BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUY NHƠN

PGS.TS. TÔN NỮ MỸ NHẬT

PHƯƠNG PHÁP
NGHIÊN CỨU KHOA HỌC

Bình Định, 6/2016

 BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUY NHƠN

PGS.TS. TÔN NỮ MỸ NHẬT

PHƯƠNG PHÁP
NGHIÊN CỨU HOA HỌC

(TRÌNH ĐỘ: ĐẠI HỌC, NGÀNH: SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH – 701 & NGÔN
NGỮ ANH - 751)

SỐ TÍN CHỈ: 02 (LÝ THUYẾT)

Bình Định, 6/2016

 REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1. WRITING AT THE TERTIARY LEVEL 1

1.1. Assignments and Term Papers 1
1.2. Theses and Dissertations 2
CHAPTER 2. PLANNING A RESEARCH PAPER 3
2.1. Reviewing the Literature 3
2.2. Selecting a Topic 5
2.3. Defining the Problem 6
2.4. Determining the Thesis 6
2.5. Limiting the Problem 7
2.6. Specifying the Limitations 7
2.7. Designing the Study 8
2.8. Preparing the Outline 8
2.9. Writing the First Draft 8
CHAPTER 3. DESIGNING THE STUDY 11
3.1. Elements of Quantitative Studies 11
3.2. Elements of Qualitative Studies 12
3.3. Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research 14
CHAPTER 4. THE GENERAL FORMAT 16
4.1. The Preliminaries 16
4.1.1. Title Page 16
4.1.2. Abstract 17
4.1.3. Declaration 17
4.1.4. Acknowledgments 18
4.1.5. Table of Contents 18
4.1.6. List of Tables 19
4.1.7. List of Figures (or Illustrations) 19
4.2. The Text 19
4.2.1. Introduction 20
4.2.2. Main Body of the Report 20
4.2.3. Conclusion 20
4.3. Reference Material 21
4.3.1. References 21
4.3.2. Appendix 21
CHAPTER 5. COMMON FEATURES OF EDITORIAL STYLE 24
5.1. Conventions of Scholarly Style 24
5.2. Other features 26
5.2.2. Italics 26
5.2.3. Numbers 27
5.2.4. Shortened Forms 28
CHAPTER 6. FORMATTING 31
6.1. Chapter Divisions and Subdivisions 31
6.1.1. Levels of Headings 31
6.1.2. Chapter Headings 32
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 6.1.3. Centered Headings 32
6.1.4. Side Headings 33
6.1.5. Paragraph Headings 33
6.2. Other considerations 33
6.2.1. Margins 33
6.2.2. Spacing 33
6.2.3. Pagination 33
6.2.4. Paragraph Indentation 34
6.2.5. Justification of Text 34
6.3. Format of Appendix 34
CHAPTER 7. TABLES AND FIGURES 36
7.1. Use of Tables and Figures 36
7.2. Placement of Tables and Figures 36
7.3. Numbering of Tables and Figures 37
7.4. Table and Figure Captions 37
7.5. Format of Tables 38
7.6. Format of Figures 39
7.7. Other features 40
CHAPTER 8. USING INFORMATION FROM PRINT/ NON-PRINT SOURCES 42
8.1. Quoting and Paraphrasing versus Plagiarism 42
8.2. The use of quotations 43
8.2.1. When to Quote 43
8.2.2. What to Quote 43
8.2.3. How to Quote 44
8.2.4. Acknowledge Sources and Quote Accurately 48
CHAPTER 9. REFERENCING 50
9.1. Reference Systems 50
9.2. Essential Information 51
9.3. Non-print Sources 58
CHAPTER 10. COMPUTER TOOLS 60
10.1. Computer Tools for Writing 60
10.2. The computer as an information tool 63
CHAPTER 11. REVISING THE FINAL PRODUCT 66
11.1. Editing the Final Draft 66
11.1.1. Check List for General Format 66
11.1.2. Check List for Headings and Subheadings 67
11.1.3. Check List for Quotations 67
11.1.4. Check List for Tables 68
11.1.5. Check List for Figures 68
11.1.6. Check List for Referencing 69
11.1.7. Check List for Appendixes 69
11.2. Evaluating the Final Draft 70
11.3. Proofreading the Final Printed Copy 71
REFERENCES 73

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 CHAPTER 1. WRITING AT THE TERTIARY LEVEL

