UNIT 13 RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS :

SHAMANS, PRIESTS AND

PROPHETS
Structure

13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Religious Specialists and the Sociology of Religion
13.2.1 Weber on Religion
13.3 The Priest
13.3.1 Weber's Understanding of the Priest
13.3.2 Priests and Priesthood : An Overview
13.3.3 Priests and Royalty
13.3.4 Priestly Qualifications
13.4 The Hindu Priesthood : An Example
13.4.1 Vedas
13 4.2 Brahmanas
13.4.3 Upanishads
13.4.4 Early Hinduism
13.4.5 Medievai and Modem Hinduism
13.4.6 Tribal Context
13.5 The Shaman
13.5.1 Weber on the Magician
13.5.2 The Shaman : A General Overview
13.5.3 The Functions and Role of a Shaman
13.5.4Organisation '
13.5.5 An Example : The Oraon Shaman
13.6 The Prophet
13.6.1 Weber on the Prophet
13.6.2 The Prophet : An Overview
13.6.3 Sathya Sai Baba : An Example
13.7 Let Us Sum Up
i 13.8 Key Words
13.9 Further Readings
t 13.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
I
I 13.0 OBJECTIVES
1 The present unit deals with the nature of religious specialists, focussing attention on
I three particular types: the shaman, the priest and the prophet. We hope that once
you have studied the unit, you will have gained some idea about the following

the nature and functions of specialists

i how these developed over time and how their position today may not be as soci.ally
significant as it once was
the role they play in mediating between the human and the divine world

II the changes that have taken place in the nature of these specialists.

II 13.1 INTRODUCTION

II I This Unit is concerned with the nature of religious specialists. It is important for us
to briefly understand who'they are. As such, they are persons who because of
certain charismatic qualities they possess, are accorded the status of being
intermediaries of mediators between the world of the human and that of the divine
23
ltcligion and Related Aspects or magical. This act of mediation may either be performed by a single individual or
a group of individuals, where each performs a separate task. Such performances.
may occur on special ritual occasions, as a matter of daily routine, or during illness.

There are different kinds of specialists who derive their power from the functions
they perform, the doctrine they adhere to and by the nature of their following. To
name a few, we have priest found in temples, prophets such as Muhammad, cultic
leaders such as Sathya Sai Baba, shamans such as those found in Nepal and Tibet,
sectarian leaders like the late Swami Prabhupadji of the ISKCON, and so on.

The significance and role of these specialists varies from society to society, and it
is related to an extent to the nature of the religious system in the particular society.
The functions of the specialists are usually meant for achieving positive ends and
, benevolence, but often they may even be aimed at inflicting harm. We often find
men seeking the services of the specialists even when they are not required. Even
the assist mce of the exorciser, medicine man and magician are sought as a normal
routine. This unit will therefore deal with the development of three particular categories
of specialists, the priest, the shaman and the prophet, and their functions and social
significance. We will support our description wherever we can with examples.

13.2 RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS AND THE

SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION
\
Before we proceed into a detailed discussion of the nature of the thre specialists,
it is imperative that as students of sociology, we look at what the sociology of
Religion has to say about them. "A religious specialist is one who devotes himself
to a ...religious system" (Turner in International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences,
p. 437). In societies where such power is considered as impersonal anthropologists
have described it as magic and the specialist who manipulates-the power as a
magician; and where power is personalised, as deities, gods, spirits or demons and
the life, anthropologists talk of religion. In reality, no clear demarcation can be
drawn between religion and magic. Religious systems contain both religious beliefs,
practices and magical elements. The role of religious beliefs, practices and magical
elements, the role of religious specialists, is thus overlapping.

Early anthropologists such as Frazer, Durkheim, Malinowski did not specifically

identify religious specialist as a distinct phenomenon for theoretical discussion. They
considered the specialist a part of the religious system which according to them is
a distinct 'social' phenomenon.

Max Weber provided the necessary breakthrough. His comparative study of world
religions, which focused on theory of religious ideas, brought focus directly on
religious specialist as agent of social transformation or as conservation of tradition.
Weber wrote extensively on religions, its social consequences and the nature of
religious functionaries. Before we go on to detailed discussion on what Weber has
to say, we will have a look at how anthropologists have distinguished different
religious specialists.

Max Weber, though aware of the numerous instances of overlap distinguishes

between a priest and a prophet. A priest, he writes is always associated with the
functioning of regularly organised and permanent enterprise concerned with influencing
the gods. In Weber's view the prophet is distinguished from the priest by personal
call. The authority of the prophet is founded on revelation and personal charisma.

