Floriculturist

(Protected Cultivation)
(Job Role)

Qualification Pack: Ref. Id. AGR/Q0702)

Sector: Agriculture

Textbook for Class XI

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 ISBN 978-93-5292-086-0
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 Foreword

The National Curriculum Framework–2005 (NCF–2005) recommends

bringing work and education into the domain of the curricular, infusing
it in all areas of learning while giving it an identity of its own at relevant
stages. It explains that work transforms knowledge into experience and
generates important personal and social values such as self-reliance,
creativity and cooperation. Through work one learns to find one’s place
in the society. It is an educational activity with an inherent potential
for inclusion. Therefore, an experience of involvement in productive
work in an educational setting will make one appreciate the worth of
social life and what is valued and appreciated in society. Work involves
interaction with material or other people (mostly both), thus creating
a deeper comprehension and increased practical knowledge of natural
substances and social relationships.
Through work and education, school knowledge can be easily linked
to learners’ life outside the school. This also makes a departure from
the legacy of bookish learning and bridges the gap between the school,
home, community and the workplace. The NCF – 2005 also emphasises
on Vocational Education and Training (VET) for all those children
who wish to acquire additional skills and/or seek livelihood through
vocational education after either discontinuing or completing their
school education. VET is expected to provide a ‘preferred and dignified’
choice rather than a terminal or ‘last-resort’ option.
As a follow-up of this, NCERT has attempted to infuse work across
the subject areas and also contributed in the development of the
National Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF) for the country, which
was notified on 27 December 2013. It is a quality assurance framework
that organises all qualifications according to levels of knowledge, skills
and attitude. These levels, graded from one to ten, are defined in terms of
learning outcomes, which the learner must possess regardless of whether
they are obtained through formal, non-formal or informal learning.
The NSQF sets common principles and guidelines for a nationally

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 recognised qualification system covering Schools, Vocational Education
and Training Institutions, Technical Education Institutions, Colleges
and Universities.
It is under this backdrop that Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central
Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), Bhopal, a constituent of
NCERT has developed learning outcomes based modular curricula for
the vocational subjects from Classes IX to XII. This has been developed
under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary
and Higher Secondary Education of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development.
This textbook has been developed as per the learning outcomes
based curriculum, keeping in view the National Occupational Standards
(NOS) for the job role and to promote experiential learning related to
the vocation. This will enable the students to acquire necessary skills,
knowledge and attitude.
I acknowledge the contribution of the development team, reviewers
and all the institutions and organisations, which have supported in the
development of this textbook.
NCERT would welcome suggestions from students, teachers and
parents, which would help us to further improve the quality of the
material in subsequent editions.

Hrushikesh Senapaty
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
June 2018 Research and Training

iv

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 About the Textbook

Agriculture is an important part of India’s economy, which accounts

for about 18 per cent of country’s GDP and occupies almost 43 per
cent of India’s geographical area. Agriculture industry employs a large
number of people in the organised and the unorganised sector. The
requirement of the skilled workforce in this sector is increasing day by
day. The various job roles such as Floriculturist–protected cultivation,
Floriculturist–open cultivation, Tuber Crop Cultivator, Micro Irrigation
Technician, Solanaceous Crop Cultivator, etc., are being in demand by
the states for preparing skilled manpower.
A Floriculturist (Protected Cultivation) is a person who has
undertaken various activities of flower cultivation involving preparatory
cultivation, cultivation and post harvest management in a greenhouse.
Their responsibility also involves maintenance and care of plant, design
and maintenance of green house, preparing media and various other
inputs essential for flower crop cultivation. The job is to be performed
in an efficient manner to allow the production of high quality flowers,
their harvesting and post harvest management towards getting
higher returns.
The textbook for the job role of Floriculturist (Protected Cultivation)
has been developed to impart knowledge skills through hands-on
learning experience, which forms a part of the experimental learning.
Experimental learning focuses on the learning process for the individual,
therefore, the learning activities are student-centred rather than teacher-
centred.
The textbook has been developed with contributions of the subject
experts, vocational teachers and industry experts and academicians for
making it a useful and inspiring teaching-learning resource material
for the vocational students. Adequate care has been taken to align the
content of the textbook with the National Occupational Standards (NOS)
for the job role so that the students acquire the necessary knowledge
and skills as per the performance criteria mentioned in the respective
NOS of the Qualification Pack (QP). It has been reviewed by experts so

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 as to make sure that the content is not only aligned with the NOS, but is
also of high quality. The NOS for the job role of Floriculturist (Protected
Cultivation) covered through this textbook are as follows:
1. AGR/N0704-Pre-cultivation Operations of Floriculture in the
Greenhouse.
2. AGR/N0705-Cultivation Operations of Floriculture in Greenhouse.
Unit 1 of this textbook introduces the importance of protected
cultivation, criteria of site selection and suitable crops for protected
cultivation. Unit 2 focuses on the types of protected structures,
classification of greenhouses and major components of greenhouse.
Unit 3 deals with the growing media, its composition, sterilisation of
growing media, preparation of beds and containers for growing flower
crops. Unit 4 focuses on micro irrigation systems and their application
under protected cultivation, fertilisers and their scheduling. Unit 5
deals with the equipment for environmental parameters monitoring in
greenhouses, and management of environmental parameters.
I hope this textbook will be useful for students and teachers who will
opt for this job role. Any further suggestions for improving this textbook
are always welcome.

Rajiv Kumar Pathak

Professor
Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
PSSCIVE, Bhopal

vi

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 Textbook Development Team

Members
Balaji Shreedhar Kulkarni, Professor and Head, UHS Campus, G.K.V.K.,
Bengaluru, Karnataka
K.V. Ramana Rao, Principal Scientist, ICAR, Central Institute of Agriculture
Engineering, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Naved Sabir, Principal Scientist, Indian Agriculture Research Institute,
New Delhi
Patil Shyamkant Narayan, Jain Irrigation System Ltd., Jalgaon, Maharashtra
Pundlik Maroti Nimje, Principal Scientist (Retd.), ICAR, Central Institute of
Agriculture Engineering, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Sunil Prajapati, Consultant (Horticulture), Department of Agriculture and
Animal Husbandry, PSS Central Institute of Vocational Education, NCERT,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Uadal Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry, PSS Central Institute of Vocational Education, NCERT,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Vijay Agrawal, Deputy Director (Horticulture), Vindhyanchal Bhawan,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Member-Coordinator
Rajiv Kumar Pathak, Professor and Head, Department of Agriculture and
Animal Husbandry, PSSCIVE, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

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 Acknowledgement

The Council expresses its gratitude to all members of the Project

Approval Board (PAB) and officials of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD), Government of India, for their cooperation in the
development of learning outcome-based curricula and courseware for
various job roles in different sectors.
We are also thankful to officials in the National Skill Development
Agency (NSDA), National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), and the
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship for their support.
The support of Rajesh Khambayat, Joint Director, PSSCIVE, Bhopal,
is highly appreciated in developing this textbook.
The contributions of faculty members, Saroj Yadav, Professor and
Dean (A), Ranjana Arora, Professor and Head, DCS, Aparna Pandey,
Professor, DESS, Sunita Farkya, Professor, DESM, and Abhya Kumar,
Assistant Professor, Planning and Research Division, CIET of the book
review committee are duly acknowledged.
The images used in the textbook have been sourced from the Creative
Commons License and Jain Irrigation System Ltd. They have been
selected with care and diligence for clearer understanding of learners.
Care has been taken to not violate any copyright. The images are meant
for educational purpose and are being provided for the personal use of
students and teachers. Credits for Figure 2.10 go to Technical Standards
for Naturally Ventilated, Fan & Pad Green House and Shade Net House,
Protected Production under NHB Scheme (Technical Standard No.
NHB-PH-Type 02-2011), of Department of Agriculture and Cooperation,
National Horticulture Board.
Gratitude is also due to the Publication Division, NCERT, for
transforming the manuscript into an attractive textbook. Special thanks
are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor, Madhavi Ratnaparkhi, Assistant
Editor (Contractual) and efforts of DTP Operators Pawan Kumar
Barriar, Publication Division, NCERT and Neha Pal (Contractual) are
acknowledged for flawless layout design.

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 Contents

Foreword iii
About the textbook v

Unit 1: Introduction to Protected Cultivation 1

Session 1: Importance of Protected Cultivation 1
Session 2: Site Selection and Suitable Crops 7
for Protected Cultivation
Unit 2: Types of Protected Structures and their Components 13
Session 1: Types of Protected Structures 13
Session 2: Classification of Greenhouses 20
Session 3: Major Components of a Greenhouse 25
Unit 3: Preparation of Media and Container 31
for Commercial Cultivation in Greenhouses
Session 1: Growing Media and its Composition 32
Session 2: Sterilisation of Growing Media 38
Session 3: Preparation of Beds and Containers for Growing Crops 41
Unit 4: Irrigation and Fertigation in Greenhouses 45
Session 1: Micro Irrigation Systems and their Application 45
Session 2: Types of Fertilisers and their Scheduling 51
Unit 5: Greenhouse Operations 67
Session 1: Equipment for Environmental 68
Parameter Monitoring in Greenhouses
Session 2: Management of Environmental 71
Parameters in a Greenhouse
Glossary 76
Further Readings 78
Answer Key 79

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Prelims.indd 10 13-08-2018 12:15:18
 Unit
1 Introduction to
Protected Cultivation

Introduction
Protected cultivation is a process of growing crops
in a controlled environment. This means that the
temperature, humidity, light and such other factors
can be regulated as per requirement of the crop. This
assists in a healthier and a larger produce. There are
various types of protected cultivation practices. Some
of the commonly used practices are — forced ventilated
greenhouse, naturally ventilated polyhouse, insect-
proof net house, shade net house, plastic tunnel and
mulching, raised beds, trellising and drip irrigation.
These practices can be used independently or in
combination, to provide favourable environment to save
plants from harsh climate and extend the duration of
cultivation or off-season crop production. Adoption of
drip irrigation under raised beds (you will read about it
in Unit 4) covered with mulch films not only eradicates
weeds but also maintains moisture in the soil for a
prolonged period by minimising evaporation losses.

Session 1: Importance of Protected

Cultivation
Although agriculture has been the backbone of India’s
economy since ages, yet our experience during the

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 last 50 years indicates a relationship between the
agricultural practices, its growth vis-à-vis economic
well-being. The trend of agricultural growth points
towards a mix of appreciable achievements on the one
Do you know? hand and missed opportunities on the other. If India
Greenhouse effect
has to remain self-sufficient and provide food security
to the poor while also being able to export high quality
When short wave
radiation from the fruits and vegetables, new and effective production
Sun enters the technologies are required which can continuously
greenhouse structure, improve the productivity, profitability and respectability
it refracts through
of the agricultural sector. One such area is the protected
the surface and gets
transformed into long cultivation technology, which is being widely practiced
wave radiations. These in the developed countries, but its use in India is limited.
long wave radiations The wide variations in the climatic conditions across
do not escape the
the diverse topography through the length and breadth
greenhouse in entirety,
thereby trapping of the country allow a large number of cropping patterns.
the heat and thus, India also experiences climatic extremes such as floods,
continually increase droughts and other climatic abnormalities that cause
the temperature inside.
crop losses regularly or damages resulting in economic
This is known as the
greenhouse effect. losses to the farmers. Simultaneously, the demand for
Thus, the enclosed quality agricultural produce has increased over the last
space builds higher decade. This provides better opportunities for the Indian
temperature than the
farmers to adopt protected cultivation technologies as
ambient environment.
However, after sunset per region and suitability of the crops.
it starts losing Greenhouses are being commercially used for
stored heat through production of exotic (non-native) and off-season
conduction, convection
vegetables, export-quality cut flowers and also for raising
and radiation.
quality seedlings. Economic returns from the high value
agricultural produce can be increased substantially when
grown under greenhouse conditions. For the crops under
protected environment, the use of chemical pesticides and
insecticides can be kept minimal to avoid their residues
on the crop produce. Greenhouses are mostly used as
rain shelters, particularly in high rainfall areas of India
such as North-eastern states and coastal regions.

Objectives of Protected Cultivation

(i) Protection of plants from abiotic stress
(physical or by non-living organism) such as
temperature, excess/deficit water, hot and cold
waves, and biotic factors such as pest and disease
incidences, etc.

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 (ii) Efficient water use with minimum weed infestation. Notes
(iii) Enhancing productivity per unit area.
(iv) Minimising the use of pesticides in crop production.
(v) Promotion of high value, quality horticultural
produce.
(vi) Propagation of planting material to improve
germination percentage; healthy, uniform, disease-
free planting material and better hardening.
(vii) Year-round and off-season production of flower,
vegetable or fruit crops.
(viii) Production of disease-free and genetically better
transplants.
At present in India, the small and medium farmers
have started flower and vegetable cultivation under
different types of modular protected structures
depending upon their investment capacity and
availability of market in their area. Among all the
protected cultivation practices, greenhouse cultivation
provides maximum benefits. The major crops grown
under protected structures include — floriculture crops
like rose, gerbera, carnation, anthurium, lilium, orchids,
chrysanthemum, etc., and the vegetable crops like
tomato, yellow and red bell peppers (from the capsicum
family), cucumber, leafy and exotic vegetables, etc.