Written work is an integral part of a university education. Assignments and

research papers perform an invaluable function in prompting students to think
independently about issues and subjects. Students also learn how to access, select and
evaluate information from different sources and to formulate ideas.
At the tertiary level there has been growing dissatisfaction with reliance upon
examinations as the sole (or major) means of evaluating student performance. At most
universities considerable weight is given to evidence of student progress throughout a
course measured by regular tests and assignments rather than to a single, do-or-die
examination. The benefits of continuous assessment to students and lecturers hardly need
amplification here. It is sufficient to note the trend and to recognize that if students are
required to submit essays, assignments, tutorial papers, reports, dissertations or theses as
evidence of independent study, it is important that such material be well written. Many
students confronted with tasks that demand good writing skills are under prepared and
often unaware of the range of electronic tools to aid writers. They need guidance in how
to go about the complex job of writing assignments and theses. This course presents just
such a guide.
1.1. Assignments and Term Papers
Typically, written assignments and term papers are geared to course work covered
by a series of lectures or tutorials (although sometimes essays are set in an endeavor to
cover important aspects of a subject not covered by lectures or tutorials). Students are
assigned a particular topic to write about or given a list of topics from which to choose.
They receive instructions as to the length of the essay and the due date for submission.
Some guidance may be given to students in the form of a suggested reading list. In
courses that are well planned, lecturers usually inform students of their written work
commitments for the full course at the beginning of the semester so that students can plan
their study program effectively.
The topics set for written assignments may give a useful guide to important
content areas of a course of study, Assignments encourage students to read critically in a
particular content area, to search for and select from available material, to organize their
thoughts on a topic, and to submit to the discipline of communicating their thoughts
through the presentation of evidence that they have sifted and evaluated to arrive at
certain conclusions. Apart from learning the subject matter of a course, this process at
independent study has considerable educational value.
Essay writing is a means of gaining valuable experience in examination technique,
since examiners in many institutions continue to rely heavily on the essay question as a
form of examination. However, unlike the typical examination that tends to produce
stressful situations, most written assignments or term papers give students plenty of time
to plan and organize their work. Students do not have to depend on hurried recall of
material covered in lectures or textbooks, but are given the opportunity to plan carefully,
to read widely, to compose their thoughts, and to commit them to paper in an acceptable
way. A much higher quality of work therefore is expected.

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 An essay does not normally require original research. It is an exercise that is usually
seen only by the student and the marker and is not shelved in the library for public scrutiny.
The marker is expected to write comments on the paper for the guidance of the student so
that the student can use these comments for remedial purposes. Therefore, the essay is a
relatively personal document that is used as much for learning and teaching as for
examining.
1.2. Theses and Dissertations
Student enrolled for an honors degree, a postgraduate diploma or a higher degree are
almost invariably required to submit a thesis or dissertation. There is no generally held
agreement about the terms thesis and dissertation. Often the two terms are used
interchangeably. In this material they are taken to be synonymous.
A thesis is much more than a large term paper. It normally represents the culmination
of a substantial piece of original work over a period of at least a year. Some research
replicates previous research with the object of testing the reported findings of that research
or testing the relevance of findings of research completed in a different cultural milieu. Other
research builds on existing studies to follow up new leads or to refine or qualify the findings
of earlier studies. In either case, the thesis is expected to make an original contribution to
knowledge.
Students embarking on a thesis are usually much more responsible for selecting and
delimiting an area of study than are students writing assignments or essays. However, it is
not uncommon for students commencing a thesis to be given a topic or to be guided into
areas that are of special interest to faculty members with whom they will work. Indeed,
students may seek enrollment in a particular university because of the special interests of the
faculty there.
Outside examiners are usually engaged to assess theses and, once a thesis is
accepted, a bound copy is placed in the library of the institution conferring the degree.
Thesis abstracts are published and scholars throughout the world may borrow the thesis on
interlibrary loan. The thesis virtually becomes public property. The reputations of the
student, the faculty, and the institution itself, are at stake. Standards set for theses must,
therefore, be much higher than those set for essays.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. On reflection, name types of assessment (tests, examinations) that you have been
involved in or heard of ever since schooling. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of each type.
2. Why are assignments/term-papers, theses/dissertations essential at tertiary level?
3. What are the similarities between assignments/term-papers and theses/dissertations?
4. Summarize the differences of the 2 kinds of research paper by filling in the following
table.
Features assignments/term-papers theses/dissertations
Purpose
Length
Originality
Public property