Box 1

Anthropologists, who, unlike Weber, are less concerned wit'h the genesis of
religion as a force of social change or reinforcement have looked at shamans
 Religious Speciaiists:
as part of the working of religious systems in simpler societies. The editors
Shamans, Priests and Prophets
A. Lessa and E.Z. Hog&devote a whole section to this aspect in their
Reader in Comparative Religion (1958). They find that shamans tend to
predominate in food-gathering societies. Where the shaman offers
personalised service to one or two individuals or a group whereas the priest,
according to them, is characteristic of more structurally elaborate food-
producing, or agricultural societies, where there are common ceremonials
or rites for the benefit of the whole community.

Raymond Firth regards the shaman as a specialist who exercises developed

techniques of control over spirits. The emphasis, here, is on control exercised over
spirits. Thus he "serves as a means of communication between other human beings
and the spirit world" (Firth, 1964: p. 689).

Although, we sometimes find the functions of these specialists overlapping, the

' priests, prophets and shamans clearly constitute a subtype of a single type of
religious functionary. Let us briefly consider what Weber had to say about religion,
before we proceed to consider in general the role of religious specialists in everyday
life.

13.2.1 Weber on Religion

Weber believes that the behaviour of individuals in a society is motivated by religious
and magical factors. He discusses in his work the plurality of gods and their
potential. He also traces out the development of monotheistic religions such as
Islam and Judaism, and, polytheistic religions such as Hinduism. In an attempt to
classify religious experiences and specialists, he points out how men relate to
supernatural forces through prayer, sacrifice and worship. They are helped along
here by mediators such as priests. Often charms and spells are used when prayer
does not work. In such cases they turn to the magician. One can say that religious
specialists relate to the divine through rituals and religious activity while they relate
to the evil or malevolent, through magical activity. There are some societies where
both functions are performed by the same religious specialist, for example the
Leopard Skin chief among the Nuer tribe of Sudan, Africa.

Other than the above mentioned functionaries, Weber also recognises the presence
in society of the religious leader or the prophet. The prophet could be the founder
of a world feligion such as Islam or a cultic figure such as Sathya Sai Baba in India.
Let us n ~ w examine each specialist independently.

13.3 THE PRIEST

We have here first a description of the priest as Weber understood the category
and then undertake a general explanation.

13.3.1 Weber's Understanding of the Priest

According to Weber, the priest is a functionary who performs regular, permanent
and organised functions that are related to the divine. He does this usually through
the act of worship either on behalf of an individual or for society as a whole.

The priest belongs to a social organisation and occupies a hereditary office. He is

expected to have some specialised knowledge of texts and doctrines. According to
Weber, the priest would have attained significant social and religious status through
both rigorous training and by virtue of being born into a particular social group.

The priesthood is based on a code of behaviour and ethics. They dedicate their life
Religion and Related Aspects to the task of communicating with the gods and are associated with either a place
of worship, a social group of a following of disciples. The development of a 'doctrine'
which involves the rise of a rational system of religious concepts and ethics is also
associated with them.

13.3.2 Priests and Priesthood :An Overview

Priests and associated organisations are found in both simple and modem societies.
The rise of priests is associated with the need felt by primitive m u to come to
terms with the supernatural world.

Jn simpler societies we find that not just priests but also magicians are associated
with the ability to communicate with the divine world. It is believed as such that
~)riestl~ood
is as old as religion itself.

In both prirthivc and advanced sociedes priests and magicians are functionaries
who through their\ specialised knowledge and powers, are associated with and
overconle malevolent and. benevolent forces. The need for such duality was
considered necessary so that the unknown s~pernaturalpowers would not be harmful
to the human; instead, they would bring prosperity and goodwill. These early religious
and magical practitioners who offered guidance in such matters, have been regarded
as the pioneers of an orgatlised priesthood. We find that in the early periods of
religious evolution there is no priesthood and men perform rituals or invoke the Gods
themselves. There are some people such as tribals of Melanesia and Australia who

Priests and related organiaatim (e.g. Church) are found in both qimple and complex
societies.
 even today do the religious and magical rites themselves without the help of Religious Specialists:
intermediaries or specialists. Shamans, Priests and Prophets

Often in the early ages we find that in a collective group, one person would attain \

a certain significance in terms of his ability to deal with the supernatural or predict
certain events or even acquire an expertise in performing certain ritual acts. Such
a person would soon enough be regarded as an intermediary and gain priestly
functions. As an example, we find that in certain Dravidian tribes, the head of the
household would be the officiating priest at any type of family event. Before a
regular priesthood arose, we thus find that men, other than priests, performed
specialised functions. Into this category of specialists were also included those:

II i) who underwent ecstatic experiences by going into tr&es and then would make
predictions such as a darvesh:

I
It
ii) those who looked after places that have for some reason acquiredia sacred
significance and thus considered holy;

iii) those persons or 'holy men' who exercise some kind of religious authority by
performing miracles or curing illnesses.