Limitations of Protected Cultivation

(i) High cost of initial infrastructure (capital cost).
(ii) Non-availability of skilled human power and their
replacement locally.
(iii) Lack of technical knowledge of growing crops
under protected structures.
(iv) All the operations are very intensive and require
constant effort.
(v) Requires close supervision and monitoring.
(vi) A few pests and soil-borne pathogens are difficult
to manage.
(vii) Repair and maintenance are major hurdles.
(viii) Requires assured marketing, since the investment
of resources like time, effort and finances, is
expected to be very high.
Scope of Protected Cultivation
As per the National Horticultural Database of the year
2014–15, Tamil Nadu ranks first in area under flower
Introduction to Protected Cultivation

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 Notes cultivation followed by Karnataka, and West Bengal.
The share of floricultural products in the export of total
horticultural produce is 3.2 per cent. At present the
share of Indian floriculture products in international
market is about 0.6 per cent. According to (APEDA)
data, in the year 2016–17, India’s total export of
floriculture was Rs 548.74 crores. Dry flowers alone
contribute around 70 per cent revenue of the total
floricultural export. India has a share of 10 per cent of
the total global dry flower market. There are over 300
export-oriented Floriculture Units in India, mostly
located near Mumbai, Pune, Bengaluru, Hyderabad
and New Delhi, which have good facility for expert
of live plant material for producing and exporting
flowers to the developed countries. The export-quality
flowers include bulbs, cut and loose flowers, dry
flowers, ornamental plants and cut foliage, which are
most suited for greenhouse cultivation. Besides this,
greenhouse technology holds premise for marginal
farmers for higher productivity and quality through
high technology based agriculture.
While greenhouses did exist in one form or the other
for more than one-and-a-half centuries in various
parts of the world, the use of greenhouse technology
started in India only during 1980s mainly for research
activities, after India had achieved self-sufficiency in
foodgrain production. After the ‘Green Revolution’, some
of the ill consequences like extensive use of chemicals
in fertilisers and pesticides of intensive agriculture
became evident.
Besides the government’s efforts, globalisation has
given a boost to the export of agricultural produce,
which has played a role in the increased demand for
greenhouses in most parts of the country.
Commercial production of floriculture exists in
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, which
cater to the demands of both domestic and foreign
markets. From 1988 onwards, these ventures have
been specialised further to achieve a technological
edge involving development of greenhouses. These have

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 improved further post-1991 India when Indian economy Notes
was liberalised. At present, the private sector has
established 100 per cent export-oriented units. These
efforts have been quite successful in meeting export
standards for the regularity of supply, quality and hence
acceptability in offshore markets. Exports have achieved
very promising results in terms of the acceptance of
quality standards in major foreign markets.
Table 1.1: Crops Grown under Protected
Cultivation
Flowers Chrysanthemum, Carnation, Gerbera, Rose,
Lilium, Orchid, Gladiolus, etc.
Vegetables Tomato, Coloured Capsicum (Yellow and
Red Bell Peppers), Cucumber, Broccoli, Red
Cabbage, Leafy vegetables, Radish, etc.
Fruits Strawberry
Seedling and Vegetables, Flowers, Tissue Culture, Clonal for
Nurseries Forestry, Fruit Grafting (like Lemon, Citrus,
Mango, Pomegranate, Guava, Litchi, etc.)

The Government of India executes various schemes

for protected cultivation at the central and the state levels
to popularise these high-tech plant growing techniques.
National agencies through their leading schemes viz.
National Horticulture Board (NHB), National Horticulture
Mission (NHM), Mission for Integrated Development of
Horticulture (MIDH) and Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
(RKVY) create awareness and provide financial support
to the farmers, so that protected farming for high value
horticultural crops could be adopted easily.
Protected cultivation involves a complex set of
practices and technologies which require elaborate
planning, fabrication, management and maintenance
of quality production of horticultural crops to take
advantage of season, demand and choice of market. It
gives opportunities for the cultivation of horticultural
crops in an entrepreneurial form for the upmarkets
in urban and semi-urban areas, besides empowering
youth, and technology-led traditional ways of crop
cultivation to such modern methods.

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 Notes

Activity 1: Visit to a greenhouse farmer

Materials required: notebook, pen, pencil, etc.
Procedure: Visit and note down following information
• Collect the information about location/owner.
• Types of structure.
• Cost involved for establishment of protected structure.
• How she/he makes financial arrangement.
• Input required for establishment of polyhouse.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Greenhouse is commonly used to produce ____________
cut flowers.
2. Rain shelters are mostly used in ______________.
3. Year round and off season production of flowers and
vegetables is possible in ________.
4. Forced ventilated greenhouse is the type of ____________.

B. Mark the correct choice

1. Protected structure protect the plant against __________ .
(a) only biotic stress
(b) only abiotic stress
(c) biotic and abiotic stress
(d) water stress
2. Flower crop grown under protected cultivation
(a) Gerbera
(b) Jasmine
(c) Hibiscus
(d) Marigold
3. Use of greenhouse technology in India started in the year
(a) 1970
(b) 1980
(c) 1990
(d) 2000

C. Descriptive Questions
1. Describe the importance of protected cultivation.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

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 Notes
2. Describe the scope of protected cultivation in India.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. What are the objectives of protected cultivation?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

D. Match the columns

A B
1. Protected Cultivation a. Less productivity/unit area
2. Open Cultivation b. Temperature stress
3. Shed net house c. High productivity/unit area
4. Greenhouse effect d. Protected structures

Session 2: Site Selection and Suitable

Crops for Protected Cultivation
While protected cultivation practices such as drip
irrigation, raised bed farming, mulching can be practised
on any site, even where cultivation is still being done. The
criteria for site selection in case of protected cultivation
structures like shade net houses and greenhouses are
as follows:
(i) Exposure to ample sunlight: The site should not
be near tall trees, buildings or by the leeward side
of hills.
(ii) Appropriate distance from a low-lying area: The
site should not be in an area prone to waterlogging.
(iii) Levelled ground surface: A slope of 0–2 per cent is
recommended. Levelling is required to be done in
case the slope is beyond the recommended range.
For steep terrains, it is recommended to build
several separate greenhouses with axes parallel to
contour lines.
(iv) pH and electrical conductivity of soil: It should
have a pH of 6.0–6.5 and electrical conductivity
should be less than 0.5 dS/m.

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 (v) Availability of continuous source of good quality
water in sufficient volume: The approximate water
requirement is 1–2 l/m2/day, which can be adjusted
based on the season and the stage of cultivation.
(vi) pH and electrical conductivity of water: The pH
dS/m (deci Siemens)
indicates the amount and electrical conductivity of irrigation water
of salts present in the should be in the range 6.5–7.0 and less than 0.7
soil (K+, Ca+, Mg+, Na+, dS/m respectively.
Cl-, HCO3). Excess (vii) Continuous supply of electricity: This is particularly
amount of salts hinder necessary during the day time.
plant growth and/or
can affect infiltration
(viii) Good transportation facilities: This is important to
(becoming a part due to enable the transportation of greenhouse produce
filtration). to nearby markets in time.
(ix) Availability of sufficient land for future expansion:
A gap of 10–15 m should be maintained between
two greenhouses, considering the possibility of
expansion in future.
(x) Easy availability of labourers in surrounding
area: This should also be kept into consideration.
Usually, four labourers are required for flower
cultivation in a one-acre greenhouse.
(xi) Good communication facilities: These should be
available at the site.
Mulch is a protective (xii) Plantation of windbreaks: The plants that breaks
covering (of sawdust, the flow of the wind from a particular direction.
compost, plastic sheet
These plants are tall and have strong root base.
spread or left on the
ground) that is used These include poplar, silver oak, casuarina, etc.,
to reduce evaporation, which are planted on the western side about 20 m
maintain even soil away from the greenhouse because west winds are
temperature, prevent the strongest.
erosion, control weeds, (xiii) Awareness of relevant occupational safety and
enrich the soil or to keep
health standards.
it clean.
Greenhouse Orientation
In a single span or multi-span naturally ventilated
polyhouse, the orientation of the structure is in the
North–South direction and all roof vents face East,
except the last bay, which is in the opposite direction.
Also, in a naturally ventilated polyhouse or shade net
house, 40:60 ratio, i.e., 40 per cent width (East to West)
and 60 per cent length (North to South) is kept for better

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 ventilation, though this ratio is based on the wind load
on the North–South wall, in high speed wind zones. If
the wind speed is high in an area, the length of the
structure is restricted within 55 m in the North–South
direction. However, in single or multi-span shade net
houses, the longest dimension should be in the East–
West direction. In this context, the direction of planting
beds is also important and has to be done perpendicular
to the arc of the Sun movement through the day.
In open fields, all crop varieties like self-pollinated
and cross-pollinated vegetable crops can be cultivated
under drip irrigation, raised bed and mulching. However,
while selecting the vegetable crops for shade net house
and greenhouses, self-pollinated varieties must be
selected or at least there should be proper arrangement
and expertise for artificial or aided pollination. It is
important to note that such restrictions do not apply
to flower cultivation. The major flower crops cultivated
in greenhouses are — rose, gerbera, carnation,
chrysanthemum, lilium, orchids, etc. These crops are
propagated either by grafting or based on tissue culture
or cuttings.
The varieties are developed by the plant breeders
and are mostly patented. The seed propagated varieties tissue culture: the
are mostly first-generation hybrids. The commercial growth in an artificial
vegetative propagations of the other crops are done medium of cells derived
mostly by private firms using tissue culture method. from living tissue
The duration of the crop varies with the type of crop.
The crops grown in greenhouse can be cultivated in the
soil organic or artificial media.

Major Flower Crops and their Varieties

Cultivated under Greenhouses
Rose
The commonly cultivated varieties of rose are
as follows.
• Standard rose: This variety bears large-sized
buds with long stalk. It has good commercial
value for long distance markets due to its
higher shelf-life.
• Sweet heart rose: This variety bears small-
sized buds with short stalk. Fig. 1.1: Rose

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 • Spray rose: The plants of this variety bear five to
six buds.
The roses grown in greenhouse could be of different
colours and combinations such as red, yellow, white,
pale green, pink, orange and their different shades.
Some of the commercially available varieties of rose are
Gold-strike, Grand gala, Noblesse, Revival, Bordeaux
and Avalanche.

Gerbera
Almost all the gerbera plants cultivated in
greenhouses in India are commercially tissue
cultured varieties and are multiplied and
distributed by various private firms. The commonly
grown colours of gerbera are white, red, pink,
yellow, orange and twin shades.
Some of the commercially available varieties
Fig. 1.2: Gerbera
are — North Star, Ornella, Paradox, Tropic Blend,
Topaz and Pink Fantasy.

Carnation
The commonly cultivated varieties of carnation are
as follows.
• Standard carnation: This variety bears longer
branches with bigger buds.
• Spray carnation: This variety bears shorter
Fig. 1.3: Cultivation of Carnation branches and small flowers.

Chrysanthemum
It is one of the commonly preferred cut flowers and
potted plants in the domestic and international market.
It stands tremendous scope. Private and small
entrepreneurs and progressive growers can give
impetus to the efforts to develop non-traditional
export products to suffice the agricultural
sector for earning the much needed foreign
exchange. Boost for the commercial production of
chrysanthemum will replace import quantity with
local production. Selection of chrysanthemum
varieties depends on the location and objective
Fig. 1.4: Chrysanthemum of the growers vis-à-vis the variations grown viz.

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 Otome (white and pink), Taiwan Yellow, Bowl of Gold, Notes
Taiwan White, Golden Princess Anne, etc. For potted
chrysanthemum, the varieties grown are Kikubiyori,
Snowball, Genie, La France, Rhapsody, Red Headline,
Miss Hiroshima, Algiers, Capistrano, Autumn Fire, etc.

Activity 1: Visit to a polyhouse and record criteria for site

selection.
Materials required: notebook, pen, etc.
Procedure
• Visit the place with prior appointment.
• Observe road connectivity, wind breakers, electricity, skilled
labour availability, etc.

Activity 2: Visit to a greenhouse flower cultivator and

discuss about crops and varieties.
Materials required: notebook, pen, pencil, etc.
Procedure
• Identify the greenhouse flower grower in the nearby area.
• Visit these sites in consultation with the farmer(s).
• Discuss with the farmer on crop cultivation practices and
advantages of protected cultivation as perceived by the
farmer.
• Assess the need of promoting a particular type of the crop
grown in a greenhouse.
• Discuss problems associated with greenhouse.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. The soil pH should range between _______ for effective
greenhouse cultivation.
2. The gap between one greenhouses to another should be
minimum __________ m.
3. Number of labour required for flower cultivation in one
acre greenhouse are _____________.
4. Under greenhouse condition ___________ pollinated type
of varieties are suitable.
5. Longer branches with bigger bud size varieties of
carnation are known as __________.

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 Notes B. Mark the correct choice
1. The direction of single span greenhouse should be
(a) East–West
(b) North–South
(c) North–East
(d) South–West
2. The windbreaks should be kept in the _________ direction
(a) Eastern
(b) Western
(c) Northern
(d) Southern
3. What is the ratio of width and length in shade net house?
(a) 40:60
(b) 20:10
(c) 15:25
(d) 20:80

C. Descriptive questions
1. Write important criteria for site selection in protected
cultivation.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Which type of roses can be cultivated in protected
structures?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

D. Match the columns

A B
1. Gerbera a. Bear five to six buds
2. Spray roses b. A protective cover
3. Mulch c. Taiwan yellow
4. Chrysanthemum d. Pink Fantasy

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 Unit
2 Types of Protected
Structures and their
Components

Introduction
So far, we have learnt that protected cultivation aims
to modify the micro climate of the plants by selective
control of environment for the protection of the crops
from biotic and abiotic stresses for healthy and safe
crop production, notably all round the year including
the off-season. Greenhouses enable qualitative and
quantitative production of ornamental crops of high
value especially during the off-season for fetching better
prices, that otherwise is not possible through open field
cultivation. This is particularly helpful in cold areas
with heavy snowfall or chill factors.
Different types of protected structures can be
adopted for off-season and round the year cultivation
of flowers and ornamental crops. Commonly used
protected structures are — low tunnels, walk-in tunnels,
net houses, greenhouses and mist chambers. These
structures vary in their shape, design, height and size.

Session 1: Types of Protected Structures

In India, protected cultivation technology for commercial
production is hardly three decades old. In a country
like ours, where most of the structural designs have
been adopted from different countries, the designs

Chapter -2.indd 13 13-08-2018 14:11:36

 have been amply modified to suit the local conditions
and requirements of different agro-climatic areas. The
commonly used protected structures are as follows.

Low Tunnel
Also called ‘miniature greenhouses’, low tunnels
generally cover rows of plants in field and, therefore,
they are also known as row covers. Clean
plastic films or nets are stretched over low
wire hoops (arcs up to 1.0 m high) to protect
plants against frost, wind, insects and
pests. The hoops are made of steel wires
or bamboo strips or cane. These hoops are
covered by polythene sheets of about 50
microns thickness and are provided with
ventilation holes on the side opposite to the
solar movement. Total surface area of such
ventilation is about 4 per cent. Use of non-
Fig. 2.1: Low tunnel
woven/spun-bonded fabric material, which
is porous and much lighter, is a more recent trend.
Low tunnels provide a passive control of plant micro
climate, i.e., use of specific plastic material to control
radiation and provision of natural ventilation. Plastic
mulches and drip irrigation may be used in conjunction
with low tunnels. There are several methods of low
tunnel formation and operation. The low tunnels permit
early yield for spring crops with significantly higher
yields. These tunnels are not usually used for growing
flowers. The crops which have been generally grown
commercially under low tunnel conditions are melons,
cucumber, tomato, strawberry, pepper, beans, squash
and sweet corn.
A variation of the low tunnel is a plastic covered
trench system where polyethylene is stretched over a
trench in the ground. The trench may be 20–40 cm
deep. The polyethylene is removed from the trenches
when the plants start flowering to enable pollination
facilitated by insects. Such trenches are showing
excellent results under the cold desert conditions of Leh
(Jammu and Kashmir) as moisture is also conserved to
a great extent.

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 Advantages
1. Normally low tunnels are recommended for cultivation
during winter season especially for growing early
crop of cucurbits.
2. They protect crop against wind, rain, frost and snow.
3. They are suitable for raising a healthy nursery and
early vegetable crops.
4. They maintain optimum temperature for plant
growth.
5. They help in better nutrient uptake by the plants.

