22
in.) can be accommodated in
this machine. Source:
Courtesy of Taylor-Winfield
Corporation.
 Spot Welding Example contd…
Robots equipped with spot-welding guns and operated by computer controls, in a mass-
production line for automotive bodies. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
 Resistance Seam Welding

(a) Seam-welding
process in which
rotating rolls act as
electrodes. (b)
Overlapping spots in
a seam weld. (c)
Roll spot welds. (d)
Resistance-welded
gasoline tank.
High-Frequency Butt Welding

Two methods of high-frequency butt

welding of tubes
Resistance Projection Welding
(a) Schematic illustration
of resistance projection
welding. (b) A welded
bracket. (c) and (d)
Projection welding of nuts
or threaded bosses and
studs. Source: American
Welding Society. (e)
Resistance-projection
welded grills.
 Flash Welding

(a) Flash-welding process for end-to-end welding of solid rods or tubular parts. (b)
and (c) Typical parts made by flash welding. (d) Design Guidelines for flash welding.
 Stud Welding

The sequence of operations in stud welding, which is used for welding bars,
threaded rods, and various fasteners onto metal plates.
Brazing, Soldering and Mechanical-
Fastening Processes
Brazing

(a) Brazing and (b) braze welding operations.

 Typical Filler Metals for Brazing Various
Metals and Alloys

Brazing temperature,
Base metal Filler metal (°C)
Aluminum and its alloys Aluminum-silicon 570–620
Magnesium alloys Magnesium-aluminum 580–625
Copper and its alloys Copper-phosphorus 700–925
Ferrous and nonferrous (except aluminum and Silver and copper alloys, 620–1150
magnesium) copper- phosphorus
Iron-, nickel-, and cobalt-base alloys Gold 900–1100
Stainless steels, nickel- and cobalt-base alloys Nickel-silver 925–1200
 Furnace Brazing

An example of furnace brazing: (a) before, (b) after. Note that the filler metal is
a shaped wire.
 Induction Brazing

Schematic illustration of a continuous induction-brazing setup, for increased

productivity. Source: ASM International.
 Joint Designs Used in Brazing

Joint designs commonly used in brazing operations. The clearance between the two
parts being brazed is an important factor in joint strength. If the clearance is too small,
the molten braze metal will not fully penetrate the interface. If it is too large, there will
be insufficient capillary action for the molten metal to fill the interface.
 Rivets

Examples of rivets: (a) solid, (b) tubular, (c) split (or bifurcated), (d) compression.
 Design Guidelines for Riveting

Design guidelines for riveting. (a) Exposed shank is too long; the result is
buckling instead of upsetting. (b) Rivets should be placed sufficiently far from
edges to avoid stress concentrations. (c) Joined sections should allow ample
clearance for the riveting tools. (d) Section curvature should not interfere with
the riveting process.
Spring and Snap-In Fasteners

Examples of spring and

snap-in fasteners used
to facilitate assembly.
 Crimping

Two examples of mechanical joining by crimping.

 Welding Analysis-Terminology
• Power density: Power density can be computed as the power entering the
surface divided by the corresponding surface area:
PD = P / A (W/mm2)
• Heat Balance in Fusion Welding: To a reasonable approximation, this
quantity of heat can be estimated by
Um = K T2m
• where Um = the unit energy for melting (i.e., the quantity of heat required
to melt a unit volume of metal starting from room temperature), J/mm3
(Btu/in3); Tm = melting point of the metal on an absolute temperature
scale, K; and K = constant whose value is 3.33 x10-6 when the Kelvin scale
is used
 Welding Analysis-Terminology
• Heat transfer mechanisms:
Hw = f1 f2 H
where Hw = net heat available for welding, J (Btu), f1 = heat transfer factor,
f2 = the melting factor, and H = the total heat generated by the welding
process, J (Btu).
• Balance equation between the energy input and the energy needed for
welding:
Hw = UmV
where Hw = net heat energy used by the welding operation, J (Btu); Um =
unit energy required to melt themetal, J/mm3 (Btu/in3); and V= the
volume of metal melted,mm3 (in3).
 Welding Analysis-Terminology
• Rate Balance Equation:
RHw = UmRWV
Where RHw = rate of heat energy delivered to the operation for welding,
J/s=W(Btu/min);and RWV = volume rate of metal welded,mm3/s (in3/min).
RHw = f 1f 2RH = UmAwv
• Power Source In Resistance Welding:
H = I2 R t
where H = heat generated, J (to convert to Btu divide by 1055); I = current,
A; R = electrical resistance, V; and t = time, s.
 Problem
A heat source transfers 3000Wto the surface of a metal part. The heat impinges
the surface in a circular area, with intensities varying inside the circle. The
distribution is as follows: 70% of the power is transferred within a circle of
diameter = 5mm, and 90%is transferred within a concentric circle of diameter
= 12 mm. What are the power densities in (a) the 5-mm diameter inner circle
and (b) the 12-mm-diameter ring that lies around the inner circle?
 Problem
The power source in a particular welding setup generates 3500W that can be
transferred to the work surface with a heat transfer factor = 0.7. The metal to
be welded is low carbon steel, whose melting temperature, from is 1760 K
(from Table). The melting factor in the operation is 0.5.Acontinuous fillet weld
is to be made with a cross-sectional area = 20 mm2. Determine the travel speed
at which the welding operation can be accomplished.
Let us first find the unit energy required to melt the metal Um:

Rearranging Eq.to solve for travel velocity:

 Problem
A gas tungsten arc-welding operation is performed at a current of 300Aand
voltage of 20V. The heat transfer factor f1 = 0.7, melting factor f2 = 0.5, and the
unit melting energy for the metal Um = 10 J/mm3. Determine (a) power in the
operation, (b) rate of heat generation at the weld, and (c) volume rate of metal
welded.

a) The power in this arc-welding operation is:

P = I V = 300A x 20 V = 6000W
b) The rate of heat used for welding is given by:
RHw = f 1 f 2 I V = (0.7) (0.5) (6000) = 2100 W = 2100 J/s
c) The volume rate of metal welded is:
RVW = (2100 J/s) / (10 J/mm3) = 210 mm3/s
 Problem
A resistance spot-welding operation is performed on two pieces of 1.5-mm-
thick sheet steel using 12,000 A for a 0.20 s duration. The electrodes are 6 mm
in diameter at the contacting surfaces. Resistance is assumed to be 0.0001 V,
and the resulting weld nugget is 6 mm in diameter and 2.5 mm thick. The unit
melting energy for the metal Um = 12.0 J/ mm3. What portion of the heat
generated was used to form the weld nugget, and what portion was dissipated
into the work metal, electrodes, and surrounding air?
The heat generated in the operation is given as:

The volume of the weld nugget (assumed disc-shaped) is:

The heat required to melt this volume of metal is Hw = 70.7(12.0) = 848 J. The
remaining heat, 2880 - 848 = 2032 J (70.6% of the total), is lost into the work
metal, electrodes, and surrounding air. In effect, this loss represents the
combined effect of the heat transfer factor f1 and the melting factor f2