I
Other than the above mentioned functionaries, magician too had a role to play in
the lives of the people, for both their well-being and for inflicting harm. Those
individuals who were able to exercise greater authority were the ones who over
time gained significant status and were able to gain respect. They gradually came
to form a category of specialists who officiated for individuals and groups and were
both respected and feared.

13.3.3 Priests and Royalty

We find that in most societies an interesting relationship also arose between priestly
authority and the royalty. There are many examples in history of kings who were
priests also, such as, among the tribes of Polynesia and Melanesia or even in India
where ancestor worship made it necessary for the king or family head to perform
preistly functions. We also have examples of kinds who were raised to the status
of divinity and were believed to imbibe in their beings, the essence or life of the
tribe or nation. Thus if a kind weakened or became ill, it signified misfortune for
the whole social group. Thus we find in many societies, the leader would be put
---th LU uk-ua rnrematurely and a successor chosen immediately to prevent society from
breaki!!_Y UP-

y,',.D I C ~ ,qnij yam. - V o y of a close relationship between priesthood and

kingship such that each was dependen; "e other. We refer here to the sacredotal
role of the priest, found in many societies, of bes&T!?~ UPonihe king his rights as
a ruler. This could be seen in the coronation of the king as fo~?.d in Europe, where
.tho chum:$= an , *
important role, or in the form of the raja abhishek. ofthe
Indian kings that was $ the Brahman priest. Further it was the duty of
ths king in the former ease to protect the religion of the State and in India, the
priests were protected by the kind-

13.3.4 Priestly Qualifications

I Certain qualifications are laid down as being basic to priesthood. We mention here
some of them without going into details.

i)
.

The priest's primary fask is to mediate between the human and divine.
,
 ReligionrtndWated Aspects iii) .The priests communicate with the divine through prayer, worship, rituals and so
on.

iv) Priests have to undergo initiation into the profession. A certain self training is
considered necessary.

v). The priests are expected to uphold their status through knowledge of natural
phenomena and the elements and may have an eccentric appearance. They are
also expected to be able to perform miracles.

vi) A certain aura of mystery surrounds them.

vii) They are expected to maintain certain restrictions in their personal life particularly
in relation to the sexual realm, food and language.

It may finally be noted that both religious and magical practitioners are included into
the category of priests. While the magician uses magic spells and tries to coerce
the &own world of the supernatural, the religious functionary or priest brings about
the desired results by propitiating the unknown through religious rituals and
observances.

13.4 THE HINDU PRIESTHOOD :AN EXAMPLE

We now consider an example to support aur description of priesthood. We take up
here the Hindu case by examining what the various scriptures have to say abaut
priests, down the ages. The priest in traditional India may assist in the performance
of a rituhl, at home, or in a temple. In Hinduism, he is born into a preistly caste,
by virtue of which he gains these functions. We trace here his developmgnt as laid
down in the texts.

lb4.1 Vedas
h the Vedas we findW4it
mentioned that the social group of bmhmana was the
priwtly class. We find ,described in the Rig Veda the priestly activities of some of
the families of the Vedic tribes. In the Samhita, the title of brahmana is given to
that priestly class who {workedfor kings and wealthy nobles. These priests strictly
adhered to their occupation and were also believed to have a knowledge of medicine.
The Rig Veda also melptions subdivisions with& the priestly class, on the basis of
Eunctions and rituals pqrformed, such as the soma sacrifice. Two impo@$ggzpts
found mentioned are :

*. . W a n d make offerings to
a) the hotr or one who recites hymns to celebrate the.
them; --
b) the prashasft or on$ who makes the hotr recite his hymns.

The Rig Veda also mentions a third office, that of thepum&its, xilorwas the
domestic priest of either the k& or a n_qble.4 - k offefksi&d the king in other
activities as well. For ,wahple fiom Indian mythology we know of how both
Vishwamitra and ~ashhhtaserved their kings during the war.

13.4.2. Brahmanas
h .

In the Brahmana literature which includes the period up to 6th century B.C., the
priests are seen as a sTarate and hereditary class that was expected to maintain 1
its distance and purity others. Here also we find the priests performing
I
sacrifices and there ari& here within the'priestly class on the basis of
I
I functions performed. This period shows the functions of the pnmhita having
I
28 increased in sibificance.
It is however. the brahmin who is given more importance here and the best Religious Specialists:
offerings of a sacrifice would go to him, rather than the king and he had greater Sbilmfins,PrldandProphets
jurisdiction than the king.