Walk-in tunnel
It is a temporary structure made by using GI
pipes or bamboo, and is covered with different
cladding material depending upon the season
in which the cultivation is proposed. Walk-in
tunnels are used for off-season cultivation
of vegetables and flower seedlings. They
give an advantage of better prices of the
off-season produce, giving more profit per unit
area. Optimum size of the walking tunnel is
60–75 sq m, with 2–2.5 m width and up to
Fig. 2.2: Walk-in tunnels
30 m length with a 2–2.5 m central height.
Overall, the height is enough for the worker to walk
comfortably during operation.

Advantages
1. The worker can easily walk-in to take care of the
crop.
2. The cultivators get higher returns from off-season
cultivation of vegetables and raising of flower seedlings.
3. These are temporary and low-cost structures, which
can be fabricated by the cultivators themselves at
the village level with the help of rural artisans.

Net Houses
Depending upon the cladding (covering) material used,
the net houses may be classified as insect-proof net
houses and shade net houses.

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 Insect-proof Net House
An insect-proof net house can be fabricated
as a temporary or permanent structure
in different designs. It can be in a walk-
in tunnel design and shape, with double
door facility at one end of the structure. It
is covered with UV-stabilised insect-proof
net of 40–50 mesh for effective control of
pests and diseases. The minimum size of
insect-proof net house is 100 sq m. The
Fig. 2.3: Insect-proof Net House
permanent structure can be fabricated
in two designs — flat roof design having
3.5–4 m height and dome shape with a height of
4.5–5 m and the other in dome shape in a popular
type of greenhouse design. Usually, the quality
production as well as growing seedlings are possible
under these net houses with proper selection of
varieties without application of harmful chemicals in
their production.
Advantages
1. Off-season cultivation
2. Production of quality seedlings is possible.
3. Restrict the growth of pests and diseases.
Shade Net House
It is primarily constructed to protect
plants from highly intense solar
radiation. The structure is made of
wood, stone, bamboo or GI pipes.
When wood or bamboo are used, the
poles are treated with turpentine and
tar on one side before inserting them
in the ground. Cladding material used
on the top and sides of the structure is
generally a shade net. The shade nets
Fig. 2.4: Shade Net House are available in different colours with
different percentages of shade factor.
Suitability of colour and shade factor is location and
season-specific. Generally, shade nets are used for
hardening of fruit orchard planting material raised
under greenhouses.

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 Advantages
1. They control high intensity solar radiation.
2. They protect plants from frost.
3. They also protect plants from large insects.
Greenhouse
It is a framed or covered structure with a
transparent or translucent material which
permits ample sunlight for crop production
and has provisions for at least partial control
of plant environment.
A greenhouse, depending upon the
transparency of the glazing material, admits
sunlight which is absorbed by the crop,
equipment, structure and the floor. These
objects in turn emit thermal radiation which
is only partially transmitted out of the Fig. 2.5: Greenhouse

greenhouse. As a result of this, a part of the solar energy

is continually retained in the greenhouse, leading to a
temperature increase. This natural temperature rise in
the greenhouse is utilised during winters to grow crops
with or without supplementary heat. During summers,
the greenhouses are cooled as per the crop requirement.
The closed side container of the greenhouse during
the night results in trapping the air rich with carbon
dioxide, which would improve photosynthetic activity
during the early hours of the day. Air humidity in
the greenhouse can also be increased or lowered. In
addition, favourable light conditions for crops, in terms
of quality and quantity, can be created by providing
supplementary lighting and shading systems. In general,
crops in greenhouses are either grown on beds or in
pots irrigated by micro-irrigation systems. Off-season
vegetables, flowers and ornamental/grow-bags, plants
and nursery raising are fairly remunerative practices in
protected cultivation.
Advantages
1. Off-season cultivation of crops is possible round the
year.
2. Crop cultivation is possible under harsh environ-
mental conditions.

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 Notes 3. They provide excellent opportunities to produce
export-quality crops.
4. Early production of quality seedlings and planting
materials is possible.
5. More production per unit area in comparison to open
field cultivation.
6. Greenhouses can also be used for growing flower
plants, strawberries and propagation of quality fruit
plants.
7. Insect, pest and weed management is easier in
greenhouses than in open fields.
8. Greenhouses can provide substantial income for
cultivators having small land holdings.

Mist Chamber
The main purpose of such a structure is to create
high humidity and droplet-free presence of water for
propagating delicate soft wood cuttings, vegetable
crops, root plants and shrubs, etc. Cuttings are misted
intermittently in place of continuous water application
or drenching. The intermittent water misting is done
using a high pressure pump, pipeline system and a
timer switch. The mist nozzles are connected to the main
pipelines for misting the plant material growing inside
the growth chambers or structures. A mist chamber of
15–25 sq m is sufficient for a nursery. The frequency of
misting depends upon ambient temperature and type of
plant material being propagated.

Advantages
1. Assured supply of plant material throughout the
year, which is not possible in open field cultivation.
2. Mist chambers reduce the rate of moisture loss
from the plants, thereby helping in survival of
root-cuttings as well as for hardening of tissue
cultured plants. Thus, the main advantage of mist
chambers is to avoid the desiccation or drying out of
the plant material.
3. Planting material remains devoid of any susceptibility
to pathogen, insect and pests attack.

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 Notes

Activity 1: Prepare a low tunnel with locally available

materials.
Material required: peg, rope, measuring tape, bamboo stick/
6 mm GI rod, insect proof net.
Procedure
1. Mark the area as per layout.
2. Insert peg as per demarcation.
3. Fix bamboo stick/GI rod.
4. Covering with cladding material.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Low tunnel is also called as ___________ greenhouse.
2. Height of low tunnel is ___________ meter.
3. Polyfilm of ______________ micron thickness is used in
greenhouse.
4. Centre height of walk-in tunnel is generally __________
metre.
5. Commonly used mesh size of insect-proof net house is
____________ mesh.

B. Mark the correct choice

1. Protected structures commonly used for hardening of
plants is
(a) walk-in tunnel (b) shade nethouse
(c) greenhouse (d) low tunnel
2. Protected structures commonly used for early rooting of
cuttings is
(a) walk-in tunnel (b) shade net house
(c) greenhouse (d) mist chamber
3. The suitable structure for propagated plant materials is
(a) polyhouse (b) mist chamber
(c) shade net house (d) plastic low-tunnels

C. Descriptive questions

1. Describe the types of protected structures.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

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 Notes 2. Write short notes on the following.
(a) Low tunnel
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
(b) Shade net house
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
(c) Greenhouse
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
(d) Mist chamber
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
(e) Walk-in tunnel
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

D. Match the columns

A B
1. Low tunnel cladding a. Plants protect against solar
radiation
2. Protected cultivation b. Maintain humidity
3. Mist chamber c. 50 micron polythene sheet
4. Shade net houses d. Off-season cultivation

Session 2: Classification of Greenhouses

Greenhouses can be classified according to the material
used in their construction, the shape of their structure
and the climate control methods adopted. Their
classification is sometimes done on the basis of the cost
of fabrication per unit area.

Classification of Greenhouses based on Cost

Low-cost Greenhouse
It is fabricated mainly using local and low-cost available
material like wooden logs or bamboos. The protection
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 of wooden structures from insects and
termites is a major challenge. These
structures are small in size and have a
short life-span. Since the height of the
structure is lesser as compared to those
with steel frames, maintaining proper
temperatures in summer becomes
difficult. Therefore, they are recommended
mostly in cold climatic zones and low
wind speed regions. The approximate cost
Fig. 2.6: Low-cost Greenhouse
of establishing such greenhouse units
ranges between Rs. 450–620 per sq m.

Medium-cost Greenhouse
It is generally fabricated using galvanised iron (GI) square
or rectangular or round pipes or lipped channel or their
combinations. The whole structure is
firmly fixed in the ground to withstand
high speed wind up to 140 km/hr.
Such greenhouses are suitable for
dry and composite climatic zones.
The normal height of these structures
ranges between 6.5–7 m and these
are mostly naturally ventilated.
The climate inside the structure is
regulated by opening and closing of
side curtains (which are rolled above
Fig. 2.7: Medium-cost Greenhouse
permanently fixed insect-proof net
on windows). Thus, air circulation can be regulated.
Humidity is maintained through operation of foggers/
misters. Light intensity can be controlled with the use
of internal collapsible shading nets. The approximate
cost of establishing such naturally ventilated polyhouse
unit ranges between Rs. 900–1000 per sq m depending
upon the size of the structure.

High-cost Greenhouse
For the production of sensitive, off-season, exotic or
quality crops, sometimes medium-cost greenhouses
cannot deliver the requisite quality. Therefore,
high-cost greenhouse structures, which can precisely
regulate climatic and nutritional needs of the plants,

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 are required. The greenhouse climate
parameters are regulated through passive
cooling by operating fan and pad systems
and sensor-based controlled systems. The
approximate cost of establishing such
greenhouse units ranges between Rs.1500–
2500 per sq m depending upon the size of
the structure.
Fig. 2.8: High-cost Greenhouse
Classification of Greenhouses based on shape
(a) Gothic Roof
(b) Slant Roof
(c) Saw Tooth
(d) Flat Roof

Fig. 2.9: Types of Greenhouse based on shape

(a) Gothic Roof (b) Slant Roof (c) Saw Tooth (d) Flat Roof

Classification of Greenhouses based on

cladding material used
(a) Transparent glass
(b) Fiberglass reinforced plastic/polycarbonate
(c) UV-stabilised low density polyethylene film

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 Classification of Greenhouses based on Notes
climate control mechanisms
Naturally Ventilated Greenhouse
The climatic parameters such as temperature, humidity,
carbon dioxide in these polyhouses are maintained
and/or controlled through natural air convection
without using any additional systems, and are mostly
operated manually.

Forced Ventilated Greenhouse

The climatic parameters such as temperature, humidity,
carbon dioxide in these polyhouses are maintained and/
or controlled through forced air circulation using fan
and pad systems (for hot regions)/heaters (for temperate
regions), foggers, curtain actuators (mechanism that
makes the system work) that are controlled with
automatic sensors. These systems are mostly operated
automatically, however, these can be operated manually
as well. These structures require continuous power
supply and backup.

Factors Responsible for Selection of Specific

Design of a Greenhouse
The following factors are kept into consideration while
selecting a specific design.
(a) Type of crop to be grown
(b) Easy availability of raw material
(c) Local climatic conditions
(d) Investing capacity of the farmer
(e) Market demand of the produce
(f) Appreciation to the produce

Activity 1: Identify types of protected structures

Material required: pen, pencil, notebook, etc.

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 Notes
Procedure
Visit any institution and note down the following information.
1. Identify types of structures.
2. Enlist kinds of material used in different structure.
3. Write down utility of each structure observed.
4. Draw sketch of protected structure.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Climatic parameters are mainly maintained in ________.
2. In low cost naturally ventilated polyhouses ________ or
_______ material are generally used.
3. In forced ventilated greenhouses the temperature inside
the structure is maintained with the help of __________.
4. The normal height of medium cost greenhouses ranges
between ____ and ____ m.
5. The sensor based controlled system used in _______
greenhouse.

B. Mark the correct choice

1. A greenhouse does not comes under the classification
based on shape
(a) Quonset type
(b) Curved roof type
(c) Gable roof type
(d) Forced ventilated
2. An approximate cost of establishing low cost greenhouse
is Rs./sq.m.
(a) 900–1000
(b) 1200–1500
(c) 450–620
(d) 200–250

C. Descriptive questions
1. Classify greenhouses on the basis of cost.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Describe in brief
(a) Naturally ventilated greenhouse
(b) Forced ventilated greenhouse
(c) Criteria for selection of specific design

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 D. Match the columns Notes
A B
1. High cost greenhouse a. Manually operated
2. Cladding material b. Short life span
3. Naturally ventilated c. Precisely regulated climatic
greenhouse
4. Low cost greenhouse d. Poly ethylene film

Session 3: Major Components of a

Greenhouse
A greenhouse is constructed with different material and
their components. In this session, the major components
used in greenhouse construction and their features and
functions are described.

Different Greenhouse Components with their

Features and Functions
Cladding Material
Polythenes or other transparent material used for
walls and roof of a greenhouse for protection as well
as transparency, which simulates climatic conditions
inside the greenhouse is called cladding material. The
material could be made of polycarbonate, glass or
poly sheets. The polycarbonate and glass houses are
temporary structures and mostly used for research or
academic purposes. The polythene sheet as a cladding
material is most commonly used and these films are
normally UV-stabilised, 200 micron thick and fixed with
aluminum profiles using zigzag springs.
It is important to select a proper film for the polyhouse,
which has direct relation with the quality of the crop as
well as the quantity of the produce. Polythene should
be properly UV-stabilised and a minimum life span of at
least three years. With 1 kg polyfilm, a maximum area
of 5.4 sq m can be accommodated.

Polyhouse Film
(i) Compulsory properties: UV stabilisation, diffusion/
clear (light transmission)

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 (ii) Optional properties: UV blocking/antivirus,
sulphur resistant, thermic, anti-drip, anti-mist,
anti-dust, three-layer/five-layer films

Crop-wise Recommendations
(i) Dutch roses: Cladding—200 micron thick, UV-
stabilised, anti-dust, anti-sulphur, with cooling
effect, light diffusion
(ii) Gerbera, Bell pepper, Anthurium and Orchids:
Cladding—200 micron thick, UV-stabilised, anti-
dust, with cooling effect, light diffusion
(iii) Carnation: Cladding—200 micron thick, UV-
stabilised, anti-dust, with cooling effect for IR
protection polythene at high altitudes

Gutter
It is used for collecting rainwater from the roof of the
greenhouses and are placed at an elevated level (at least
4–4.5 m from ground level) between two spans.
Gutters are made of galvanised sheet of 2 mm
thickness in trapezoidal shape (preferably of single
length without joint). It should be leak-proof.
Minimum of 1 per cent slope is required for the
Indian Standards
for construction of
gutter. Gutter orientation is in North–South direction
Greenhouse/Polyhouse in multi-span greenhouse and may change according to
The Bureau of Indian
the direction of the wind.
Standards (BIS) has
formulated following Foundation Pipe
standards with respect to It connects the structure and the ground.
Polyhouse/Greenhouses.
1. IS 14462:1997: Tubular Structural Members, Foundation and
Recommendation
for layout, design Labelling
and construction of
greenhouse.
These are the galvanised iron tubular/square pipe and
2. IS 14485:1998: angles. These items are used to erect a stable frame to
Recommendations for support the cladding material and other systems in the
heating, ventilating and greenhouse. These items include horizontal and vertical
cooling of greenhouse. structure members in any polyhouse.
3. IS 15827:2009:
Plastics films for
(i) Purlin: It is a member that connects cladding
Greenhouse supporting bars to the columns.
(ii) Ridge: It is the highest horizontal section on top of
the roof.

