Ajman University

Unit of General Studies - Institute of Environment,

Water and Energy

Environmental Sciences
Resources
Resources

Lecture Three
Resources

I. Air, Water and Soil Resources

A. Air Resources
B. Water Resources
C. Soil Resources

II. Living Resources

A. Food Resources
B. Land Resources
C. Plant and Animal Resources

III. Energy and Mineral Resources

A. Non-Renewable Energy Resources
B. Renewable Energy Resources
C. Mineral Resources
 Energy Resources

United States
 Energy Resources

Nuclear power
 Renewable energy 6%
 Non-renewable energy Hydropower,
geothermal,
 Future availability Solar, wind
 Net energy yield Natural
7%

 Cost Gas
23%
 Environmental effects Biomass
12%
Coal
22%
Oil
Energy Resources in 30%

the World
Energy Resources
Energy Resources
Energy Resources
Energy Resources
Energy Resources

Energy Sources. Primary sources of energy are fossil

fuels such as oil, natural gas, coal, and to a lesser
extent, nuclear by fission of radioactive elements (in
France however, majority of electricity is produced by
nuclear), solar in direct heating, in photovoltaic cells,
rivers that provide hydroelectricity which in certain
regions such as the United States Pacific Northwest and
in Norway and Sweden is very significant (note that it is
the solar energy that actually "drives" the rivers), wind
for turning turbines to generate electricity, geothermal,
biomass, and possibly oil shale in the future.
Energy Resources
Energy Resources

Energy use over the next two decades is expected to

increase significantly throughout the world, with highest
growth rates in Asia. By the year 2015 world energy
demand is projected to be around 562 quadrillion Btu or
593x109 Giga Joules. This growth represents more than
a 50% increase over the consumption in 1995. Two-
thirds of this increase in energy consumption is
expected to be due to the developing countries
concentrated mostly in Asia where energy growth is
projected to be on an average of 4.2% annually, while for
industrialized economies it is projected to be 1.3%.
Energy Resources

Other than nuclear power, all sources of energy are

projected to grow: Oil use is expected to exceed 100
million barrels per day by 2015 which is a growth of 50%
over 1995. Coal use is projected to be in excess of 7.3
billion ST or 6.6 billion MT or Mega Grams by 2015 on a
world wide basis, compared to 5.1 billion ST or 4.6
billion MT or Mega Grams in 1995. Natural gas usage is
expected to increase at 3.1% annually and by 2015 and
is projected to be the principal fossil fuel for the world.
Due to these tremendous increases in fossil fuel usage
world wide, the carbon emissions to the atmosphere are
expected to increase by about 60% by 2015 over the
1990 level.
Energy Resources

Fossil Fuels
Oil, Natural gas, and coal are the three (fossil) fuels that
are abundantly used. These fuels are remains (fossils) of
life forms such as marine organisms and plant life, that
flourished on our planet millions of years ago. This
energy is thus a stored form of solar energy that
accumulated over millions of years, and at the current
and projected rates of consumption, fossil fuels will be
used up in a fraction of time compared to the time it took
to collect the energy from the sun.
 III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Common oil traps

Anticline, fault, salt dome, and stratigraphic traps

III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources
1. Oil
Petroleum resources occur in most part of the world to some
degree, however, the major commercially valuable resources
occur in relatively few locations where geological conditions
were appropriate for the formation and storage of these fuels
underground. It is believed that petroleum was formed from
deposits of plant and animal remains since petroleum
deposits are found almost exclusively in sedimentary rock
formations laid down millions of years ago when plant life
flourished.
Petroleum is a mixture of a number of hydrocarbons with
some sulfur, nitrogen and organo-metallic compounds also
present. A number of processing steps are involved in
producing the various high value salable fuel streams such as
gasoline, diesel and jet fuel from the petroleum.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Petroleum resources, both liquid and gaseous, have become

the major sources of energy in many countries because of the
availability and convenience of these fuels for both
transportation engines and
Oil which contains more than 300 molecular species needs to
be atomized (less than 10 microns to provide large surface
area), and within the combustor it has to vaporize and mix
before combustion can occur.
Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Oil transportation is not a very safe process.