13.4.3 Upanishads
By the time of the Upanishads, priestly functions had become more differentiated. ,
The priest now other then performing sacrificial functio~swas expected to engage
in philosophical studies and to take on disciples and pupils. The Upanishads also
specify the four stages of life or the ashramas that a Hindu had to follow. We refer
here to brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and sanyasa as the four phases
in a man's life.

temple.
 n Relabed Aspects
~ e l i g k and Activity 1

What do you think are the priest's activities? Outline some of these activities
.
from your observation of a priest in your daily life.

The above mentioned teacher-pupil relationships in this period of history is seen to

have given rise to two important religious movements as alternatives to Hinduism.

These were Buddhism and Jainism. In these two religions also the role of the
priesthood and the order of monks was considered important.

13.4.4 Early Hinduism

In early Hinduism the priests are seen to have full control over the divine and the
power of the king. In fact there have been many priests in history who have gained
knowledge of not only rituals and worship but also of administration. A well know
example was that of Chanakya. But in this period the priest was seen to have
become learned in astrology, divination and magic as well. Stories about the process
of such priests can be found in the Jataka Katha.

13.4.5 Medieval and Modern Hinduism

According to the Puranic texts, this period represents much the same features. We
do however see a division of the priestly class into tightly knit endogamous and
hereditary subunits. As these subunits grew, an occupational diversification was
also sqen to occur. The purohits along with his priestly functions also came to
perform astrological horoscope preparations, fortune telling and the performance of
magic. ,

.The temple priest became significant and came to look after the village temple
deity. There also arose a group of priests who concerned themselves primarily with
the imparting of knowledge and learning and came to be recognised as the guru.

Often the functions of the temple priest and the guru were combined along with
the ability to perform magic and miracles as among the left handed tantrics. These
individuals were both greatly feared and respected. Similar to the tantrics were the
ascetics who undertook penance and sought to achieve ecstatic states and salvation.

In the more recent context we find that the sacrifices of the Vedic period have lost
their significance and have been replaced by temple rituals and popular festivals
such as Holi, Deewali, Makarsankranti and so on. This period is also characterized
by the rise of religious movements such as the bhakti tradition where the priest
corresponds to the wandering poet, musician and teacher who challenges Hindu
orthodoxy. The brahmsn's as a priestly class came under criticism here.

From the 19th century onward, further change towards a unification of priestly
methods as well as religious teachings has occurred. We do continue to find temple
priests and family priests in most parts of India where the latter are usually present
on most life cycle events such as birth, marriage and death, to signify the well-being '
of the family.

We must keep in mind that here we are referring to 'priest' as a blanket term. In
fact there are different levels of competence and authority vested in different
practising priests.

13.4.6 Tribal Context

When examining the nature of priesthood in the Indian context we cannot ignore
 the role of the priest in the tribal context. Here he is seen as a medicine man, a Religious Specialists:
healer and a person who not only has divine powers but also powers of magic and Shamans, Priestsand Prophets
s0rc:t-y. We have examples of temples being built by tribals, sewed the h n -
brahman priests such as among the Tiyans of Malabar. Because of their association
with magic and healing, they are considered more as magicians than priests and are
called shamans. We consider them in detail in the next section.

Check Your Progress 1 -IC

I) Briefly discuss who religious specialists are.

II II 2) State in a few words what Weber's understanding of the priest is?

3) Match the following :

It i) One who has ecstatic experience a) prashastr

b) purohita
ii) Reciter of hymns
iii) One who makes happen this recitation, C) brahmin
iv) The domestic priest d) darvesh
v) The priestly class e) guru
vi) Priests who impart knowledge f ) hotr

13.5 THE SHAMAN

Having examined in detail the nature and role of priests and priesthood, let us know
k
proceed to look at the shaman as a specialist. In the previous sections we have
been constantly referring to the need very often felt by a society to turn towards
i magical aid when religious rituals fail. We have also discussed how often the same
I
II individual would combine both priestly and magical functions.

As far as the shaman as a specialist is concerned (section 13.4.6), we have

narrowed down his role to the tribal context as that is where he is largely seen to
operate. In this section we will try and describe the shaman and his social role.

13.5.1 Weber on the Magician

If we examine Weber's work on religious specialists we do not find any menti011
of the shaman. He does however talk about the magician. We briefly examine what
he has to say about the magician as, it is in magical acts that the shaman has his
antecedents.