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 CHAPTER 2. PLANNING A RESEARCH PAPER

This chapter describes key tasks in planning written assignments/ research papers
that, at the undergraduate level, usually require students to write on a set topic or to
choose from a list of suggested topics. Occasionally, at the second and third year level,
students may be required to choose a topic in consultation with their lecturer or tutor.
Whatever the case may be, the first task is to define and limit the problem. Further tasks
in planning are to acknowledge any limitations and to determine a time schedule. A
major allocation of time will be for consulting source material and collecting
information, and suggestions are given for preparing a working bibliography, and taking
notes. Since a thesis is a sustained argument, often detailed and quite complex,
considerable preparation and planning are necessary before the initial research can begin.
2.1. Reviewing the Literature
A literature review should be undertaken initially to determine the availability of
sources for research on a particular topic. The review of literature is a task that continues
throughout the duration of a thesis. It begins with a search for a suitable topic. Since a
thesis aims to be a contribution to knowledge, a careful check should be made that the
proposed study has not previously been undertaken. Although completely new and
original problems are rare, a previous study should not be exactly replicated unless the
techniques, used were faulty, or the findings and conclusions doubtful, or unless some
new sources of information have been discovered to provide information about the
problem. A good test is whether the problem still requires solution.
Once a topic has been decided upon, it is essential to review all relevant material
that has a bearing on the topic. This review of the literature is included in the final
written thesis as a key section or chapter. It is necessary to show how the problem under
investigation relates to previous research studies. In some subject areas it is important to
locate the problem within a theoretical framework and, in such cases, the underlying
theory needs to be reviewed as well.
In surveying a field initially, it is useful to work from the general to the specific,
or from tertiary and secondary sources of information to primary sources.
Primary Sources
Primary sources of information include first-hand accounts of experimentation and
investigation (articles in professional journals, monographs. doctoral theses, interviews
and questionnaires), original works (letters. diaries, eyewitness accounts, poems, novels,
autobiographies) and reports (proceedings of Parliament, court testimony, reports of
government departments and agencies, annual reports, minutes).
Secondary Sources
Secondary sources of information are summaries of information gathered from
primary sources. These include translations, summaries and reviews of research (for
example, encyclopedia articles), abstracts, guide books and other publications containing
information, commentaries, and so on.

3
Tertiary Sources
Textbooks are usually examples of tertiary sources of information since these are
generally compiled from secondary sources. Tertiary sources of information can be
useful in providing an overview or broad summary of a field. They may even be
acceptable as references because some textbooks become acknowledged as authorities.
For certain types of research, the original source material may be lost or inaccessible and
heavy reliance therefore must be made on secondary sources. However, there is no
substitute for consulting primary sources if they are available, and postgraduate work in
most subject areas demands it.
The reliability of sources of information generally decreases as the number of
hands through which the information has passed increases.
Consulting Source Material
A suggested list of references is often included with set assignments. This is a
valuable starting point for research and these references should be consulted first. When
many students are enrolled in a course, a particular reference is frequently not readily
available. Thus it is necessary to begin reading early and to take notes.
Reference books themselves contain further references and theses, if held by the
institution's library, often provide promising leads. Students soon learn who are the
accepted authorities within a field, and this helps in the evaluation of material read.
Another useful method for locating source material for a particular topic is to
check the library shelves or catalogue for books having the same classification number as
other books to which reference has been made. References have a tendency to increase
rapidly, and more than ever there is a need for careful evaluation.
In addition, there are a number of other sources that might provide relevant
information. These include encyclopedias, handbooks, yearbooks, indexes, abstracts,
atlases and newspapers. Another most valuable source of reading, particularly for the
student in the social and other sciences, is journal articles. Academic and professional
journals contain more up-to-date information than that contained in books, and this
makes them essential reading in a number of subject areas.
A new source of information that can be immensely useful when you are looking
for the most current and up-to-date information is the Internet and the World Wide Web.
So important has the Web, as it is familiarly called, become that a separate chapter (see
Chapter 10) is devoted to this information source.
Preparing a Working Bibliography
A bibliography for a written assignment is an alphabetic list of all source material
to which reference has been made. There are different ways of referencing books, journal
articles, and other documents, and this topic is dealt with in detail in chapter 9. However,
the essential information required for all references is:
1. author's surname and initials and date of publication
2. the name of the article and/or journal or book
3. the imprint (publisher and place of publication).
In the case of electronic or online sources of information special considerations
apply, but two further items need to be recorded:
4. the URL of the Web page