III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

2. Natural Gas
Natural gas like petroleum is generally believed to be derived
from deposits of plant and animal remains from millions of
years ago. Natural gas may be found along with oil or by itself
as in many gas fields where little or no oil is found.
Natural gas as supplied is the cleanest fuel with sulfur
removed (except for small amounts of odorants added), no
ash and only molecular nitrogen, and a high hydrogen to
carbon (H/C) ratio which minimizes the greenhouse gas CO2
emission. Along with methane which is by far the major
combustible constituent of natural gas, other light
hydrocarbons, namely ethane, propane, and butane are
present in the natural gas. Raw natural gas may contain CO2
and sometimes N2 which have no heating value.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

CO2 is typically removed from the natural gas while ethane,

propane, and butane are usually removed and marketed
separately as special fuels. A number of other elements and
compounds are also found in natural gas such as, H2, H2S and
He. H2S is also removed from the natural gas before it is
pipelined for sale.
About 900 of the next 1000 US power plants will use
natural gas? Domestically produced and readily available
to end-users through the existing utility infrastructure,
natural gas has also become increasingly popular as an
alternative transportation fuel.
Natural gas is clean burning and produces significantly
fewer harmful emissions than reformulated gasoline.
Natural gas can either be stored on board a vehicle in
tanks as compressed natural gas (CNG) or cryogenically
cooled to a liquid state, liquefied natural gas (LNG).
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources
3. Coal
Coal was formed from plant life under the action of immense
pressures and temperatures prevailing within the earth's crust
over a period encompassing millions of years. The major
elements present in the "organic portion" of coal are carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. Sulfur (mostly as iron
pyrite) is also present as part of the "inorganic portion" or ash
in the coal along with oxides of alumina, silica, iron, alkaline
earths and alkalis. Coal also contains some chlorine. Coal is
classified into the following four types according to the
degree of metamorphism:
 anthracite which is low in volatile matter (which forms tars,
oils and gasses when coal is heated) and consists of mostly
carbon (fixed carbon)
 bituminous which contains significant amounts of the
volatile matter and typically exhibit swelling or caking
properties when heated
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources
 sub-bituminous is a younger coal and contains in addition
to the volatile matter, significant amounts of moisture
 lignite is the youngest form of coal (when peat is not
included in the broader definition of coal types) and is very
high in moisture content resulting in a much lower heating
value than the other types of coal.
Coal has a very complex structure and being a solid is more
difficult to burn. Coal combustion undergoes de-volatilization
and combustion of the released gases, char combustion and
fly ash formation which are particles 10 microns in size (the
low visibility around certain coal fired power plants is due to
the fly ash).
One quarter of the world’s coal reserves are found within
the United States, and the energy content of the US coal
resources exceeds that of all the world’s known
recoverable oil.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Locations of coal ore in the United States

III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Coal is also the workhorse of the nation’s electric power

industry, supplying more than half the electricity
consumed by Americans.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Coal Formation
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

4. Oil Shale
The most extensive deposits of oil shale are found in what use
to be large shallow lakes and seas millions of years ago,
where subtropical, stagnant conditions were favorable for the
growth and accumulation of algae, spores and pollen. The
organic solids in oil shale rock are a wax like material called
kerogen. The kerogen is extracted by heating in retorts in the
absence of air where the kerogen decomposes forming oil,
gas, water and some carbon residue. Production of gasoline
or jet fuel from the oil produced from the oil shale, however
requires more extensive processing than most petroleum. The
shale oil also contains more nitrogen than petroleum does
which if left in the fuels produced from the shale oil would
result in significant NOx emissions.
The U.S. has significant deposits of oil shale concentrated in
Colorado and Utah.
 III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Oil Shale and Tar Sands

Mined oil shale

Retort

Conveyor
Spent shale
Above Ground Conveyor
Pipeline

Shale oil Impurities Hydrogen

Crude oil Refinery
storage removed added
Air
compressors
Sulfur and nitrogen
compounds

Air Shale layer

injection
Shale oil pumped to surface
Underground

Shale heated to vaporized kerogen, which is condensed to provide shale oil

III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

5. Nuclear
The production of nuclear energy by fission involves the
conversion of matter to energy in which an exceedingly large
amount of energy is released. The nuclear reactions generate
an excess of neutrons which permits a chain reaction to
proceed making it possible to design nuclear reactors in
which self-sustaining reactions occur with the continuous
release of energy.
Fusion of light nuclei, like those of hydrogen, into heavier
elements is also an energy producing process. However,
nuclear fusion is still in the research phase and only nuclear
fission has been commercially practiced.
The heat generated in nuclear fission reactors is transferred
to a working fluid, typically water and the steam thus
produced powers a steam turbine.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Two principal reactor types are the pressurized water reactors