Weber believes that the relationship between the human and the supernatural could
be expressed not just through religious worship assisted by a priest, but also through
magical chants or sorcery. Weber also points out that, it is in magic that prayer and
sacrifice have their origin. Sacrifice is seen as a major method of coercing the gods
into submission to a supplicant's needs. It was also seen as a method of directing
the anger of the gods towards another object. It is believed that the sacrificial rituals
of the Brahmans w&e magical in their intent and implication. however not all
sacrifices have magic or sorcery. 'The magician is understood by Weber as dealing
with evil spirits on an individual level. His efforts may have both positive and
negative consequences. The magician is usually self-employed though he may be
the member of a hereditaw caste or an organised guild. Rather than using a
specialised doctrine of knowledge, the magician may derive his influence by virtue
of personal gifts and knowledge of the supert~aturalworld. The magician can have
31
Religion andRelatedAspwts considerable power among his community and may be respected more out of fear
than faith. He does not necessarily have a following as the priests do.

Activity 2

Locate a travelling magician and enquire from him what he feels about his
work. Note down the important points of the conversation and share this
information with other students in your Study Centre.

13.5.2 The Shaman :A General Overview

Earlier we have outlined some of the broader features of the magician as a specialist.
As far as the shaman is concerned, he represents all of the above features and
more. He is found to use his magical abilities for purposes of well-being as well as
for harming, usually in the context of pre-literate society. (They or their counterparts
may even be found in modem societies). For instance a shaman may engage in an
act of magic or sorcery to cure an illness, exorcise a possession, inflict injury or
illness on someone or influence the forces of nature to bring rains. In other words
his is a multifunctional role which gives him his status and respect. The shaman is
found to occupy an important position in most tribal societies. In fact shamanism
is a native and tribal religion.

Once greatly feared and misunderstood, today we find him using his abilities in
social and political spheres in simple societies. For long time in early anthropological
literature, he had a negative image of being a deviant. In later years*however his
significance as playing a psychological role, was recognised. In fact it has been
pointed out by the French structuralist, Claude Levi-Strauss, that the shaman provides
for the sick, a language that helps them to express their condition which they
normally would not be able to do.

13.53 The Functions and Role of a Shaman

As mentioned above, shamanism is a native religion. The word shaman is of North-
East Asian origin and comes from the Tungusic word saman which means one who
is "excited, moved or raised". We find that the shaman is usually seen as a
medicine-man who employs exorcism and sorcery as his tools. He derives his
powers from association with the supernatural and it is believed that he is assisted
by a medium or a spirit to attain his ends. Very often, the shamans ability to. achieve
results demands that his state of mind is altered and he either enters into a trance
or an uncontrolled condition of excitement following which he communicates with
the supernatural.
1
Shamans belonging to different tribes would use different means to achieve their
ends. Certain factors are hawever found in common. They are as follows:

a) either the oflice is hereditary or one's personality allows one to be chosen to the
office;
I
b) the shaman may have a peculiar mental state or even a physical shortcoming so
that he may be considered neurotic or epileptic;

c) the above qbnormal qualities are central to his role;

I I
d) he may undergo training and austerities under the tutorship of an older shaman I
and may debelop a peculiar disposition; the shaman may go into a trance or enter
into an excited condition to make his predictions, or to cure the illness or get rid of I
 Religious Specialists:
Box 2 Shamans, priests and Prophets
Among the Public initiation ceremonies of Siberian Shaman, those of Buriats
are among the most interesting. The principal rite includes a climb over the
birch tree. A strong birch tree is set up in the Shaman's tent, its roots in
the heaven and its crown coming out of the smoke hole. The birch tree is
called Udesi burkhan - the guardian of the door, for it opens the door
to Heaven to the shaman. The birch tree always remains in his tent -
serving as a distinguishing mark of shaman's residence. On the day of this
sacred ceremony, the candidates climb to the top of the birth, carrying a
sword in one hand. Emerging through the smoke hole he shouts for the aid
of the god. After this the master*shaman, the apprentice and the entire
audience go in a procession which halts by a particular path, a goat is
sacrificed, and the candidate stripped to the waist, has his head, eyes and
ears anointed with blood, while the other shamans play their drums. The
candidate then climbs it, followed by other Shamans. As they climb they all
fall - or pretend to fall in ecstacy.

There, the birch or pole is compared to the tree or pillar that stands at the
centre of the world and that connects the three cosmic zones - Earth,
Heaven and Hell.