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 (iii) Girder: It is a horizontal structural member,
connecting columns on gutter height.
(iv) Bracings: These support the structures against
wind.
(v) Arches: These support covering or cladding
materials.

Polyhouse Length and Width, Orientation gable: transparent

(i) Polyhouse length is the dimension of the polyhouse wall of a greenhouse
in the direction of gable. (Length is side along the
gable or side along the truss lines)
(ii) Polyhouse width is the dimension of the polyhouse
along the gutter.
(iii) Orientation of polyhouse for Ridge
single-span structures, should Truss Ridge ventilator

be East–West. For multi-span Purlin

Gutter
structures, the orientation परनाल
should be North–South. The
distance of trees adjacent to the Gutter supp
greenhouse should be about Lateral
Ventilator
2.5 times the height of the
greenhouse, to avoid shade.
Fig. 2.10

Polyhouse 20m × 28m

Elevation

PCC 1:3:6

Foundation
Isometric View
Plan
Plan
Note:
Gable Width–20m
Gable Length–28m
The Greenhouse measurements are measured by Gable dimension as a Width and Gutter side
dimension as a Length (As shown in Drawing)

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 Notes Micro Irrigation System
Micro irrigation system is the best way for watering
plants in a polyhouse as per the daily needs and the
stage of the crop. Besides this, care should be taken
that water does not trickle directly on the leaves or
the flower, which may lead to disease and scorching of
leaves or flowers.

Fertigation Equipment
For providing fertilisers to the plants as per their daily
needs, water-soluble or liquid fertilisers are injected in
the irrigation mainlines feeding the greenhouse crops.
Fertiliser dosers and tanks are used for injecting soluble
fertilisers. They can also be connected to automatic
mixing and dispensing unit. The fertilisers are dissolved
in different tanks as per compatibility and are mixed in
discrete proportions for supply to the plants through
drip irrigation systems.

Spraying System
This system is used for spraying required chemicals
on the crop to control pests and diseases, if any. The
spraying machines are normally portable but may be
equipped with high pressure motorised piston pumps
and nozzles.

Exhaust Fan and Cooling Pads

For removing hot air from the greenhouses in forced
ventilated greenhouses, cooling pads are used for
cooling the air entering into the greenhouses.
These systems are operated as and when the climatic
parameters like temperature, humidity, etc., inside
the greenhouse need manipulation as per crop growth
requirement.

Shading Net
These are used for controlling light intensity falling on
the crops inside the greenhouse. Various shading nets
with shading capacities like 35 per cent, 50 per cent,
75 per cent are used for different crops and seasons.

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 Sensors and Controllers Notes
They are used for controlling climatic parameters
automatically inside hi-tech greenhouses. These
systems are generally used for very high-value crops
and sensitive activities like soil-less cultivation, tissue
culture plant and hardening activities.

Activity 1: Enlist the different components of a greenhouse

structure
Materials required: notebook, pen, etc.
Procedure
• Visit the nearby greenhouse.
• Observe different components of the greenhouse.
• Note down the components and their use.
• Draw figures of different components.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Transparent material mounted on the walls and roof of
a greenhouse is known as ______________.
2. Gutters are used for __________ the rain water from the
roof of greenhouse.
3. In polyhouse _____________ polyfilm as cladding material
is generally used.

B. Multiple choice questions

1. The distance of trees near to the greenhouse should be
about ____ times the height of the greenhouse
(a) 1.5 (b) 2.5
(c) 3.5 (d) 4.5
2. One kilogram weight of polyfilm can be accommodated
in ____________.
(a) 5.4 sq. (b) 3.4 sq.
(c) 2.4 sq. (d) 1.4 sq.

C. Descriptive questions
1. What are the different components of the greenhouse?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

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 Notes 2. Write short notes on
(i) Shading net
(ii) Micro irrigation system
(iii) Fertigation equipment

D. Match the columns

A B
1. Connects cladding (a) Foundation pipe
supporting bars to columns
2. Highest horizontal section (b) Purlin
in top of the roof
3. To support the structure (c) Ridge
against wind
4. Connection between (d) Bracings
the structure and ground

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 Unit Preparation of Media
3 and Container for
Commercial Cultivation
in Greenhouses

Introduction
The production of greenhouse crops involves a number
of agricultural inputs. Among these, growing media or
substrate or soil is one of the most critical components.
Growing media comprise material aimed to provide
ideal physical and chemical characteristics for the
root environment. In greenhouse agriculture, a good
substrate has proper structural characteristics to
support optimum irrigation, maintain proper moisture
and aeration, development of roots, adapt to fluctuations
in temperature, pH and EC as the plant grows. Various
types of growing media used in protected cultivation
include peat moss, vermiculite, perlite, shredded
coconut husks (coco peat), or composted materials plus
starter nutrients and a wetting agent. These media can
also be combined in desired proportions as a recipe or
formulation as per requirement of the crop or situation.
These are used because soils from the field are often
vulnerable to diseases and pests and may not provide
healthy growth of plants particularly in containers.
Besides, these media in right proportions can provide
aeration, drainage, water-holding capacity and nutrient
uptake by the plant while also resisting the development
of diseases or germination of weeds.

Chapter -3.indd 31 13-08-2018 14:13:33

 Session 1: Growing Media and its
Composition
Growing Media
The material in which plants grow in pots are known as
the potting material. Substrate or the medium which
is used to grow plants is commonly called the growing
medium. Media is a source of mineral nutrients,
moisture and support for the plant.
• Mineral source: Media supplies the necessary
nutrients for plant growth.
• Moisture source: Media also supplies the necessary
water for the plant.
• Plant support: The third major function of the media
is to afford mechanical support for the plant and its
roots, while also ensuring optimum moisture and
aeration for roots.

Different Types of Growing Media

In most cases, two types of growing media
are used in protected cultivation viz. soil
and soilless media.
Soil as a Growing Medium
Soil is the basic natural medium for
growing plants and is indeed the cheapest
source. Loamy and porous soil, rich in
organic matter with neutral pH (around 7)
Fig. 3.1: Soil as a Growing Media is good for the growth of plants. Soil is
mixed with sand and farmyard manure
(2:1:1) for better aeration, water-holding capacity and
nutrient supply to the plants.
Problems of soil as a medium
(i) It is difficult to maintain the nutritive status,
pH and water-holding capacity of soil as per the
requirements of a particular crop for long duration.
(ii) The soil-borne pathogens pose a serious threat to
the plants, resulting in lower production.
(iii) Some types of soil such as saline or ill-drained
soil create problems in soil aeration, porosity,

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 nutrient uptake, etc., which in turn affect the
crop productivity.
Soilless Substrates as Growing Media
(a) In recent years, due to the problems of using
soil as a growing media, the media other than
soil (solid or liquid) are used as a base to grow
plants under protected conditions. This is
called ‘soilless culture’.
Advantages of Soilless Culture
(i) Soilless culture media, whether liquid
or solid, facilitates precise nutritional
requirement of the plant.
(ii) It helps pathogen-free cultivation.
Fig. 3.2: Soilless substrates as
(iii) More economical use of fertiliser is possible. a growing media
(iv) Labour saving in weeding and fertiliser
applications.
(v) Saving basal doses of manure.
(vi) Crop cultivation under problematic soil conditions
is possible.

Different Media or Substrates

Coco peat
It is a byproduct of the coconut industry, and is
used widely as a substrate due to its low cost,
aeration, drainage and long life. It is supplied in
loose form as well as in compressed brick forms.
The compressed bricks are easy to transport at
low costs. The bricks weigh about 4–5 kg and Fig. 3.3: Coco peat

can expand to 4–5 times of their volume once water

is added after loosening them. It is advisable
to use coco peat after treatment with steam or
other means of disinfestation.

Vermiculite
It is an aluminum–iron–magnesium silicate. It is
a mica-like mineral which expands to open-flake
structures on heating at high temperatures.
Vermiculite is available in various grades and
Fig. 3.4: Vermiculite

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 particle sizes and can have a bearing on the choice,
depending upon the size of nursery pots. The finer
grades are used for small pots and nursery trays, while
large or coarse grades may be used in large containers.
Vermiculite has a range of pore spaces, which can
retain considerable amount of moisture on wetting. It
also contains important minerals, especially calcium
and magnesium besides having a near neutral pH.
Vermiculite is a critical desirable component of soilless
root substrates because of its high nutrient and water
retention and good aeration capacity while bearing a
low bulk density.

Perlite
It is a crushed volcanic rock that has been
heated and expanded to become a lightweight,
white material. Perlite is sterile and has a
neutral pH. It improves air space and water
drainage of the nursery medium. It is a hard
material that does not break apart easily. It
Fig. 3.5: Perlite can hold about 3–4 times of water equal to its
weight in water. Use of perlite keeps the weight of the
media lesser in comparison to soil.

Rock wool
It is a burnt mixture of coke, basalt, limestone and
also the slag from iron production. It is ground to
produce a fine powdered or granular form. This
powdered form used in the media provides good
aeration and water-holding capacity. It is slightly
alkaline; it neither contributes nor holds nutrients
to any extent, therefore it is mixed with other
Fig. 3.6: Rock wool growing media such as sphagnum peat moss.

Sand
It is the basic component of soil. Its particle size ranges
from 0.05 mm–2.0 mm in diameter. It improves aeration
and drainage and needs minimum cost incurrence.
While sand is vulnerable to diseases and pests, however
once sterilised, it can prove to be a good medium for
both potting and propagation media.

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 Rice Husk
It is a byproduct of the rice milling industry. It is
extremely light in weight and is very effective for
improving drainage.

Bark
It is a byproduct of saw mills, which is used as a media
for pot cultures as well as in greenhouses. It provides
aeration at low cost. It is either used alone in containers
or mixed with one-fourth part of peat moss for improving
water-holding capacity. Bark particles of less than 3/8
inch (9.5 mm) in size are used as growing media in
general. Bark has low nutrients and very low pH (3.5–
6.5) when used unprocessed. For improving the pH of
the bark medium, dolomite lime may be added to bring
it above a pH of 6 at the least.

Sphagnum Peat moss

It is also called peat moss or simply peat.
Peat is the most popular component of most
soilless substrate media or mixes used as
soilless medium because of its lower cost and
easy availability. It originates from the partial
decomposition of plant material in peat bogs
where oxygen availability is low. All the peats
have very favourable water-holding capacity,
high Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), low Fig. 3.7: Sphagnum Peat moss
nutrient contents, low pH (around 3 to 4.5)
and requires limestone addition to balance the pH.

Saw dust
It is similar to peat moss in many ways and its quality
depends on the type of trees. It may contain toxic
substances such as resins, tannins or turpentine. It is
acidic in nature and requires limestone to neutralise it.

Composition of Media
Many substrates are available that can be used singly
or in combination by mixing in definite proportions,
depending upon the crop requirements such as plant

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 Notes support, aeration, nutrient and moisture retention.
The selection of components generally depends on their
availability and cost.
Standard soilless composition includes composite
mixture of coco peat, vermiculite and perlite in 3:1:1
volume by volume ratio.
In case of seedling nursery, coco peat alone may be
used as a growing media after treating it with calcium
nitrate (50 g/kg) to reduce the electrical conductivity
and pH of the media.
If timber is available in abundance, use of bark as
a growing medium is economical. Sand is added to
bark because it settles in spaces and nests among the
bark particles, thus adding more surface area and as
a consequence, more air and water are available in a
given volume of substrate. Often, sphagnum peat moss
is also added to the bark to further increase water-
holding capacity as well as nutrient retention.

Activity 1: Prepare a soilless growing medium.

Materials required: coco peat, vermiculite, perlite, pot, etc.
Procedure
• Identify different components of soilless media.
• Measure the quantity of components used.
• Prepare composite mixture of coco peat, vermiculite, perlite
in 3:1:1 volume by volume ratio.
• Fill the pot with prepare media.

Ckeck Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. The growing medium which is prepared from coconut
fiber is known as ____________.
2. Growing media which is obtained from volcanic rock is
known as __________.
3. Vermiculite contains important minerals such as
_________ and ______.
4. The standard soilless composition ratio of coco peat,
vermiculite and perlite is ________.

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 B. Multiple choice questions Notes
1. Substrate which is used to grow plants is commonly
called the ___________.
(a) bark
(b) rock wool
(c) growing medium
(d) vermiculite
2. Which is not used as soilless media?
(a) Vermiculite
(b) Perlite
(c) Coco peat
(d) Vermiwash
3. Sand as growing medium improves the ___________.
(a) aeration and drainage
(b) water-holding capacity
(c) nutritive status
(d) pH
4. Growing media is a source of ___________.
(a) mineral nutrients
(b) moisture
(c) support to plant
(d) All of these

C. Descriptive questions
1. Describe different types of growing media.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Describe in brief
(a) Problems of soil as a medium
(b) Sphagnum peat moss
(c) Coco peat
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

D. Match the columns

A B
1. Perlite (a) Neutral base fibre
2. Vermiculite (b) Milling industry
3. Coco peat (c) Light, white, substrate
4. Rice husk (d) Mica-like mineral

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 Notes Session 2: Sterilisation of Growing Media
Sterilisation can be defined as the process of removal
or destruction of all forms of microbial life. Any sterile
item in the microbiological sense actually has to be free
of any living micro-organisms. Micro-organisms can
be killed, inhibited or removed by exposing material to
lethal agents which may be physical, chemical or ionic
in nature or in the case of liquids, physical elimination
of cells from the medium.
Soil Sterilisation
The soil or soilless media are used for growing the
plants, supporting the plant, retaining the moisture
and providing water and nutrients for the root system.
The media used for cultivation of plants are also
often congenial for the growth of micro-organisms
viz. bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa, viruses,
insects, nematodes and weed seeds. The micro-
organisms include beneficial as well as harmful, i.e.,
soil-borne plant disease causing organisms. To eliminate
soil-borne pathogens, nematodes, insects and weeds to
obtain healthy growth of plants, it is essential to sterilise
or pasteurise the soil or soilless media.
Methods of Soil Disinfestation
A variety of techniques and agents are available for soil
disinfestation. They act in many different ways and
each has its own limits of application. The selection
of a method depends upon the desired efficiency, its
applicability, toxicity, availability and cost and effect on
the properties of the object to be disinfested.
Among the variety of physical and chemical agents
and techniques available, the more commonly used for
soil or substrate sterilisation are moist heat, i.e., steam
sterilisation and chemicals, i.e., fumigants.
Soil Solarisation
High intensity solar radiation during summer (April–
June) is used as a lethal agent for the control of plant
pathogenic organisms, insects, nematodes and weeds
through the use of transparent polyethylene films and
this is known as soil solarisation. The step-by-step
procedure of soil solarisation includes—

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 (i) Soil should be ploughed first. Notes
(ii) Irrigate the field very ligthly.
(iii) Cover the field with transparent UV-stabilised 25
micron polyfilm for 20–30 days.
(iv) The sides of the film should be covered with soil to
avoid entry of outside air.
(v) Soil solarisation is not a foolproof method for
sterilisation.