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5.the date you accessed the information.
Taking Notes
It is useful to make notes on cards. Here are some suggestions for taking notes:
1. Use a separate card for each idea, fact or concept. This enables cards to be sorted
into categories and attached to the draft outline. In subsequent redrafts, much writing
time is saved.
2. Put a heading at the top of each card. Such headings usually consist of key words or
phrases to help identify the note without having to read it through.
3. Record sufficient information to identify each note. Since a working bibliography has
previously been prepared, the name of the author and date are sufficient to identify the
publication. To locate the note within a publication, the page number also is required.
4. Indicate where information has been paraphrased or quoted. Checking the accuracy
of quotes when taking notes saves considerable time at a later stage. Words omitted
from a sentence are indicated by ellipsis marks:
"Books ... propose to instruct or to amuse." Thomas de Quincey
The modem convention is to use ellipsis without a period even if words are omitted at the
end of a sentence:
“People seldom read a book which is given ...” Dr Samuel Johnson
If any words are added to a quote to make it intelligible out of its original context, the
additional words are enclosed in square brackets:
“[Henry Fielding] whose works it has long been the fashion to
abuse in public and to read in secret.” George Borrow
2.2. Selecting a Topic
The selection of a suitable topic for a thesis or dissertation is in many ways the
most difficult task. A thorough knowledge of a particular subject area is needed. Hence,
at the honors undergraduate level, students are required to have completed a major in the
subject before embarking on the thesis. At the master's and doctoral levels, it is necessary
not only to have completed this earlier course work but also to have completed an honors
thesis successfully and sometimes a preliminary or qualifying examination as well.
The more "knowledge a student has of a particular field, the more able s/he is at
detecting gaps in it and recognizing problem areas that require investigation. It is the
ability to detect problems that the postgraduate student must develop, for every thesis or
dissertation should set out to provide information about a particular problem. Indeed, the
first question examiners usually consider when marking a thesis is: Does it make a
contribution to knowledge in this field? Phrased another way, this question becomes: Was
there a problem to be investigated and did the thesis attempt to solve this problem?
A Source of Problems for Investigation
One of the best sources of problems for investigation is at the forefront where
research is being carried out. The closest one can get to this research is through direct
contact with the personnel at a research institution. The research fellow, lecturer or
professor who is active in research is usually a fund of research problems.

5
 A close substitute for direct contact with researchers is contact with their writing,
and most recent writing is contained in the journal literature. Here then is an important
source of ideas signaling gaps, likely future directions, or inconsistencies in patterns of
research findings in a particular area. A study of the recent literature in the chosen field
usually will indicate problems that are currently being investigated and will suggest
likely further problems for investigation.
Students should be familiar, too, with recent doctoral studies in their field of
interest. Publications such as Dissertation, Abstracts present concise summaries of
doctoral dissertations submitted at most leading universities. Often these summaries
conclude with suggestions for future research.
Criteria for Selecting a Topic
Once the field of interest is chosen and potential problem areas for investigation
identified, a number of questions should be addressed.
Is there Adequate Supervision?
Does the Topic Really Interest You?
Can the Topic be Completed in the Required Time?
Is the Necessary Equipment Available?
Are Subjects Available?
Are Travel Funds Available to Locate Data Sources?
Are Library Facilities Sufficient?
Is the Study Achievable?
Is the Problem a Significant One?
At various key stages in planning a thesis, the feasibility of conducting a study
must be faced. Hard questions should be asked about the resources needed for tackling a
particular problem and the justification in terms of time, effort and expense.
2.3. Defining the Problem
Defining the problem involves determining what the question, assignment or essay
requires. A dictionary should be consulted to define key terms in the topic. For almost
every subject there are special dictionaries of technical terms. Subject specific
dictionaries are excellent research tools, particularly for students planning specialized
study in an area. Consult such dictionaries to define all terms used in, or necessary for,
the assignment or essay question. This procedure assists students in clarifying their
thoughts and provides an ideal starting point for the assignment. Clear definition of terms
is one of the hallmarks of scholarly writing.
2.4. Determining the Thesis
A thesis is not the same as a topic to be investigated. While a topic may be
particular crystals or the novels of Miles Franklin, a thesis is a statement that says, for
instance, something about crystals or an author's novels. The distinction is important
since in many ways the statement of a thesis determines the approach and stance writers
take towards their topics or research questions.
A thesis is an idea or theory that is expressed as a statement, a contention for
which evidence is gathered and discussed logically. The statement nearly always begins
with the word that:

6
 It is his thesis that the move towards republicanism in Australia
began at the end of the last century.
The book's main thesis was that punishment of misdemeanors in
school builds up feelings of resentment that impair learning.
A thesis is a sustained argument. The thesis statement usually appears in the first
chapter where the background to the study is described; it will often determine the
framework for the literature review and the data collection; and it is revisited in the final
chapter. It permeates the whole study.
2.5. Limiting the Problem
A common mistake with undergraduate assignments (and with many graduate
theses and dissertations) is to be too ambitious and to attempt topics that are far too
broad. The mistake of casting the net wide is an understandable one because a common
reaction when starting an assignment is to wonder how one could possibly write the
required number of words. After some initial reading. However, most students find the
reverse problem - there is too much to write. Hence, time spent at the outset in limiting a
problem, or defining its limits (sometimes called a statement of delimitations), is usually
rewarded.
A problem is not delimited by omitting important information, leaving out
essential details, or presenting only part of the evidence. Rather, a problem is delimited
by reducing the scope of the investigation. Consider, for example, the following topics:
1. Diseases Affecting Wheat
2. The Control of Rust in Wheat
3. Recent Developments in the Control of Rust in Wheat in the
Darling Downs Region.
The first topic is sufficient scope for a book. Even the second topic is far too broad
to deal with adequately in a term paper. The third topic is beginning to reach manageable
proportions. Failure to limit the problem at the outset can lead to the collection of a mass
of data, much of which ultimately needs to be discarded, or worse, can lead to a
somewhat superficial treatment. A clear statement fixing or marking the limits of a study
or investigation is another hallmark of scholarly writing.
2.6. Specifying the Limitations
Not to be confused with defining limits (delimitations of a study) is a statement of
a study's limitations. In any investigation there are conditions imposed from without,
restrictions or shortcomings that ideally would not be present. Students need to
acknowledge any limitations inherent in conducting a study on a particular topic.
A study in a particular field may be limited, for example, by access (travel may
only be possible at certain times), or because information is not available certain records
may not be publicly accessible). For case studies, limitations may exist because of the
policies of an organization (information may be made available to professionals in the
field but not to students in training). Other limitations may include a time frame within
which the study will focus, or may be imposed by reason of the study needing to be
completed within a given period. In experimental work, limitations may be imposed by
restricted access to equipment, whereas in field studies, environmental conditions may
govern when and where data are collected.

7
 Nearly all studies have some of the kinds of limitations described above. It is not
only important, but a strength to acknowledge such restraints frankly.
2.7. Designing the Study
Choosing a design for a study essentially involves selecting the most appropriate
methods or techniques to solve the particular problem under investigation. It is a crucial
step in a thesis because, if a wrong decision is made, the whole study may be criticized
on the grounds of inappropriate design or, even worse, as being unscientific or illogical.
This stage involves so many problems, which should be dealt with in details in a separate
chapter (Chapter 3).
2.8. Preparing the Outline
The preparation of a chapter outline is a useful first step in writing the rough draft.
The chapters in most theses and dissertations follow a fairly standard format, which is
detailed in Chapter 4. There is an introductory chapter and usually a chapter reviewing
previous research. The next few chapters, the body of the thesis, vary according to the
study. The empirical research study frequently has one or more chapters on procedures
and techniques (hypotheses, sample, tests, research design) and one or more chapters on
results of the study. The analytical research study frequently has a division of chapters
according to a chronological development. The final chapter is for conclusions,
implications of a theoretical or practical kind, recommendations where appropriate for
further research.
Within each chapter there are major subheadings and there are minor sub-
headings. These headings often derive from the headings used in note taking or from
some of the points described in this chapter (e.g. limitations, delimitations and
significance of the study).
A chapter outline is a guide for planning the thesis. Many headings will certainly
change as the report progresses. The final form is determined by the nature of the study
itself and by the conventions of scholarly writing.
During the planning stages, problems will inevitably emerge and at various key
stages judgments need to be made about the feasibility of conducting a particular study.
Primary, secondary and tertiary sources need to be considered when planning a
thesis in selected areas. In all cases, an initial proposal needs to be prepared outlining the
chosen topic, research questions to be addressed, and statement of thesis, details of
proposed methods and procedures, and any assumptions, limitations or delimitations.
2.9. Writing the First Draft
Armed with the assignment outline and reading notes, the next step is to write the
first or rough draft. If time is allocated to the various research tasks as suggested in this
chapter, the first draft will need to be completed well before the due date for submission
of the assignment or research paper. Writers often find that, when they look at an
assignment after an intervening period, it helps to highlight more clearly any
deficiencies, omissions and disjointed or awkward expressions.
With the widespread use of word processors (discussed in further detail in Chapter
10), many assignments are now written on computer. While computers certainly make it
easy to change the order or relocate passages of text, there is no substitute for careful