(PWR) and the boiling water reactors (BWR). In a PWR, heat
generated in the nuclear core is removed heavy water
circulating at high pressure through the primary circuit and
performs both cooling and moderation of the reactor. Heat is
transferred from the primary to the secondary system in a
boiler to generate steam. In the BWR the boiling takes place in
the reactor itself.
Safety of the reactors in terms of release of radioactive
materials to the environment has been a major issue. On the
other hand, nuclear energy does not generate any greenhouse
gasses like the fossil fuel fired plants do. Disposal and
management of the radioactive spent fuel from nuclear
reactors is a major challenge and has been an impediment to
its wide spread use in many countries. Some countries such
as France, however, have a majority of their electricity
generated by nuclear fission.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Nuclear Energy
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources
Nuclear Energy
Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Nuclear
Explosion

Nuclear
Power Plant
Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Nuclear
Power Plants
Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Pressurized Water
Reactor (PWR)
Schematic

Boiling Water
Reactor (BWR)
Schematic
Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Chernobyl Disaster
III. A Non-Renewable Energy Resources
Thanks
III.B Renewable Energy Resources
III.B Renewable Energy Resources
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

1. Biomass Energy
The term biomass means any plant derived organic matter
available on a renewable basis, including dedicated energy
crops and trees, agricultural food and feed crops,
agricultural crop wastes and residues, wood wastes and
residues, aquatic plants, animal wastes, municipal wastes,
and other waste materials.
Bioenergy technologies use renewable biomass resources
to produce an array of energy related products including
electricity, liquid, solid, and gaseous fuels, heat, chemicals,
and other materials. Bioenergy ranks second (to
hydropower) in renewable US primary energy production
and accounts for 3% of the primary energy production in
the United States.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

One of the energy resources available to us is the organic

waste material generated by humans and animals and
includes paper, plastics, wood, animal dung, plant stalks and
fibers, and food residues. These residues in many instances
pose a disposal problem and also have a significant heating
value. Biomass may be combusted in specially designed
boilers, or gasified to generate a gas that could be utilized to
generate power in internal combustion engines or fuel cells.
Combustion or gasification of waste streams that contain
chlorine compounds could, however, produce highly toxic
pollutants such as dioxins and furans and proper design
measures should be taken to limit these emissions.
Biomass derived energy accounted for 3.02 quadrillion Btu (or
3.19x109 Giga Joules) or 3.2% of the total energy
consumption in the U.S. in 19961.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Geothermal Reservoirs
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

2. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It is clean
and sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy range
from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a
few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and down even
deeper to the extremely high temperatures of molten rock
called magma.
Geothermal energy is the heat energy stored within the earth's
crust, hot springs and geysers providing evidence of this
stored energy. Until the beginning of this century, the
utilization of geothermal heat has been limited to the use of
warm water as in several Roman baths in England and
geothermal hot springs began to enjoy wide use through out
the world as therapeutic treatment. More extensive use has
been made of geothermal energy for both power and non-
power applications in more recent times.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Typically, the useful geothermal heat for electric power generation

is available in the form of a hot brine with temperatures ranging
from 300 to 400 deg F or 150 to 200 deg C.
The principle characteristics of geothermal electric generating
plants as compared to a fossil plant are that (1) significantly
larger flow of steam is required by a geothermal plant to produce
a KW of electrical power because of the significantly lower steam
pressure, (2) the small output of an individual geothermal plant
which is limited by the availability of the , and (3) the number of
different systems may be employed for the extraction of steam
from geothermal sources. For example, the heat contained in the
hot geothermal brine may be recovered as steam by flashing the
brine to a lower pressure and either utilizing the steam directly in
a steam turbine or by transferring the heat to a second working
fluid to produce power by expansion in a turbine.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Geothermal energy accounted for 0.34 quadrillion Btu (or

0.36x109 Giga Joules) or 0.36% of the total energy
consumption in the U.S. in 19961.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

How
Geothermal
Energy Works?
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Geothermal Energy in the United States

III.B Renewable Energy Resources

3. Hydrogen Cells
If a hydrogen economy is to develop within the next 25 to
50 years, lower cost options for producing hydrogen from
a wide variety of sources must be aggressively pursued.
Today, most hydrogen in the United States, and about half
of the world's hydrogen supply, is produced from natural
gas.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

 Extracting hydrogen efficiently

 Storing hydrogen
 Fuel cells

Usable
Waste
high-quality
heat
energy

Electricity, Storage
The
Coal, heat, and
environment
nuclear, or light Decomposition transport
solar, wind, or Combustion Water
of water H2
geothermal 2H2O 2H2 + O2 2H2 + O2 2H2O vapor
Power
plants
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Although natural gas will likely provide the earliest

affordable feedstock for hydrogen, today's costs are
prohibitively expensive. To bring down costs, current
research effort focuses on extracting fuel-grade hydrogen
from natural gas and coal, as well as producing hydrogen
through the use of nuclear energy technology.
Hydrogen fuel is produced by heating or passing electricity
through water in the presence of a catalyst. Water breaks
down into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is a clean-
burning fuel that could replace gaseous and liquid fuels. It
is easy to transport but is explosive. Electricity needed to
make hydrogen could be generated from solar energy,
wind energy, or hydroelectric facilities. The prospects for
hydrogen are questionable today because of its negative
energy yield.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Hydropower
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