Soil Sterilisation by Formaldehyde

It is an excellent sterlising agent for controlling harmful
soil microbes. It is marketed in aqueous solution as
formalin which contains 37–40 per cent formaldehyde.
The soil or root substrate to be sterilised is loosened
and the solution prepared by mixing 4 L formalin in
19 L of water is poured or sprayed on the soil @5 ml/
sq m area. The rate of application depends upon the
moisture content, depth of soil and type of soil. The
land is covered with thin plastic film to retain the fumes
generated. Removal of plastic film (after 7 days), complete
evaporation of smell of formaldehyde will take place in
about 15–20 days. After that, sowing or planting should
be done. It has limited effect against nematodes and
should not be used in standing crops. Its use has to be
preferably avoided as it is a general biocide (a substance
that destroys or inhibits the growth or activity of living
organisms), deterimental to the health and safety of the
production system.

Soil Sterilisation by Hydrogen Peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide with nano particle silver can be
used for sterilisation. Since this solution is in liquid
form, it can be applied using drip irrigation system.
The recommended dose of the solution is 35–40 ml/
sq m, however care should be taken that the soil beds
are gently watered beforehand. The main advantage of
using this solution is that sowing/planting can be done
the very next day.
Other sterilisation methods include heat or steam
sterilisation, which have limitation of application under
field conditions due to high expenditure.

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 Notes

Activity 1: Demonstrate procedure of soil solarisation.

Material required: polyfilm of 25–50 micron, water can,
‘Khurpi’, etc.
Procedure
• Open the soil surface with Khurpi and prepare a bed of
2.5 m × 2.5 m size.
• Irrigate the bed lightly.
• Place the polyfilm on the top of the area and cover the edges
with soil.
• Leave it for 20–30 days.
• Observe germination of weeds.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. A high intensity solar radiation used for treating soil is
known as ___________.
2. An excellent sterlising chemical for controlling soil
microbes is ________________.
3. The recommended dose of hydrogen peroxide when used
for sterilisation is _______ ml per sq m.

B. Mark the correct choice

1. For soil solarisation use UV stabilised transparent sheet
of _________ micron
(a) 25 (b) 35
(c) 45 (d) 55
2. Physical method of soil disinfection by _________.
(a) weedicide (b) fungicide
(c) solarisation (d) formaldehyde

C. Descriptive questions
1. What is soil sterilisation? Describe the method of soil
solarisation.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Describe the soil sterlisation by formaldehyde.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

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 D. Match the columns
A B
1. Soil Sterilisation (a) Micro-organsim
2. Aseptic (b) Fumigent
3. Bacteria (c) Microbe-free
4. Formadehyde (d) Peak Summer

Session 3: Preparation of Beds and

Containers for Growing Crops
Preparation of Raised Beds
Bed preparation in a greenhouse, polyhouse, net house
or a tunnel is very important and it plays a crucial role
while growing plants. First of all, it is important to select
‘well drained’ soil for growing plants (like loam, red soil).
If it is not available, then the soil should be improved by
adding rice husk, compost (dry), etc., so that it becomes
well-drained. The required composition for 4,000 sq m
of land area is—Farm Yard Manure (FYM) 3 truck, rice
husk 2 MT, neemcake1 MT, and fish meal/bonemeal
0.25 MT. Once it is mixed thoroughly, fumigation is
done with hydrogen peroxide, after which the soil is Fig. 3.8: Land preparation
under polyhouse
kept closed for at least 24 hours and then the layout
of beds is marked as per requirement. Pegs are used to
fix lines before starting the bed preparation. The height
of the bed should be equal, about 30–45 cm from the
ground, with a width of 75–90 cm. The width of the path
between two beds should be 50 cm. These beds are good
for better aeration and drainage and are more common
in greenhouse cultivation.
For crops other than flowers, cultivators prepare
planting beds differently.

Plant Growing Containers for Greenhouse

Production
The duration of a crop in the greenhouse is the key to
make the greenhouse technology profitable. Therefore,
the use of containers in greenhouse production carries
significance.
They are used for the following important activities
in greenhouse production.

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 (i) Raising of seedlings in the nursery.
(ii) Growing plants in greenhouses for hybrid seed
production of flowers.
(iii) Growing cut flowers in greenhouses.
(iv) Growing potted ornamental plants in greenhouses.

Advantages of Containers in Greenhouse

Production
(i) Increase in production capacity by reducing crop
Fig. 3.9: Plant growing in duration.
different types of containers (ii) Quality production of nursery or crop.
(iii) Uniformity of plant growth, and better vigour and
survival rates.
(iv) Provide quick take-off with little or no transplanting
shock.
(v) Easy maintenance of sanitation in greenhouse.
(vi) Easy to handle, grade and shift for transportation.
(vii) Better water drainage and aeration in pot media.
(viii) Easy to monitor chemical characteristics and
plant nutrition with advanced irrigation system
like drip irrigation.
(ix) Protection from soil-borne pathogens.
Table 3.1: Advantages and Disadvantages of plant
growing in containers
Containers Advantages Disadvantages
Polyurethane • Requires less medium • Requires regular
foam • Reusable fertilisation
• Easy to handle
Pro-trays • Easy to handle • May be limited in
• Reusable sizes
Polyethylene • Easy to handle • Requires less
bag storage space
Plastic pot • Reusable, Good root • Requires handling
penetration as single plant
Plastic tray • Available in many • Roots may grow out
sizes of the container
• Reusable
• Requires less medium
Clay pot • Easy water • They are heavy to
management handle, uses due to
• Low cost easy breakage.
• Slow to work with
pots and dry out fast

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 Single peat • Easy to handle in field • Difficult to separate Notes
pot • Available in variable
sizes (square/round)
• Good root penetration
Plastic bag • Easy to handle • Roots may grow out
of container

Selection of suitable containers depends on the crop

to be produced in the greenhouse, plant characteristics
like crop stage, duration, vigour, growth habit, root
system, etc. Generally, small containers are suitable
for nursery and small plants or short plants with less
growth of roots, while large containers are used for
plants with profuse root system.

Activity 1: Prepare a raised bed

Material required: spade, measuring tape, pegs and rope, etc.
Procedure
• Measure the area of desired size.
• Insert the pegs as per identified area and encircle it with
rope.
• With the help of spade loosen the soil.
• Lift the soil from the channels and put it on beds.
• Measure the width, height of the beds.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. The low cost container for growing plants is ___________.
2. Easy to handle and reusable containers are _________.

B. Mark the correct answer

1. While preparing nursery bed, path width should be left
between two beds
(a) 30 cm (b) 40 cm
(c) 50 cm (d) 60 cm
2. The large containers are used for plants with
(a) small roots (b) medium roots
(c) primary roots (d) profuse roots

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 Notes C. Descriptive questions
1. Explain in brief the preparation of raised beds.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. What are the advantages of using containers?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. What are the types of containers needed for deep rooted
crops?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

D. Match the columns

A B
1. Raised bed (a) Earthen pot
2. Sterilisation (b) Plastic nursery tray
3. Pro-trays (c) Making aseptic
4. Clay pot (d) 30–45 cm height

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 Unit
4 Irrigation and
Fertigation in
Greenhouses

Introduction
An efficient irrigation system, preferably micro irrigation,
combined with fertigation system is required for any
type of greenhouse cultivation. The quality of water is
an important parameter to be considered when micro
irrigation systems are used. Poor quality water may
clog the emitting points of micro irrigation systems.
In micro irrigation systems, less quantity of water is
used precisely to meet the crop water requirement. In
this Unit, quality and the quantity of irrigation water
required, the types of micro irrigation systems, types
of fertiliser and fertigation methods are discussed with
reference to flower cultivation under greenhouses.
Besides, processes for cleaning and maintenance of
fertigation equipment have also been discussed.

Session 1: Micro Irrigation Systems and

their Application

Quality and Quantity of Water required for

Irrigation in Greenhouse
Water quality can be defined as the quality that
influences its suitability for specific use, i.e., whether
the quality is suitable for drinking, irrigation, industrial

Chapter -4.indd 45 13-08-2018 14:16:34

 use, etc. For successful flower crop production in a
EC: the electrical greenhouse, attention must be given to the quality of
conductivity of water water. Drip fertigation requires good quality water, i.e.,
estimates the total
it should be free of suspended particulates, solids or
amount of solids
dissolved in water, micro-organisms that can possibly choke small openings
i.e., TDS, which (orifices) of the emitters. For cultivation of flowers in
stands for Total a controlled environment, water quality plays a pivotal
Dissolved Solids. role in the production of cut flowers for its colour, stem
TDS is measured in length and bud size along with climatic conditions.
ppm (parts per million) Normally, a pH between 6.5–7 is recommended for
or in mg/l.
irrigation, and electrical conductivity (EC) should be
less than 0.7ds/m. In such a case, after addition of
fertilisers, the pH goes up, EC goes more than 1 ds/m
pH: it is a measure
of how acidic or basic
and we have to maintain the uptake of fertilisers.
water is. The range Generally, the requirement of water is based on the
goes from 0–14, following factors.
with 7 being neutral. (i) Plant spacing
A pH of less than (ii) Canopy (covering) area
7 indicates acidity, (iii) Rate of evaporation and transpiration
whereas a pH greater (iv) Soil type
than 7 indicates a (v) Age of plants (growth stage) and fertiliser requirement
basicity. pH is really
(vi) Stage of plants: vegetative growth and harvesting
a measure of the
relative amount of stage
free hydrogen and (vii) Season
hydroxyl ions in Table 4.1: The general quality of irrigation water
the water. and water requirement for flower cultivation
S. Description Rose Gerbera Carnation
No.
1. Number of 6 6 20
plants per sq m
2. Spacing 30 × 37.5 cm 30 × 37.5 cm 15 × 15 cm
3. Water pH 6.5–7.0 6.5–7.0 6.5–7.0
4. Electrical <0.7 <0.7 <0.7
Conductivity
(EC)
5. Life-cycle 50–60 30–36 24 months
months months
6. Water 3–4 litres sq 3–4 litres sq 3–5 litres sq
requirement per m/day m/day m/day
day

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 Depending upon the peak water requirement of
the plant and the number of plants, a storage tank
or source of the desired capacity is made available for
proper irrigation.

Micro Irrigation Systems and their Application

The selection of irrigation systems with a fertigation
arrangement is important for protected cultivation.
The selection of drip system depends on the following
factors.
(i) Crop spacing
(ii) Crop water requirement
(iii) Soil type
(iv) Growing media
(v) Where to grow: beds/trough/pots
(vi) Discharge rate of emitter
(vii) Distances of emitters on drip line
(viii) Bed size
(ix) Water quality
(x) Electricity availability
(xi) Fertigation requirements of crop
Benefits of Drip System
(i) More efficient water use.
(ii) More efficient use of fertilisers.
(iii) Less pumping cost.
(iv) Less chemical usage.
(v) Less labour required.
(vi) Significantly higher yield.
Fig. 4.1: Drip Irrigation System
(vii) Better crop quality.
(viii) Better uniformity of application.
The drip system should be easily serviceable,
economical, user-friendly with higher emission
uniformity and lower coefficient of variation, to maintain
optimum moisture level in the soil. For different crops,
different discharge and spacing options available in the
market can be used. The diameters of laterals depend
on the total discharge in specific length and frictional
loss. Though there are different diameters available in
the market, the most common are 12 mm and 16 mm.
The discharge for closed spacing crop should be lower,

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 like for carnation: 1 litre per hour (LPH)/2 LPH @ 20
cm spacing. Generally, for rose and gerbera, a 16 mm
diameter 2 LPH @ 20 cm/30 cm spacing inline drippers
are used. For potted plants, stake drippers of 1 LPH for
each pot are used.
There are various type of drip systems available in
the market based on land topography and usage. These
systems are used for performing the following functions.
(i) Non Pressure Compensating (NPC)
(ii) Pressure Compensating (PC)
(iii) Pressure Compensating cum Non-Leaking (PCCNL)/
Pressure Compensating with Anti-leak

Fig. 4.2: Accessories of drip line

(1) Start connecter
1 4 (2) Rubber grommet
8 (3) Lateral control valve
(4) Lateral end plug
(5) End Cap
2 5 (6) Start connecter
(7) Tee
9
(8) Elbow
9) Mini sprinkler

3 7 6

(a) (b)
(a) Fig. 4.3: NPC Dripper

(b)
Fig. 4.4: PC Dripper

Fig. 4.5: PCCNL Dripper Fig. 4.6: PCCNL Dripper with Stake

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 Sprinkler System
This system is more popular for nurseries like seedling
units where the spacing remains very close, plants are
too small and density is very high. Nowadays, overhead,
anti-leak sprinklers (hanging like foggers) are more
popular in India because they have several advantages
as being overhead it facilitates better working space.
Moreover, since it is anti-leak, cyclic use and greater
uniformity of application is possible.
Also, nowadays people are using sprinklers at the
roof of greenhouse/polyhouse because due to dust
formation at roof, the transparency of light remains
lower and it helps to clean the roof. Please note that
this operation should be done at night so that during
sunshine, the film remains dry, otherwise there may be Fig. 4.7: Water sprinkler
algae formation.

Activity 1: Identify components of drip irrigation system.

Material required: notebook, pen, etc.
Procedure
• Visit a drip irrigation unit
• Observe the types of drip system
• Note down the different components of the unit
• Identify different types of valves, drippers, lateral, etc
• Write the functions of different components

Activity 2: Visit a greenhouse and note down plant spacing

of different flower plants.
Material required: pen, pad, measuring tape, etc.
Procedure
• Note down the flower crop grown in protected structure.
• Observe the flower plantation/spacing.
• Measure at three different places and take average of plant-
to-plant and row-to-row distance.
• Calculate the total number of plants per sq. metre and total
number of plants in protected structure.

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 Notes Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Commonly available diameter of laterals in India is
__________ and _________ mm.
2. For potted plants stake drippers of discharge ______ LPH
for each pot is used.
3. Sprinklers used on the top of greenhouse helps in
______________.
4. Normally pH of irrigation water should range between
______________.
5. Normally, in greenhouse the number of carnation plants
per sq m is ___________.
6. Water requirement of rose plants is ______________ per sq
m/day.