As far as the functions performed by a shaman are concerned, it is believed that

he combines the functions of priest, prophet and magician, all in one. He is known .

to perform priestly functions and uses sacrifice as a central act in the process of
healing and divination. He also performs rituals of sacrifice and appeasement to the
gods or spirits once they have been forced to submit to the shaman's needs.

Finally, because of fear of the shaman and his powers, he acquires a charismatic
personality and qualities of leadership similar to a prophet. He may wear unusual
jewellery and clothing, wear his hair long and matted, paint his body with colour or
ash and cany either musical instruments or bones. His eccentric appearance and
qualities have often earned him the name of a neurotic and a trickster.

13.5.4 Organisation
As far as the hierarchic organisation ofthe shamans is concerned it is not as clearly
ideiitified as that of the priests. Within the community however, on the basis of the
power and control a shaman has over spirits, he has a particular ranks. They are
also classified in terms of whether they perform positive magic (or white magic)
in the well-being of a person or negative magic or black magic to make someone
ill. Accordingly, they -are either revered or feared and have higher or lower status.
A shaman does not undergo indoctrination in an institution as a priest does nut have
to master tests except those that are special to his functions.

Unlike priesthood, we do find women included among the shamanistic category.

Female shamans are usually associated with witchcraft and with sorcery. They are
called shamanin.

The shaman is regarded important enough to be buried in a special way. Often

where a shaman is buried a s a ~ r e dsite is created, entry into which is restricted.
A dead shaman's body may even become the object of a cult. The shaman is found
.to play a siqnificant role amongst the people of Tibet, Nepal, the Red Indians in
America and in some south Asia communities. In the Indian context we find they
are found to play an important role in some tribal communities. In our next section
we take an example to illustrate this point.

33
 Religion and Related Aspects 13.5.5 An Example :The Oraon Shaman-
As we have already mentioned, the shaman is closely associated with tribal life and
medicine. We take here the example of a tribe among whom the shaman has great
significance. We refer here to the Dravidian tribe of Oraons found in east India in
the Chota Nagpur plateau. The shamans here and the tribe in general, were first
studied by the Indian social anthropologist S.C. Roy, in the 1929s. The Oraons live
in a hilly and forested region. They practise agriculture and both men and women
share in farming. Their life is coloured by festivals and they have sacred groves for
their village deity. Important in the life of the Oraon is the bagat or the shaman.
His residence is identifiable by coloured flags on bamboo poles that stand outside
it. These flags represent the gods and goddesses, that are worshipped by the
bhagat. It also includes the flag of the special deity that enters the bhagat during
his trances, and helps him to heal and cure. The position of the bhagat is hereditary
and usually only one son or daughter is handed down the knowledge in a family.
Xn Oraon can become a shaman, only if he has special qualities that are recognised
by the person to whom he is apprenticed. The life of the bhagat is simple and strict
in matters of food and drink and is governed by the prescribed conduct and rules
of shamanic training.

The Oraon bhagat need not become a shaman by inheritance only. He may be
chosen by divine interventions, through a dream or a possession by a god who
infonns the chosen person of how to go about learning the knowledge to be a
shaman.

The bhagat usually deals with illnesses that come from demonic possession; or
illness or madness that comes from psychological stress. The treatment can be in
the form of a healing ritual or an exorcism, better known as jhar phook. These
rituals are of various kinds and extent, depending on the depth of a person's illness.
Thus the bhagat is seen to perform both rituals associated with good spirits and the
bad. They are seen not only to perform both rituals associated.with good spirits and
the bad. The are seen not only to cure and provide remedies for illness but much
of their success comes from faith healing and divination. The bhagat is also known
to go into trances and an ecstatic condition to reach the root of his patient's malady.
It may be pointed out here that the range of a shaman and his personal power vary
greatly from one societal context to another.
I
Ifwe look at the above example, even though discussed here briefly, we find that
the bhagat or shaman among the Oraon is very similar in his personality and life
to the'shaman described in general. Having considered the nature of the shaman
and his role in social life specific to simpler societies, let us now proceed to examine
I the nature of the prophet and prophecy as the final form of religious specialisation.
I

Check Your Progress 2

1) Briefly discuss what Weber's understanding of the magician is. Use about three
lines for your answer.

2) Who is a shaman? use about four .lines for your answer.

....................................................................................................................
 .................................................................................................................... Religious Specialists:
Shamans, Priests and F'rophets

3) Briefly describe the shaman of Oraon. Use about four linesifor your answer.