4. Hydropower
Hydroelectric power is renewable, creates no air pollution,
and is relatively inexpensive. Sediment fills in reservoirs,
however, giving them an average lifespan of 50 to 100
years. The potential for hydroelectric power is limited in
the developed countries, because the best sites have
already been developed or are located far from population
centers where the energy is needed. In the developing
nations sites capable of producing large amounts of
energy are available, but high construction costs may
impair their development.
Hydroelectric power facilities in the United States can
generate enough power to supply 28 million households
with electricity, the equivalent of nearly 500 million
barrels of oil. The total US hydropower capacity is about
95,000 megawatts.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources
The harnessing of energy of flowing water by turning water
wheels for grinding of grain was practiced as early as Roman
times. This resource became important in more modern times
with the development of efficient electric generators and
transmission technology which allowed the location of
hydroelectric plants several hundred miles from the energy
users.
The energy that may be recovered from flowing water
depends on the quantity of flow of water and the height
through which the water can be made to fall from the
reservoir to a hydraulic turbine. The construction of diversion
and storage dams for hydroelectric power plants requires
suitable topography and other site conditions, and a steep
drop in the elevation of the river. Construction of
hydroelectric plant is capital intensive but the operating costs
are low since there are no fuel costs associated with a
hydroelectric plant.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Hydropower
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Hydroelectric
Dam
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Researchers are working on advanced turbine technologies

that will not only help maximize the use of hydropower, but
also minimize adverse environmental effects.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Solar Energy
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

5. Solar Energy
Approximately 1.55 x 10l8 KW hours of solar energy reach the
earth's outer atmosphere annually. Approximately a third of this
energy is reflected back into space and some absorbed by the
atmosphere while approximately half reaches the earth's
surface. Actually, wind, waves, rivers and ocean thermal
gradients are all the various forms of solar energy, as they exist
in nature. The form that is being harnessed more and more in
recent times is the photosynthetic radiation for direct use for
heating or conversion into electricity using solar cells.
Solar energy accounted for 0.07 quadrillion Btu (or 0.074 x109
Giga Joules) or .075% of the total energy consumption in the
U.S. in 1996.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

5. Solar Energy
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Developing technologies that take advantage of the clean

abundant energy of the sun is important to reducing
greenhouse gasses. Examples of solar technologies being
developed by the US Department of Energy and Industry
are:
 Photovoltaic cells
 Concentration solar power
 Low-temperature solar collectors
Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electricity
and are made of semiconductors such as crystalline silicon
or various thin-film materials. Photovoltaic cells can provide
tiny amounts of power for watches, large amounts for the
electric grid, and everything in between.
 III.B Renewable Energy Resources

Using Solar Energy to Provide Heat and Electricity

 Passive solar heating

 Active solar heating

Summer Heat to house

sun (radiators or
forced air duct)
Heavy
Heavy insulation Pump
Superwindow insulation
Hot
Winter Superwindow Water Super-
sun
tank Heat window
Stone floor and wall
for heat storage exchanger

PASSIVE ACTIVE
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

5. Solar Energy
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

5. Solar Energy
III.B Renewable Energy Resources

5. Solar Energy
 Renewable Energy Cost Trends

40 100
Wind PV
30 80
COE cents/kWh

60
20
40
10
20
0 0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

10 70 15
Geothermal 60 Solar thermal Biomass
8 12
COE cents/kWh

50
6 40 9
30 6
4
20
2 10 3
0 0 0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Levelized cents/kWh in constant $20001

III.B Renewable Energy Resources
Concentrating solar power technologies use reflective
materials to concentrate the sun's heat energy, which
ultimately drives a generator to produce electricity. These
technologies include dish/engine systems, parabolic
troughs, and central power towers.
Low-temperature solar collectors also absorb the sun's
heat energy, but the heat is used directly for hot water or
space heating for residential, commercial, and industrial
facilities.
III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Wind Energy
 III.A Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Producing Electricity from Wind