B. Mark the correct answers

1. A method of irrigation in which use of less water precisely
to the crop is ___________.
(a) Flood irrigation
(b) Macro irrigation
(c) Basin irrigation
(d) Micro irrigation
2. Which of the following can adjust pressure but not
control leakage?
(a) NPC dripper
(b) PC dripper
(c) PCCNL dripper
(d) None of these

C. Descriptive questions
1. What is quality of water?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. What is drip irrigation system? Write some of its benefits.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. Write in brief
1. Micro irrigation system and its application
2. Sprinkler system

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 D. Match the columns Notes
A B
1. Drip irrigation (a) Nozzles and dripper
2. Emitters (b) pH and EC
3. Water quality (c) Trickle irrigation
4. Sprinkler (d) Water let out

Session 2: Types of Fertilisers and their

Scheduling
Most greenhouse operations apply soluble fertilisers
through irrigation systems, thus the use of the term
‘fertigation’. This is accomplished by drip (pipes) where
soluble fertilisers are injected using injectors at a
calculated quantity of concentrated solution (stock
solution) into the irrigation line so that the water from
the hose (dilute solution) carries as much fertiliser as
planned. Fertigation provides not only greater resource
optimisation, but also better adaptability for suitable
placement and delivery of inputs, thereby increasing
nutrient uptake efficiency, predictability, precision as per
the requirement of the plant or the media formulations.
The fertigation method varies depending on the type of
crop, irrigation required and the size and technological
status of the greenhouse. The simplest method is to
combine soluble fertiliser in a watering container or use
a hose injector or sprinkler to water plants by hand.
This method is tedious and time-consuming but may
be best when growing a variety of species with different
fertiliser needs in small area. Therefore, fertiliser injector
is relevant for use where fertiliser requirements of large
number of plants are nearly uniform.

Fertigation
Fertigation is a precise, controlled and tested method of
applying fertilisers, nutrients and other water-soluble
products through drip lines and sometimes by micro-
sprinkler irrigation systems as per crop requirements,
its stage, canopy size, soil or season, etc.

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 Notes Advantages of Fertigation
(i) Helps supply both water and fertiliser
simultaneously.
(ii) Increases yield by 25–30 per cent.
(iii) Saving in fertilisers by 25–30 per cent.
(iv) Application and distribution of fertilisers uniformly
and accurately.
(v) Modifications in nutrient requirement as per crop.
(vi) Lower pH can help in avoiding clogging of drippers.
(vii) Major and micro nutrients can be supplied together
with irrigation.
(viii) Requisite amount of fertilisers can be injected in
concentration.
(ix) Saves time, labour and energy.

Points to remember for adopting Fertigation

Gravitational fertiliser tank or injection pump such as
venturi (a short piece of narrow tube between wider
sections for measuring flow rate or exerting suction) are
utilised to inject the fertiliser as per plant requirements.
(i) Pressure compensating drippers or inline drippers
instead of micro tubes may be used for precision.
(ii) Feeding frequency depends on crop, its stage of
growth and season.
(iii) Stock solution should preferably not be above
10 per cent.
(iv) The fertiliser solution should be compatible with
other ingredients detailed in subsequent session.
Compatibility means mixing ability without
precipitation.
(v) Do not inject fertilisers in combination with
pesticides or chlorine.
(vi) The time taken by fertiliser supply should not
exceed the time given for water supply.
Avoid excess water supply, which may cause the
leaching (drain away from soil) of fertilisers.

Fertilisers Suitable for Fertigation

There are a number of soluble fertilisers specifically
developed for fertigation. Some of the soluble fertilisers
have characteristics that are suitable to specific soil

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 conditions, while others can be used in general for Notes
different types of soils. For example, certain soils have
over abundance of sulphur, yet may require other
nutrients like potassium, calcium and/or magnesium.
However, acidic soils require potassium, calcium and
magnesium and hence may restrict the use of acidifying
fertilisers.
Nitrogen Sources
Nitrogen is the predominant element used in any kind of
fertigation, including the ones used in greenhouses, as
plants require it in large quantities besides being highly
mobile across different phases of biogeochemical cycles.
Nitrogen is used in fertigation from various sources and
in different forms. Urea and urea ammonium nitrate
solutions are considered the most predominant forms
of nitrogen used as fertilisers. Nowadays soluble urea
phosphate has also become available in the market.
Fertigation through drip or sprinklers should avoid
the use of free or anhydrous ammonia (compound
containing no water).
Major sources of nitrogen, along with information on
their use in fertigation are given below.
Ammonium Phosphate
It may lead to lowering of pH and soil acidification. High
calcium or magnesium in the water for irrigation causes
precipitate formations and it can choke the drip emitters
and drip lines.
Ammonium Sulphate
It is a commonly used fertiliser. It is an inorganic soil
supplement that benefits especially in alkaline soils.
The active ingredients in it are nitrogen and sulphur. It
dissolves readily in water, and is convenient to use for
fertigation. It tends to be acid forming, which could be a
disadvantage if greenhouse media is acidic.
Ammonium Thio-sulphate
It is used both as a fertiliser and as an acidulating (which
makes it slightly acidic) agent. When ammonium thio-
sulphate is applied to the soil through fertigation, the

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 Notes sulphur-oxidising bacteria, Thiobacillus spp., oxidises
free sulphur to form sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid
dissolves lime in the soil and forms gypsum. The gypsum
makes it easier and helps maintain good porosity and
aeration.
Calcium Ammonium Nitrate
It is high in fast acting nitrate-nitrogen, low in lasting
ammonium nitrogen, and supplies calcium. Calcium
ammonium nitrate may be combined with ammonium
nitrate, magnesium nitrate, potassium nitrate and
potassium chloride.
Calcium Nitrate
It is soluble in water and causes only a slight shift
in the soil or water pH. However, if the water is high
in bicarbonate, the calcium content may lead to
precipitation of calcium carbonate (lime).
Urea Ammonium Nitrate
Nitrogen is available in three forms — nitrate nitrogen,
urea nitrogen and ammonium nitrogen. The nitrate
portion is immediately available as soon as it reaches
the root zone. The urea portion moves freely with the
soil water until it is hydrolysed by the urease enzyme
responsible for the formation of ammonium nitrogen.
Urea Sulphuric Acid
It is well suited for fertigation. Urea sulphuric acid is
an acidic fertiliser, which combines urea and sulphuric
acid. The nitrogen and sulphuric acid contents of these
products vary depending on their specific formulation.
The advantage of this combination eliminates disadvan-
tages of their use singly. The sulphuric acid decreases
losses of ammonia from soil due to volatilisation.
Phosphorus Sources
Monoammonium phosphate, di-ammonium phosphate,
monobasic potassium phosphate, ammonium
polyphosphate, urea phosphate and phosphoric acid
are some of the most common phosphate carrying
water-soluble fertilisers. But if applied with high

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 calcium or magnesium concentrations, they can cause Notes
precipitation and choking of drip pipes or emitters. The
precipitates so formed in drip pipes are fairly stubborn
and do not dissolve easily. In order to clean such drip
pipes and remove precipitates, the use of phosphoric
acid injection is required, which also lowers the pH
of the irrigation water. Its use may be advisable only
when the pH of the fertiliser-irrigation water mixture
remains low. But when the pH is high (due to dilution
with the irrigation water) the phosphate may precipitate
due to the presence of calcium and magnesium. One
approach that is sometimes successful is to supplement
the phosphoric acid injections with sulphuric or urea
sulphuric acid to assure that the pH of the irrigation
water remains low.
Ammonium Nitrate
It is a liquid fertiliser mainly used as a source of nitrogen
in greenhouses. It is available in two forms of nitrogen
— the nitrate-nitrogen form (mobile and instantly
available) and ammonium-nitrogen (the longer lasting,
as micro-organisms convert it to the nitrate form).
The major phosphorus sources along with information
on their use in fertigation are as follows.
Ammonium Polyphosphate
It can be used as a fertiliser only by low injection rates.
If the water being used has high buffering capacity (high
carbonate/bicarbonate content generally with high pH,
i.e., > 8.0) along with a high calcium and/or magnesium
content, possibilities of precipitation in drips becomes
very high.
Diammonium Phosphate (DAP)
It is one of the most popular fertilisers as a source of
phosphorus and it is completely soluble in water. DAP
is a boon under situations of high alkalinity and indeed
many greenhouses face this problem.
Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (MAP)
It is also completely soluble in water and is a good
source of phosphorus along with some nitrogen for the

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 Notes plants. It provides nitrogen in ammonia forms that is
taken up by the plants readily.
Monobasic Potassium Phosphate
Also known as monopotassium phosphate, it provides
good quantity of phosphorus along with potassium.
Phosphoric Acid
It can be used in many formulations of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium mixtures. But it cannot be
mixed with any fertiliser with high calcium. Being a good
source of phosphorus, it provides additional advantage
of keeping the pH of input injections low and helps in
avoiding precipitation.
Urea Phosphate
It is a good source of both phosphorus as well as nitrogen.
It provides nitrogen in the form of urea. It is basically
acidic in nature and highly suitable for acidifying water
and soil.
Potassium Sources
Most potassium fertilisers are water soluble, and
application of potassium through drip irrigation systems
has been very successful. The most common constraint
is that potassium injection leads to the formation of solid
precipitants in the supply tank when potassium is mixed
with other fertilisers. The potassium sources most often
used in drip irrigation systems are potassium chloride
(KCl) and potassium nitrate (KNO3). Potassium phosphates
are avoided for injection into drip irrigation systems.
Major sources of potassium sources along with their
uses in fertigation are given below.
Potassium Chloride
Potassium is supplemented by using potassium chloride
as it is highly soluble and inexpensive.
Potassium Nitrate
It is costly, but provides both nitrogen and potassium
simultaneously. Potassium nitrate is advisable to use
with irrigation water where salinity problems exist as it
has a low salt index.

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 Potassium Sulphate Notes
It can easily be used in place of potassium chloride
in high-saline areas and simultaneously presents a
source of sulphur, if that is required in fertility or soil
management programme.
Potassium Thio-sulphate (KTS)
Two grades of potassium thio-sulphate are available
and are neutral to basic, chloride-free, clear liquid
solution. It is blended with other fertilisers, but KTS
mixed should not be acidified below pH 6.0. The correct
order of mixing it is to first pour water, then pesticide (if
any), and then KTS and/or other fertiliser.
Table 4.2: Composition of major nutrients
in different fertilisers commonly
recommended for fertigation
S. No. Fertiliser N-P-K
1. Urea 46-0-0
2. Ammonium Nitrate 34-0-0
3. Ammonium Sulphate 21-0-0
4. Calcium Nitrate 16-0-0
5. Magnesium Nitrate 11-0-0
6. Urea Ammonium Nitrate 32-0-0
7. Potassium Nitrate 13-0-46
8. Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (MAP) 12-61-0
9. Potassium Chloride 0-0-60
10. Potassium Nitrate 13-0-46
11. Potassium Sulphate 0-0-50
12. Potassium Thiosulphate 0-0-25
13. Monobasic Potassium Phosphate (MKP) 0-52-0
14. Phosphoric Acid 0-52-0
15. NPK 19-19-19
20-20-20

Table 4.3: Solubility of Nitrogenous Fertilisers

S. No. Types of fertiliser Nitrogen Solubility
content (%) (gm/litre)
1. Ammonium Sulphate 21 750
2. Urea 46 1100

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 Notes 3. Ammonium Nitrate 34 1920
4. Calcium Nitrate 15.5 1290

Table 4.4: Solubility of Potassic Fertilisers

S. Fertiliser K content (%) Solubility
No. (gm/litre)
1. Potassium Sulphate 50 110
2. Potassium Chloride 60 340
3. Potassium Nitrate 44 133

Table 4.5: Solubility of Micronutrient Fertilisers

S. Fertilisers Content (%) Fertiliser Solubility
No. (gm/litre)
1. Solubor 20 B 220
2. Copper Sulphate 25 Cu 320
3. Iron Sulphate 20 Fe 160
4. Magnesium 10 710
Sulphate
5. Ammonium 54 430
Molybdate
6. Zinc Sulphate 36 965
7. Manganese 27 1050
Sulphate

Compatibility
Mixing the solutions of two or more water soluble
fertilisers can sometimes result in the formation of
a precipitate. Therefore, their solutions should be
prepared independently in two separate tanks.
Table 4.6: Combined nutrients
S.
Ammonium

Ammonium

Ammonium
Phosphate

Phosphate
Potassium

Potassium
Fertilisers

No.
Sulphate
Calcium
Nitrate

Nitrate

Nitrate
Mono

Mono
Urea

1. Urea C C C C C C
2. Ammonium C C C C C C
Nitrate
3. Ammonium C C LC C C LC
Sulphate

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 4. Calcium C C LC NC NC C
Nitrate
5. Mono C C C NC C C
Ammonium
Phosphate
6. Mono C C C NC C C
Phosphate
Phosphate
7. Potassium C C L C C C
Nitrate
C = Compatible, NC = Not Compatible, LC = Limited Compatible

Other Macronutrients
Sulphur (S), when needed, can also be provided as
ammonium thio-sulphate, ammonium sulphate or
flowable S. It is amenable to use with urea ammonium
nitrate and other soluble fertiliser grades for drip
fertigation. Magnesium sulphate is often used to supply
magnesium and sulphur.
Micronutrients
They can be applied readily through the drip system.
Sulphates of copper, iron, manganese and zinc are
highly water soluble, and move well through the drip
system. They are oxidised or precipitated readily in soil,
and hence their utilisation can be wasteful. Therefore,
it is advisable to use chelated fertilisers which improve
micronutrient utilisation efficiency. Chelate forms of
fertilisers are generally highly water-soluble and do not
choke drips by precipitation.

Fertigation Equipment
Different types of fertiliser
application systems through
drip irrigation are commercially
available. They are venturi,
fertiliser tank and piston
pump. Selection of a particular
fertigation system depends on
the area, flow, investing capacity
and precision needed. Generally,
small cultivators (up to 1008 Fig. 4.8: Fertigation unit

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 sq m) use venturi due to lower cost, the mid size
cultivators (from 1008–4000 sq m) use fertiliser
tanks or piston pumps and the big cultivators
(more than 5 acre) go for electrical or automation
as the initial investment is very high. Further,
manual mistakes can be avoided in electrical or
automation, besides providing ease of operation. In
general, nutrient management is essential during
each irrigation.

Calculation of Crop Water Requirement (CWR)

Water is the most critical input under drip irrigation
system. Knowledge about calculation of water
requirement during crop growth period helps to
increase water use efficiency both under open field and
protected condition.
Important terminology related to drip irrigation
system is as follows.

Pan Evaporation
It is evaporation of water from open surface and
is recorded at meteorological station on a daily
basis and expressed in mm/day. Under protected
cultivation, open field pan evaporation is multiplied
by a conversion factor of 0.45 to know the actual
evaporation inside protected structures.

Pan Factor
It is the factor (0.8) taken to compensate the actual
measurement of pan evaporimeter.