113.6 THE FROPHET

Having discussed the nature of the priest and shaman as religious specialists who
have different and significant functions to perform particularly in relationship to the
world of the supernatural, let us now turn to the prophet. The prophet is also a
religious specialist but not of the kind that the priest and magician (shaman) are.
IIe is more recognizable as a leader of a religious movement rather than as
s~ functionary fulfilling a role within a movement. prophits have also been ihe
s,ource of new world religions such as Islam or Zoroastrianism, or leaders
of sectarian religions. Let us first consider what Weber had to say about the
prophet.

113.6.1 Weber on 'the Prophet

In his book on religion, Weber has devoted a whole chapter to the understanding
of what a prophet is. He defines the prophet as an individual who is capable of
proclaiming a religious doctrine or a divine commandment because of his charismatic
clualities. The major difference between the priest and.prophet is that the prophet
regards his mission as a "personal call" and derives his authority from personal
revelation and charisma or an exceptional quality. The core of the prophet's mission
is to carry forward the commandment or doctrine he has received as revelation.
Often the prophet may use magic to establish his authority. The prophet is,usually
successful and respected till his ability to cbnvince and prove his uniqueness of
purpose is intact.

Prophets also engage in healing and counselling. Weber points out that the prophet
i~suallydoes not belong to an organisation and neither does he receive economic
rewards for his ideas. He is not a professional and has a following of disciples or
a laity because they believe in his or' have faith in him. The prophet makes
prophecies which become often the guiding principles of a religious sect or cult or
even an entire religious movement. The prophet besides making prophecies, is a
teacher of religious and philosophical wisdom.

1'0 put it simply, the prophet may be seen as an individual who is an instrument for
carrying forward the will of god and he is obeyed because of the ethical nature of
his mission. He may also be a person who individually sets an example of attaining
salvation as did Buddha. This latter form of exemplary prophetism has been found
particularly in India.

13.6.2 The Prophet :An Overview

The prophet has been found to rise ih the context of almost all world religions in
some form or the other. In this section we briefly consider some features of a
prophet and an example as we have already outlined in general with the help of
Weber's work. We have already noted that the prophet does not belong to an
6Leligion and Relatcd Aspects institution as such and may be on a purely personal mission; we therefore do not
examine the nature of organisation here. As such prophets have-varied in nature
from religion to religion and society to society, depending upon the nature laf their
mission. This has also determined the nature of the prophecies they have made. It
may be noted however that the category of the prophet is absent in India's indigenous
religious traditions. We mean by this that the\idea of the prophet such as Moses,
Jesus or Muhammad, who bring to mankind a message or a commandmer~tfrom
God, are absent in India. In fact we do not even find them in the Indian tribal
context as we find the shaman.

We do however have another category of prophetnin India who by virtue of his

ability to forsee, to predict and to use clairvoyance, transcends time and space and
makes prophecies about the future. He often is seen to use magic or miracle-
making to convince the followers about the truthfulness of his prophecy. We consider
here the example of such a prophet to illustrate the above.

13.6.3 Sathya Sai Baba :An Example

Sathya Sai Baba is regarded as modern India's most famous miracle maker and
deity saint. He is easily recognisable by his appearance and clothes. The majcrr part
of his devotees come from the high caste middle and upper-middle classes in India.
He can be regarded as a deip as he receives the homage of his devotees he
returns these with blessings and grants boons. But above all he is known for his
ability to make miracles and predictions come true. It is believed that only ths real
followers and believers of Sathya Sai Baba are really able to recognise him. His
devotees have been seen to regard him as an avatar or manifestation of God on
earth.

Sai Baba receives this special status not because or any mission that he healis of
religion that he leads but as a consequence of the fact of his unusual capabilities
and charismatic p-ersonality. His bi,rth in 1926 in a village in Andhra Pradesh is seen
as divine because of the mysterious occurrences that took place then, such as a
cobra suddenly appearing under his bed. At the age of thirteen he is believed to
have suffered a seizure and then began performing miracles and later claimed to
be 'Sai Baba', the saviour of his people, and a reincarnation of the earlier saint, Sai
Baba of Shirdi.

In 1940 he broke away from his family and set out on a career as a holyman and
accepted devotees. He by now had begun performing the act of producing ash or
vibhuti and other items. Although be became famous for his miracles, he also
came to be known for his ability to cure and heal. In 1950, an ashram was
constructed in the village of his birth and he had come to be recognised all over
1ndiaas a god man, with a large following.

The important thing to note here is that his followers were there not because of
what he professed but because of their faith in him as a divine person. He is known
to go into trances and seizures to cure the illness of a devotee, by taking the illness
upon himself.

