Chapter 1: Introduction to Programming

The first computer are women. The method of writing down

sequences of steps was after Pearl-Harbor, when USA join in
World War 2. The boys was sent in frontline and girls do the
manual calculations for trajectories on equipment that defies
gravity and distance.
Computers-electronic calculating machine that was passed on
the latter and then taught it to do math at high-speed that would
spend many hours to complete, if done through manual
calculations.
Algorithm— is the step-by-step sequence of instruction that
describe how data is to be manipulate to generate the specific
output.
Computer Program— is a set of instructions created for the
purpose of telling the computer what to do step-by-step and how
should the result be generated according to the required output
based on a given set of data.
Programming Development Cycle— refers to the unbroken
steps of defining, coding, compiling, executing and fine-tuning the
program until it is free from all infirmities and the output
generated conforms to the expected result.
STEPS/GUIDE OR PROGRAMMERS IN DEVELOPING A
PROGRAM
1. Defining and analyzing the problem
2. Planning and designing the solution
3. Coding the solution
4. Testing and debugging the solution
 5. Implementation
6. Maintenance and documentation
Modeling Tools
Pseudocode— is a non-standard English-like statements
containing sentences and phrases that look closely similar to the
syntax of a programming language.
Flowchart— is a visual diagram showing the progress of works
through a sequence of operations.
Compiler— is a special kind of software which translates a
source-code into an object or executable code which a computer
can put into action.
Syntax— a type of error is generated when the grammatical rules
as prescribed by the compiler is violated.
ABEND— run-time error causes the program to end abnormally
during execution.

Chapter 2: The Flowchart

Flowchart— is a planning tool that graphically portrays a

programming task.
TYPES OF FLOWCHART
1. System Flowchart— is a graphic representation showing
the overview of a processing employed in the whole system.
2. Program Flowchart— is a graphical representation of the
logic in solving a problem.
ISO— International Standard Organization
ANSI— American National Standard Institute

Flowchart Template— is a special tool for drawing flowcharting

symbols and to aid programmers in solving problems.
Process Symbol— is a symbol used to represent arithmetic
operation or when casing individual variable assignments.
Input/Output— indicates input and output operat8n and also
specifies the link between input and output devices.
Decision Symbol— is used to evaluate a conditional statement
and brang out to the required process depending on the outcome
of the test which could be either be true or false.
Pre-defined Process Symbol— indicates another block of code
containing processing steps which are declared but purposely
separated from the main line of instruction.
Preparation Box— is used to define a set of variables.
On-Page Connector— is used to show a jump from one point to
another within the same page.
Off-Page Connector— used to show flowcharting jump from one
page to the next.
Flowline— is used to show directional flow of the process in the
flowchart.
Annotation— is used to indicate a procedural-name or a remark
in order to highlight or give emphasis to the part of the flow chat
that requires attention.

Chapter 3: Control Structures

THREE BASIC STRUCTURES
1. Linear
2. Relational (or Selection)
3. Loop

1. Linear Structure— is nothing more than showing of the

sequential execution of processing statements as logically
described in the flowchart. It contains processes that do not
require evaluation or branching out of controls.
2. Relational Structure— diamond symbol in flowcharting is
used to indicate a conditional path.
RELATIONAL OPERATORS
 = — E
< — less than
>— greater than
!= — not equal
<= _ less than or equal
>= — greater than or equal

Nested Relational Structure— a several decision symbols

appears along with the rest containing related tests with
related path in the flowchart.

3. Loop Structure— it is a repetitive task. It must have control

and that is to terminate at certain point when a certain
condition is met.

Infinite Loop— when the execution of steps is repeatedly

done without let up and without definite ending point.

Controlled Loop— it is when a flowchart is equipped with

definite measures of loop stoppage. It avoid occurrences of
infinite loop.
 CHAPTER 4: VARIABLES

Variables— is a special register, which can assume any

given value. Variables are named memory location, which
hold temporary data for the program during the run.
Value Assignments— assigning the value of a variables.
Constants— contents in the memory variables that may be
referred to but cannot or changed. Fixed numeric values that
cannot be altered by the program.

VARIABLE DATA TYPES

Numeric— the data or variables are numbers/numeric
String— the data or variables are characters or special
characters.

The Programming Language known as C supports five different

basic data types.
•Character— ex. A, b, c, d, e… , or any special character.
•Integers— ex. 1,2,3,4
•Double— ex. 1.25, 1.50, 2.60 or any numbers with two decimal
numbers.
•Float— ex. 5.274884, 8.9273737 or any numbers that has two
or more decimal number.
•Void— empty data
DATA SOURCE
There are two types of data source;
•Internal data— variables that were generated during run time
by reason of mathematical operations or values reassignments.
•External Data— data that are transferred from storage devices
to the memory including these data loaded internally but
subsequently loaded or written into storage or output devices.
Data Dictionary— is a repository of technical term used in
developing a system.
RULES IN NAMING A VARIABLE
• Alphabets A thru Z, numbers 0 thru 9, and the
underscore(_) may be used in forming a variable name.
• A variable must start with an alphabet.
• It must not contain a space or spaces.
• It must not be more than ten characters in length.
• It must not be a key word
•It must be unique.

CHAPTER 5: memory Concepts

Main Memory— holding area of files and data and keep there for
time being while the computer is working on them.
ROM— stands as read-only-memory, a non-writable area, which
contain small resident program.
RAM— stands as random-access-memory, a free area where
programs and data are stored during runtime.
Virtual Memory— it is by copying both programs and data to a
portion of the hard disk reserved by operating system as side
storage.
Page Swapping— a unique capabilities of the computer, but
when the operating system starts resorting to this means, it also
means that the processing speed is being compromised.