Evapotranspiration (ET)
It is water loss through transpiration from plants
Fig. 4.9: Pan evaporation
canopy and evaporation from soil surface. It is
expressed in mm/day.

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 Crop Factor Notes
It is the ratio between the actual and potential
evapo-transpiration. It varies as per the crop
growth stages.
Crop water requirement for open field and protected
cultivation can be calculated by using the following
formula. Here ET is in mm/day.
Crop water requirement (m3/day/ha) = ET * 10 * 0.5
for open field cultivation Crop
Water requirement (m3/day/1000 m2) = ET * 1 * 0.5
for protected cultivation
Where, ET (mm/day) = Pan evaporation * Kc (where
Kc = crop coefficient)
AVSM (Available soil moisture) or MAD (Management
allowable deficit) = 50%=0.5

Calculation of Fertiliser Solution

Concentration
The concentration of fertiliser solutions is usually
expressed in parts-per million (ppm) of nitrogen. To
determine how much fertiliser material is required
to produce a solution of a desired concentration, the
following formula is used.
Quantity of fertiliser required (grams)

For example, to make a 100 ppm solution of 20-10-

20 fertiliser in a 500 litre tank, the amount of fertiliser
required is

Quantity of fertiliser required (grams) =

(100 × 500)
(10 × 20)
Therefore, the quantity of fertiliser required is
250 grams.

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Chapter -4.indd 62
Table 4.7: Fertigation scheduling in flowers under protected cultivation

62
Crop Spacing Plants Fertigation Dose Total Yield
schedule
Plant Row No./ N P K N P K Stems
to to 1000m2 (No)
plant row Kg/ Kg/ Kg/
(m) (m) 1000m2 1000m2 1000m2
Rose 0.2 0.4 12000 Vegetative Stage: 80 50 60 28 17 25 270000
September–October
Flowering and 100 60 80
harvesting flush:
November–March
Flowering and 80 50 80
harvesting normal:
April–August
Gerbera 0.2 0.3 16000 Vegetative Stage: 70 50 60 17 12 17 650000
September–October
Flowering and 80 60 80
harvesting flush:
November–April
Maintenance dose: 40 24 40
May–August
Chrysanthemum 0.1 0.15 65000 Vegetative Stage: 80 50 60 21 13 19 90000
September–October
Flowering and 90 60 80
harvesting flush:
November–April
Maintenance Dose: 50 30 50
May–August
Lilium 0.15 0.2 32000 Vegetative Stage: 60 36 60 17 11 17 130000
September–October
Flowering and 80 50 80
harvesting flush:
November–March
Maintenance Dose: 50 30 50
April–August

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Chapter -4.indd 63
Carnation 0.15 0.2 32000 Vegetative Stage: 50 30 40 14 08 13 300000
September–October
Flowering and 60 40 60

Irrigation
harvesting flush:

and
November–March
Maintenance Dose: 40 20 40
April–August

Source: Hasan et al (2010). Fertigation Scheduling for Horticultural Crops. Tech Bull. TB-ICN: 80/2010, I.A.R.I., New Delhi. p. 44

Fertigation
in
Table 4.8: Month-wise fertigation scheduling in flowers under protected cultivation (1000m2)
Crops Particulars Month-wise application of water soluble fertilisers (kg/1000m2) and Irrigation (No)
Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total
Rose

Greenhouses
Irrigation 4 6 7 8 8 8 6 6 8 8 6 4 79
Urea 1.5 2.1 3.7 4.5 5.1 5.3 3.4 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.7 1.7 38.8
phosphate
Urea 1.9 2.6 4.5 5.2 6.0 6.2 4.0 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.2 2.1 45.8
Sulphate of 1.8 2.5 4.3 6.4 7.2 7.5 4.8 4.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 2.0 49.8
potash (SOP)
Gerbera
Irrigation 4 6 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 6 4 79
Urea 1.5 2.1 3.2 4.6 2.1 2.1 1.4 1.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 1.7 27.6
phosphate
Urea 1.4 1.9 2.9 4.2 2.5 2.6 1.7 1.5 2.4 2.5 2.4 1.5 27.5
SOP 1.8 2.5 3.7 5.4 3.0 3.1 2.0 1.7 2.6 2.7 3.1 2.0 33.8
Chrysanthemum
Irrigation 4 6 8 8 8 8 6 6 8 8 6 4 80
Urea 1. 2.1 3.7 4.6 2.6 2.7 1.7 1.5 2.5 2.9 3.0 1.9 30.7
phosphate
Urea 1.6 2.2 3.9 4.9 3.1 3.3 2.1 1.8 2.9 3.4 3.2 2.0 34.5
SOP 1.8 2.5 4.3 5.4 3.8 3.9 2.5 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.5 2.2 37.8

63
Source: Hasan et al (2010). Fertigation Scheduling for Horticultural Crops. Tech Bull. TB-ICN: 80/2010, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, p. 44

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Chapter -4.indd 64
64
Notes

Table 4.9: Month-wise fertigation scheduling in flowers under protected cultivation (1000m2)

Crops Particulars Month-wise application of water soluble fertilisers (kg/1000m2) and Irrigation (No)
Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total
Lilium
Irrigation 4 6 8 6 8 8 6 6 6 8 6 4 76
Urea 1.3 1.7 2.7 2.3 2.6 2.7 1.7 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.2 1.4 24.0
phosphate
Urea 1.5 1.7 2.7 2.3 2.6 2.7 1.7 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.2 1.4 24.0
SOP 1.8 2.5 3.7 3.4 3.8 3.9 2.5 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.1 2.0 34.6
Carnation
Irrigation 4 6 8 6 8 8 6 6 6 8 6 4 76
Urea 1.0 1.4 2.1 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.0 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.1 17.9
phosphate
Urea 1.1 1.5 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.7 1.8 1.5 1.8 2.2 1.9 1.2 23.0
SOP 1.3 1.8 2.8 2.7 3.0 3.1 2.0 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.3 1.5 26.3

Source: Hasan et al (2010). Fertigation Scheduling for Horticultural Crops. Tech Bull. TB-ICN: 80/2010, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, p. 44

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 Notes

Activity 1: Visit a greenhouse and observe the operation of

irrigation and fertigation system
Material required: notebook, pen, etc.
Procedure
• Visit a nearby greenhouse.
• Note down the components of irrigation/fertigation system.
• Note down the sequences of different types of drippers.
• Apply irrigation and fertiliser and observe the process.
• Observe difficulties faced during the operation.
• Discuss with the owner/farmers.

Activity 2: Identification of common fertilisers

Material required: notebook, pen, fertilisers and practical file.
Procedure
• Visit a nearby greenhouse/market.
• Identify fertilisers on the basis of appearance.
• Note down the content of each fertiliser.
• Note down the commonly used water soluble fertiliser.
• Discuss with the owner/farmers.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Application of soluble fertilisers through their irrigation
systems is known as _________.
2. The most fertigated element in greenhouses due to high
plant nutritional needs is ______________.
3. A liquid fertiliser widely used as a source of nitrogen in
greenhouses is _______________.
4. Diammonium phosphate (DAP) is one of the major
sources of ___________.

B. Mark the correct answers

1. Which of the following fertilisers may choke the drip due
to precipitation, if water is in high carbonate?
(a) Calcium Nitrate
(b) Ammonium Sulphate
(c) Ammonium Nitrate
(d) Ammonium Thio Suphate

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 Notes 2. Urea sulfuric acid is an ______________ fertiliser.
(a) alkaline
(b) acidic
(b) saline
(d) neutral
3. To avoiding clogging of drippers _________ pH is helpful.
(c) higher
(b) very high
(c) medium
(d) lower
4. Water loss through transpiration from plants canopy
and evaporation from soil surface is called __________.
(a) transpiration
(b) evaporation
(c) evapo-transpiration
(d) respiration

C. Descriptive questions
1. Describe major nitrogen sources and their use in
fertigation.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Write in brief
(a) Micronutrients
(b) Fertigation equipment
(c) Crop water requirement
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

D. Match the columns

A B
1. Source of N and P (a) Ammonium Thio Sulphate
2. Good source of (b) Calcium Ammonium Nitrate
Calcium
3. Lower pH (c) Potassium Nitrate
4. Supplies K (d) Urea Phosphate

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 Unit
5
Greenhouse Operations

Introduction
A greenhouse environment for achieving the required
level of precision and efficiency is bound to be complex
and dynamic. To be able to dynamically control the
environmental parameters of the micro climate inside a
greenhouse, it requires huge cost, trained labour while
all along being market sensitive. Therefore, entire range
of greenhouse control and automation are key elements
of success in terms of profitability. Since most of the
environmental controls and biological dynamics of plant
metabolism are often interdependent, these controls
become crucially important for successful greenhouse
production. If we can control critical components and
factors under dynamic and precise automation, then
only the desirable efficiency of micro climate inside the
greenhouse can be called successful.
For effective production under greenhouses, the
following environmental operations and their regulations
are essential.
(i) Temperature
(ii) Light intensity
(iii) Relative humidity
(iv) pH and EC
(v) Carbon dioxide
(vi) Ventilation

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 Session 1: Equipment for Environmental
Parameter Monitoring in Greenhouses
Greenhouse cultivators strive to maximise their
production from a limited space covered. To achieve
their goal, cultivators purchase inputs and avail best of
the know-how to operate several tools to avoid making
serious mistakes during the course of crop production.
For measuring different environmental parameters, the
required equipment/instruments are described below.

Thermometers
A minimum/maximum thermometer is a must for
greenhouse growers. The temperature in the greenhouse
has a great influence on nutrient uptake, plant growth,
pollination, fruit set, fruit cracking, discolouration,
flower size, stem length, etc. The thermometer is located
at the centre of the greenhouse and at the plant level,
Fig. 5.1: Infrared Thermometer not facing the sun. Optimum temperatures for flower
cultivation range between 18–26 ºC.

Humidity meters
These meters are used to adjust the desired level of
relative humidity. Best crop growth can be achieved
when humidity ranges between 60 and 80 per cent.
High relative humidity in the greenhouse
results in less transpiration leading to less
movement of nutrient. If the levels of humidity
are above and below the desired level, it results in
high incidence of pests and diseases. Hygrometer
Fig. 5.2: Hygrometer
is used for measuring atmospheric humidity
and temperature.

pH meters
Ideally, the pH of the soil and water has to be 6–6.5
and that of nutrient solution should be 5.6–6.5.
A good quality pH meter should be used to regularly
check the pH of the nutrient solution as well as the
pH of the growing medium. The pH meter, like all
other equipment, should be calibrated beforehand for
Fig. 5.3: pH meter accurate data collection. At a low pH, the hydrogen

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 ions saturate media exchange sites and increase the
potential for leaching and losing nutrient content such
as calcium, magnesium, potassium and ammonium.
A high media pH can cause micronutrient deficiencies
even when they are present in sufficient quantity.

Electrical conductivity (EC) meter

EC is a measure of soluble salts in water and is measured
in terms of millimhos per centimetre (mmhos/cm),
deciSiemens per metre (dS/m), or milliSiemens per
centimetre (mS/cm). They are all indeed similar on
numerical count, i.e., numerical value remains same
per unit area, only the reference varies. An analysis
should be done for the nutrient feed solution and for
the root medium. The EC measurement alone does not
indicate the types of fertiliser in the nutrient solution,
but this measurement can provide a good indication
of the total amount of fertiliser being applied. A root-
zone EC of above 1.0 mS/cm should alert cultivators
about starting of salt build-ups. It necessitates flushing
the growing medium. It is important to know the EC of
water before mixing the fertiliser.

Lux meter
It is used for measuring the intensity of light in
the greenhouse. Lumen is the metric unit of light
intensity and the term lux refers to the number
of lumens per sq m of surface area.

CO2 Enrichment or Maintenance

Portable CO2 meters are commercially available
to monitor carbon dioxide concentration. Fig. 5.4: Lux meter

Generally, the value of carbon dioxide inside

the polyhouse is around 1000 ppm in the morning
hours and declines as the day progresses. The
presence of more quantities of carbon dioxide helps
in enhancing the net photosynthetic rates. Operation
of side curtains in naturally ventilated greenhouses
helps in the replacement of reduced carbon dioxide
levels naturally.

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 Notes

Activity 1: Measurement of temperature inside a greenhouse.

Materials required: thermometer, pen, notebook, etc.
Procedure
• Visit a greenhouse in nearby area after consulting the farmer.
• Take a digital thermometer to monitor the temperature at
different locations and height inside the greenhouse.
• Measure the temperature just above the ground level, at
crop height level and at about 4 m height.
• Note down the readings at entry point, mid of the greenhouse
and at the farthest point.
• Observe the difference in temperatures at different locations
inside the greenhouse.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Ideally, the pH of the nutrient solution should be
between ___________ and _____________.
2. Generally, the value of carbon dioxide inside a polyhouse
during early day hours would be around _______ ppm.
3. Best crop growth of flowers can be achieved when
humidity ranges between ________ and _____________ %.
4. Optimum temperatures for flower cultivation range
between _________ and _________.

B. Mark the correct answers

1. High media pH can cause deficiencies of _________.
(a) micronutrient (b) water
(c) humus (d) plant hormone
2. Measuring soluble salts in water is _________.
(a) Co2 (b) pH
(c) EC (d) Temperature
3. Which of the following does not come under environmental
parameters?
(a) Humidity (b) pH
(c) Light (d) Temperature

C. Descriptive questions
1. Describe the equipment used for environmental
parameters monitoring in greenhouses.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

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 D. Match the columns
A B
1. Humidity and temperature (a) 6–6.5
2. Ideal EC in greenhouse soil (b) Hygrometer
3. Ideal pH of soil and water (c) Lux meter
4. Measuring light intensity (d) >1 in mS/cm

Session 2: Management of Environmental

Parameters in a Greenhouse
Climatic parameters and their management are essential
for quality and quantity of greenhouse crop production.
These parameters can be managed and regulated
naturally as well as artificially by using different
equipment. The equipment may be operated manually,
hydraulically or electrically. The type of climate control
systems used also depends on the size and number of
the greenhouses.
The use of a particular equipment or their
combinations depend on the type of crop grown and
the type of greenhouse suitable for its cultivation. The
equipment can be low-cost, manually operated to auto
controlled high-cost systems.
The purpose of using different systems inside
the greenhouse could be for cooling, heating,
lowering or enhancing humidity, enriching gaseous
composition, lighting, irrigation, fertigation, fogging,
pesticide spraying, etc.
Table 5.1: Equipment/System and its function used in protected
cultivation
Purpose Equipment/System and its function Parameters
that are
managed inside
the greenhouse
Cooling Equipment/System used: Vents/Side Curtains Temperature,
Function: Heat inside the greenhouse escapes through top relative
vent and fresh air enters the structure through side windows humidity
when side curtains are opened. This can be done manually or and gaseous
with actuators which can be operated electrically. composition
Shade net Function: Cooling can also be achieved by
collapsible shade nets that can be operated manually or
mechanically inside the greenhouse.