He has predicted that there will be one more incarnation of Sai Baba, after h ~ m ,
and also tells of the place he will be born in Karnataka next. He claims himself' to
be an incarnation of Shiva and Shakti and much of the cult symbolism revolves
around Shiva, though the cult and its membership'themselves are very ambiguous.
He remains the central charismatic authority of this cult and a modern day propliet
and guru who does not preach a doctrine. Those who believe in him, are his
devotees, and those who do not are not his devotees.
Check Your Progress 3 Religious Specialists:
Shamans, Priests and prophets
1) Who is a prophet? ~ x p l a i nin tive lines.

....................................................................................................................
2) Differentiate between a .priest and a prophet in five lines.

- -

13.7 LET US SUM UP

-
In this unit you have studied three different types of religious specialists. We have -
begun by examining who a religious specialist is and what kinds of functibns he
performs for a society.

.We have then proceeded to examine the major contribution made by Max Weber
to the sociology of religion as well as his specific ideas on the priest, magician and
prophet.

This; unit has also tried to deal with each specialist: priest shaman and prophet,
sepzrately, outlining the festures and functions of each. We have tried to show how
i

each of the specialists has significance within a given context and how each
associates with the layman differently. The purpose of examining these three different
kinds of roles is to show how mankind relates to the world of the divine arid
supernatural, differently. Finally, wherever we have been able to, we have tried to
support our presentation with examples from the Indian context. Our presentation
has rnowever been limited because the field is too diverse to be incorporated into
a few pages.

Brahmacharya : the first phase in a pious Hindu's life where is a bachelor engaged
in learning.

Charisma : certain supernatural or divinely gifted talents or something received

from divine grace.

Clairvoyance : the ability to see mentally into the future.

Cult : a system of religious worship.

Doctlrine : a reference to religious belief or teaching.

Religion and Related Aspects Exorcism : to get rid of evil spirits or expel spirits from someone's body through
invocation and rituals.

Grihastha : the second phase of life as a householder.

Monotheistic : a doctrine that believes in only one God.

Polytheism : a doctrine that believes in the existence of many Gods.

Sacredotal : related to the sacred or consecrated sphere.

Sanyasa : the final stage of life when one renounces the material world.

Sorcery : the~useof magical arts to achieve something.

Vanaprastha : the third phase of life when one, having completed, one's duties,
proceeds to the forest to meditate.

lK9 FURTHER READINGS

Babb, Lawrence A. 1986, Redemptive Encounters : Three Modern Styles in the
Hindu Tradition, Oxford University Press : Delhi.

Elwin, Verrier, 1955. The Religion of an Indian ~ r i b e ,Oxford

' University Press
: Delhi. -

Fuller, Christopher J. 1990. Servants of the Goddess : The Priests of c! South

Indian Temple, Oxford University Press : Delhi.

Madan, T.N. 1991. (ed.) Religion in India, Oxford University Press : Dellhi.

13.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Religious specialists are people who because of certain special qualities they possess
are able to mediate between the human world and the supernatural world. The
priest, the magician, the shaman are all examples of religious specialists.

2) According to Weber the priest is one who performs mediatory functions directed
towards the world of the supernatural and divine. The priest belong:; to an
organisation or is related to an institution. He may even be attached to a family.
He undergoes indoctrination and organisational learning. He has to abide by certain
defined codes of behaviour. He is also expected to perform periodic rituals and
sacrifice for the propitiation of the divine or the Gods and Goddesses.

ii) (f)

iii) (a)

iv) (b)

v) (c)

vi) (e)
I check Your Progress 2 .. Religious :Specialists:
L Shamans, Priests and Prophets
1) Weber understands the magician as a specialist who uses his knowledge of the
supernatural, sorcery, miracle making and exorcism to cany out rituals and acts
that are both beneficial and harmful. He deals with evil spirits and tries to
overcome illness through his magical powers.

2) The shaman is a tribal magician and leader. He is known for his powers of
sorcery and exorcism and similar to those of the magician he performs both
positive rituals of well-being, and negative rituals of ill-being.

Check Your Progress 3

1) The prophet is a person who by virtue of his charismatic personality and

qualities is capable of being a leader and gaining a following. The prophet leads
a mission not for economic reasons but as he sees it as his personal calling or
as a divine mission. The prophet may either lead a mission or he may be the
founder of a world religion. To put it simply, the prophet is seen as a messenger
or instrument of God's will.

2) The difference between the priest and prophet is that while the priest is a
religious specialist who is attathed to an organisation and performs rituals on
behalf of others, the prophet is an independent person. He performs no rituals
I on behalf of people as such and is not a member of an organisation where there
are others like him although, he may lead one. Secondly while the priest inherits
his authority by birth in a family or through indoctrination and specialised
knowledge, the prophet's authority comes from his personal charisma.