Gearbox
Electrical
generator

Power cable
III.B Renewable Energy Resources
5. Wind
Wind energy uses the energy in the wind for generating
electricity, charging batteries, pumping water, or grinding
grain. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of the wind
into other forms of energy. Large, modern wind turbines
operate together in wind farms to produce electricity for
utilities. Small turbines are used by homeowners and
remote villages to help meet energy needs.
A portion (approximately 25,800 KW hours annually) of the
total solar energy falling on the earth, is converted into motion
of air. A small fraction of this energy resource is currently
being harnessed. Winds only in certain speed ranges,
however, may be harnessed at the current time.
The distribution of wind is not uniform over the earth, wind
resources are higher in polar and temperate zones than in
tropical zones and also higher in coastal areas than inland.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources
The wind energy is harnessed by installing rotating machines
(typically propellers) that are connected to electric generators.
Because of friction losses, wind power machines usually do
not operate at wind velocities much lower than 10 miles/hour,
while with winds of gale force the rotors of wind machines are
usually feathered to prevent damage.
Wind derived energy accounted for 0.04 quadrillion Btu (or
0.042x109 Giga Joules) or .043% of the total energy
consumption in the U.S. in 19961.
III.B Renewable Energy Resources
Tidal Energy
Mineral Resources
C. Mineral Resources

Key Concepts
 Types of mineral resources
 Formation and location of mineral resources
 Extraction and processing of mineral resources
 Increasing supplies of mineral resources
 Major types, acquisition, advantages, and disadvantages
of fuel resources
 C. Mineral Resources

Nature and Formation of Mineral Resources

Undiscovered Identified
Mineral resources

Economical
 Metallic Reserves

Non-metallic

Decreasing cost of extraction


 Energy resources Other
resources
 Magma
Hydrothermal

Not economical

 Weathering

 Reserve
 Ore
Decreasing certainty Known

Existence
 C. Mineral Resources

• Mineral resources
• Ore refers to useful metallic minerals that can be
mined at a profit and in common usage to some
nonmetallic minerals such as fluorite and sulfur
• To be considered of value, an element must be
concentrated above the level of its average crustal
abundance
C. Mineral Resources

Finding Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

 Satellite imagery
 Aerial sensors (magnetometers)
 Gravity differences
 Core sampling
 Seismic surveys
 Chemical analysis of water and plants
C. Mineral Resources

Removing Nonrenewable Mineral Resources

1. Surface mining
 Overburden
 Spoil
 Open-pit
 Dredging
 Strip mining

2. Subsurface mining
 Room and Pillar
 Longwall
C. Mineral Resources
C. Mineral Resources

• Mineral resources and igneous processes

• Some of the most important accumulations of
metals are produced by igneous processes that
concentrate the desirable materials
• Examples of igneous mineral resources
• Magmatic segregation
• Separation of heavy minerals that crystallize early
or enrichment of rare elements in the residual melt
• Diamonds
• Originate at great depths
• Crystals are disseminated in ultramafic rock called
kimberlite
 C. Mineral Resources
• Mineral resources and igneous processes
• Hydrothermal solutions
• Among the best known and important ore deposits
• Majority originate from hot, metal rich fluids that are
remnants of late-stage magmatic processes
• Move along fractures, cools, and precipitates the
metallic ions to produce vein deposits
C. Mineral Resources
Hydrothermal solutions
C. Mineral Resources

• Mineral resources and metamorphic rocks

• Many of the most important metamorphic ore
deposits are produced by contact metamorphism
• Sphalerite (zinc) (Zn, Fe)S
• Galena (lead)
• Chalcopyrite (copper) CuFeS2
 C. Mineral Resources
• Mineral resources and metamorphic rocks
• Regional metamorphism can also generate useful
deposits
• Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
• Graphite (C )
C. Mineral Resources
• Weathering and ore deposits
• Secondary enrichment – concentrating metals
into economically valuable concentrations
• Bauxite
• Principal ore of aluminum
• Forms in rainy tropical climates from chemical
weathering and the removal of undesirable
elements by leaching
C. Mineral Resources

• Weathering and ore deposits

• Other deposits, such as many copper and silver
deposits, result when weathering concentrates
metals that are deposited through a low-grade
primary ore
• Placer deposits
• Placers – deposits formed when heavy metals are
mechanically concentrated by currents
• Involve heavy and durable minerals
• Examples include
• Gold
• Platinum
• Diamonds
C. Mineral Resources

• Nonmetallic mineral resources

• Use of the word “mineral” is very broad
• Two common groups
• Building materials
• Natural aggregate (crushed stone, sand, and
gravel)
• Gypsum (plaster and wallboard)
• Clay (tile, bricks, and cement)
• Nonmetallic mineral resources
• Two common groups
• Industrial minerals
• Fertilizers
• Sulfur
• Salt
C. Mineral Resources
Thanks