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 Fogging Function: Cooling can also be achieved through
operation of foggers for increasing humidity inside the
structure. The result is a cooling effect due to evaporation.
However, it should be used cautiously when targeted to
control temperature and droplet formation on leaves has to
be avoided.
Ventilation Equipment/System used Temperature,
Vents/Side curtains relative
Function: Air inside the greenhouse can be exchanged humidity
continuously with cross ventilation, natural air convection or and gaseous
artificial forced ventilation. composition
Exhaust fan and pad
Function: These systems are used in forced ventilated
systems. These systems can be operated manually or with
actuators which can be operated electrically.
Shading Equipment/System used Light intensity,
Function: Shade nets of different shading percentages temperature
are used to normally reduce the light intensity during the
critical crop stages as per the requirement of the crop.
Different crops require different percentage of shading.
Shading can be achieved by installing and operating the
collapsible shade nets inside the greenhouse. Spreading
and rolling back of shade nets preferably outside the
structure can be achieved manually or by electrical
actuators. While silver shaded nets are installed inside
the greenhouses which can be opened (spread) during
intense sunlight and cloudy days, these are closed during
cold nights.
Humidity Equipment/System used Humidity,
Foggers/De-humidifier Function: These are used for temperature
regulating the humidity inside the greenhouse as per the
crop requirement.
Foggers are used to increase the humidity levels inside
the structure. These can also be used to bring down the
temperature inside the structure. Alternately, de-humidifiers
are used to decrease the humidity inside the structure,
when the humidity levels are above the desired levels.
Though it is rare.
Hygrometer/Hygrothermometer: Hygrometer is used
to measure atmospheric relative humidity inside the
greenhouse.
Hygrothermometer is used to measure atmospheric
temperature and relative humidity both inside the
greenhouse.
Portable digital type instruments are commercially
available for use.

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 Carbon Equipment/System used Carbon dioxide
dioxide Side curtains closing, CO2 Burner, CO2 Cylinders, Fuel
Gases
Function: Management of carbon dioxide inside the
greenhouse is possible with the closing of side curtains in
the evening hours till morning. CO2 released by the plants
naturally during the night can be trapped and accumulated
for its use by plants in the day.
CO2 burners, CO2 cylinders, fuel gases can also be used
for artificial enrichment of carbon dioxide levels, though they
are rarely used.
Heating Equipment/System used Heat,
Central heating systems or localised heating systems temperature
Function: Heating systems are used to generate heat
where the outside atmosphere has near zero or sub-freesing
temperatures. In India, heating systems are rarely used.
The natural heat can also be conserved inside the
greenhouse by closing the side curtains in the evening hours
till morning in the winter season.
Lighting/ Equipment/System used Light
Darkening Lamps/Black nets
Function: Some crops need longer or shorter day or nights
for their critical growth at the flowering and fruiting stage.
This happens naturally only during summers and winters,
however, this can managed with artificial lights for increasing
day hours, and black nets to increase night hours for year
round production inside the greenhouse.
The artificial lighting can include incandescent, fluorescent,
mercury or halide lamps.
Climatic Lux meter: It is used to measure the visible light intensity Light, pH, EC
parameters inside the greenhouse. It consists of silicon plate to sense the and relative
and quality light. The unit of measurement is in Lux. humidity
measuring pH meter: It is used to measure acidity or basicity of the soil
instruments and water used in greenhouse cultivation.
EC meter: It is used to measure the dissolved salts in soil,
and water used in greenhouse cultivation. This is measured
in dS/m or milli Mhos/cm.
Thermometer: It is used to measure temperature inside the
greenhouse. Portable digital thermometers are commercially
available. The unit of measurement is °C.
Portable observatory: All the greenhouse parameters
such as temperature, humidity, light, wind speed and wind
direction can also be measured with portable observatory.
This helps take decision to regulate the climatic parameters
inside the greenhouse.

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 Irrigation Drip Irrigation and Fertigation System Optimum
and These consist of suitable drippers, emitting pipes, piping amount of water
fertigation network and control valves, filtration unit, fertigation and doses of
equipment and pump. macro and
Functions: These are used to supply quality irrigation micro nutrients
water precisely and timely right up to the base of the plant as per the
as per the daily water requirement of the crop. This can requirements of
be controlled using control valves which can be operated crop and crop
manually or automatically depending on the type of crop and stage
technology used.
Filters are used to filter the irrigation water used from
different sources. These filters are installed at the header
unit before the injection of water inside the piping network.
Common type of filters used are sand filter, hydro cyclone
filter and disc/screen filters. These filters can be operated
manually or automatically.
Fertigation equipment is used to inject soluble/liquid
fertilisers, pesticide/fungicides, chemicals inside the
drip system accurately and timely as per the need of the
crop. The commonly used fertigation equipment include
venturi, fertiliser tank, injection pump and electrically or
hydraulically operated dozers.

Activity 1: Monitor humidity and temperature in greenhouse

Material required: humidity meter or hydro-thermometer,
thermometer pen, notepad, etc.
Procedure
• Visit a greenhouse in nearby area after consultation with a
farmer.
• Measure the temperature and humidity of greenhouse
immediately after entering.
• Open the side curtains and after 30 minutes measure the
temperature and humidity.
• After that ask the farmer to operate the fogger for 30 seconds.
• Measure the temperature and humidity again.
• Observe the temperature and humidity values that you
collected.

Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Humidity is regulated inside the greenhouse by ________.
2. To increase night hours in the greenhouse round the
year is ___________ used.

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 3. Net used to reduce the light intensity is known as
Notes
_______________.

B. Mark the correct answers

1. Hygrometer is used to measure _______________.
(a) pH
(b) Relative Humidity
(c) EC
(d) Light intensity
2. An equipment used in forced ventilated system is
_____________.
(a) exhaust fan and pad system
(b) sensors
(c) CO2 burner
(d) de-humidifier
3. The presence of more quantities of carbon dioxide helps
in enhancing the _______________.
(a) respiration rate
(b) transpiration rate
(c) photosynthetic rates
(d) evaporation rate

C. Descriptive question
1. Describe different equipment and their functions used
in protected cultivation.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

D. Match the columns

A B
1. EC (a) Fogger
2. Cooling equipment (b) Venturi
3. Decrease humidity (c) dS/m
4. Fertigation equipment (d) De-humidifier

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 Glossary
Bulbous plant: In nature there are certain plants which have
modified underground stem in which food material in stored to
overcome the unfavourable season. In Horticulture the plants which
are propagated through modified under-ground storm are called as
Bulbous plants.
Cladding Material: Covering material of the greenhouse, i.e.,
polythene, shade net or polycarbonate, etc.
Clogging: Blockage
Coco peat: Growing medium prepared from dried powder of coconut
plant fibres
Compatibility: Miscibility or mixing ability without precipitation
Crop-water-requirement: the water requirement of the crop, which
includes transpiration of the crop, as well as, direct evaporation from
the soil.
Dolomite lime: It is a rock which consists of calcium magnesium
carbonate. Dolomite lime fertiliser is certainly allowed in organic
gardening.
Dripper: Water emitting hole in the drip irrigation pipe also called
emitter.
EC Meter: Device to measure the electrical conductivity of water or
aqueous phase of soil.
EC (Electrical conductivity): The measurement of salt content
in the extracted soil water when the soil is saturated with water
expresser in millimhos per cm.
Evapo-transpiration: It is water loss through transpiration from
plants canopy and evaporation from the soil surface and expressed
in mm/day.
Fertigation: Artificial fertiliser application in a closed irrigation
system. Pesticides and fungicides can also be applied in this way.
Greenhouse effect: A phenomenon in which the atmosphere traps
radiation, caused by gases such as carbon dioxide, water vapour
and methane (by polythene in a polyhouse) that allow more sunlight
to pass through but less to return back from the earth’s (greenhouse)
surface.
Gutter: Channel for collecting water for run-offs from the roof of
plants in a soil is reached when the suction force of plants cannot
overcome tension by which groundwater is tied by the soil. At this
point plants start to wilt.
Hygrometer: Device to measure relative humidity
IR-Transmission: Penetrability of heat radiation through plastic films
Lux Meter: Device to measure light intensity
Micronutrients: Nutrients which are required by plants in very
minute dosages or in traces only.
Multi-span greenhouses: Greenhouses with more than two
attached covers (tunnels)
Multi span: It refers to more then two interior column or multiple
standing columns to support structure

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 Pan evaporation: It is the evaporation of water from open surface Notes
and is recorded at meteorological station on a daily basis and
expressed in mm/day, under protected.
Peat: A brown colour material consisting of partly decomposed
vegetable matter forming a deposit on acidic, boggy, ground, which
is dried for use in gardening and as fuel.
Perlite: White granular particles formed when volcanic mineral
rock is heated quickly, causing it to expand. It is used in many
potting mediums.
pH or Soil reaction: pH is a measure of hydrogenion concertration;
a measure of the acidity or alkalirity of a solution.
pH-meter: digital meter (in pocket size) to measure the acidity in moist
soil. The most favourable levels are in the range between 6 and 7.
Protected Cultivation: Cultivation of crops under protected
structures like glasshouses, polyhouses, tunnels, shade nets for
protection from biotic and abiotic stress for a healthy production
system.
Pro-tray: Plastic trays used for soilless production of nursery
Shade net house: Protected structures covered by a shade net
often on all sides to protect the crop from intense solar radiation
Sterilisation: Disinfestations of any medium or container or soil to
make it free from infection of bacteria, fungi or other microbes and or
disable any living entity to reproduce. It is also called ascepticisation.
Single span: A gap between two supports, single span structure
has a single interior column or free standing structure.
Sphagnum moss: It is commonly known as peat moss. Mosses
that belong to the sphagnum genus are known for their high
water retention potential. As sphagnum can absorb water rapidly
and maintain the moisture content, it allows the succulents to
stay hydrated.
Substrate: The surface or material on which an organism lives,
grows, or obtains its nourishment.
Transpiration: The sum of water physiologically evaporated or
transpired by the plant
Vacuum-effect: A strong stream of air over the greenhouse cover,
which induces lower air pressure within the greenhouse.
Ventilation box: Box protecting against sunlight allowing for free
airflow in protected cultivation
Ventilation: Movement or exchange of air across the system or
cross aeration
Vermiculite: It is a yellow or brown mineral found as an alteration
product of mica and other minerals, used for insulation or as a
moisture-retentive medium for growing plants.
Walk-in tunnel: Protected structures covered by polythene, high
enough for walking by workers and open on both the ends generally
to allow pollinators

Glossary

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 Further Readings
Bhattacharjee, K.S. and L.C. DE. 2003. Advanced Commercial
Floriculture. Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors, Jaipur.
Bose, T.K. and L.P. Yadav. 1989. Commercial Flowers. Naya
Prakash, Calcutta.
Jindal, Krishnakumar and Madhumeeta. 1994. Diseases of Ornamental
Plants in India. Daya Publishing House, New Delhi.
Kumar, U. and D. Singh. 2013. Protected Horticulture for Sustainable
Production. Agriobios (India), Jodhpur.
Patel, N.L., S.L. Chawla and T.R. Ahlwat. 2016. Commercial
Horticulture. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Sathyanarayana Reddy, B., T. Janakiram, Balaji S. Kulkarni and R.L.
Misra. 2004. Hi-Tech Floriculture. Indian Society of Ornamental
Horticulture, IARI, New Delhi.
Singh, A.K. 2006. Flower Crops Cultivation and Management. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Syamal, M.M. 2014. Commercial Floriculture. Jaya Publishing
House, Delhi.
Yadav, I.S. and M.L. Choudary. 1997. Progressive Floriculture—
Production Technologies of Important Commercial Flower Crops.
The House of Sarpan, Bengaluru.

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 Answer Key
UNIT 1: Introduction to Protected Cultivation
Session 1: Importance of Protected Cultivation

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Export quality
2. High rainfall area
3. Protected structure
4. Protected structure

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b)

C. Match the columns

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b)

Session 2: Site Selection and suitable crops

for Protected Cultivation

A. Fill in the blanks

1. 6.0 to 6.5
2. 10–15 m
3. Four
4. Self-pollinated
5. Standard type

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (b) North–South
2. (b) Western
3. (a) 40:60

C. Match the columns

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c)

UNIT 2: Types of Protected Structures and their Components

Session 1: Types of Protected Structures

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Miniature
2. Up to 1 m high
3. 200 micron
4. 2–2.5 metre
5. 40 or 50 mesh

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 Notes B. Mark the correct answers
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b)

C. Match the columns

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a)

Session 2: Classification of Greenhouses

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Greenhouse
2. Bamboo or Wooden
3. Fan, Pad and heaters
4. 6.5–7
5. High cost

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a)

C. Match the columns

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b)

Session 3: Major Components of Greenhouse

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Cladding material
2. Collecting
3. UV stabilised

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (b) 2. (a)

C. Match the columns

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a)

UNIT 3: Preparation of Media and Container for Commercial

Cultivation in Greenhouses

Session 1: Growing Media and its Composition

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Coco peat
2. Perlite
3. Calcium and magnesium
4. 3:1:1
5. Vermiculite

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 B. Mark the correct answers Notes
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d)

C. Match the columns

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b)

Session 2: Sterilisation of Growing Media

A. Fill in the blanks
1. Soil sterilisation
2. Formaldehyde
3. 35–40

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (a) 2. (c)

C. Match the columns

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b)

Session 3: Preparation of Beds and containers for growing crops

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Clay pot
2. Pro-trays

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (c) 2. (d)

C. Match the columns

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a)

UNIT 4: Irrigation and Fertigation in Greenhouses

Session 1: Micro Irrigation Systems and their Application under
Protected Cultivation

A. Fill in the blanks

1. 12 mm and 16 mm
2. 1
3. Cleaning dust
4. 6.5–7.0
5. 20
6. 3–4 liters

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (d) 2. (c)

Answer Key

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 Notes C. Match the columns
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a)

Session 2: Types of Fertilisers and their Scheduling

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Fertigation
2. Nitrogen
3. Ammonium nitrate
4. Phosphorus

B. Mark the correct choice

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c)

C. Match the columns

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c)

UNIT 5: Greenhouse Operations for Environmental Control

Session 1: Equipment for environmental parameters monitoring
in greenhouses

A. Fill in the blanks

1. 5.6–6.3
2. 1000
3. 60–80
4. 18–26 °C

B. Mark the correct choice

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b)

C. Match the columns

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c)

Session 2: Management of Environmental Parameters in

Greenhouse

A. Fill in the blanks

1. Fogger
2. Black net
3. Shading net

B. Mark the correct answers

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c)

C. Match the columns

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b)

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