8
planning of an argument. The first draft will generally progress more smoothly if
students have a script to follow.
A Time Schedule
Research papers are marked on the final product presented. It seems sensible,
then, that considerable care and attention be devoted to presentation. Unfortunately, too
many studies look as though they were written in haste the night before. Regrettably,
many of them are. This failure to schedule time appropriately usually results in an
inferior piece of writing. Table 2.1 presents a suggested allocation of time for different
stages of writing that may be used as a guide.
Table 2.1 Time allocation for different stages of writing
Stages of writing Time allocation
Defining and limiting problem, specifying limitations, consulting 60%
source material. and collecting information
First draft 20%
Revising, footnoting, referencing, writing the final draft, 20%
proofreading

Table 2.1 presents a very general time allocation and not all the activities will be
applicable to all assignments. It does, however, emphasize the importance of writing,
revising and polishing the finer points in the total assignment, as well as the need for
careful planning.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. What is meant by “Reviewing the Literature”?
2. What are the reasons for a researcher to review information sources relevant to the
topic s/he is investigating?
3. Is the review of the literature included as a chapter/section in the final paper?
4. Complete the following statements:
a. Primary sources of information include …
b. Secondary sources of information include …
c. Tertiary sources of information include ….
5. a. Which of the mentioned sources are the most difficult to comprehend/ review?
Why?
b. Which of the mentioned sources are the easiest to comprehend/ review? Why?
c. Which sources are the most reliable?
6. Where can you get access to relevant information/ references?
7. What information is required for each reference?
8. What (Who) can be the sources of problems for selecting to investigate?
9. What is the primary factor examiners usually consider when marking a research
paper?

9
10. What are the criteria for selecting a topic?
11. What is meant by “limiting the problem”?
12. Why is it essential to limit the problem to investigate?
13. Complete the following statements:
a. Specifying the limitations means ……
b. Designing the study involves ….
14. Name some ways in which a study in a particular field may be limited?
15. Indicate if each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F), and then justify
if it is false.
a. There are always only three chapters – an introductory chapter, a body
chapter, and a conclusion.
b. There are in most cases standards as regard the format of a research paper.
c. The number of chapters varies according to the research.
d. Each chapter represents different levels of headings.
e. The headings in the outline may change during the course of carrying out
the study.
f. The first draft is to precede reading notes.
g. The first draft needs to be finished on the due date for submission.
h. A research paper is evaluated on the first draft.
i. Failing to schedule time sensibly usually leads to a poor piece of writing.
j. It is suggested that the first draft be allocated the largest share of time
during the study.
k. One-fourth of the time should be spent on proofreading/writing the final
draft.
16. What information does an initial proposal address?
17. Write a summary ( about 200-300 words) of the process of doing a research.

10
 CHAPTER 3. DESIGNING THE STUDY

It is difficult to generalize about research designs because of the wide variety of

types of research. One subdivision is according to whether the approach is predominantly
quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative research is typified by experimental studies in
science based disciplines where findings are usually expressed in numerical form.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is characterized by ethnographic and historical
studies where findings are more commonly expressed in words than in numbers.
3.1. Elements of Quantitative Studies
Certain elements of research design are common to both quantitative and
qualitative studies, though in each case the interpretation of these elements may differ
slightly. Other elements apply more appropriately to one or other of the broad approaches
to research. The following elements are features of quantitative studies.
Statement of Hypotheses
In quantitative studies, research questions are usually re-expressed in terms of
specific hypotheses to be tested. Hypotheses should be clearly stated and the relationship
to previous research made clear. For the purpose of statistical testing, hypotheses may be
expressed in the null form (e.g. There is no difference between ...; or There is no
relationship between ...).
Statement of Assumptions
In every study, it is necessary to make certain assumptions. Wherever these are
made, they should be stated clearly. Nothing should be taken for granted.
Statement of the Limitations of the Study
The time allowed for a study and restrictions of length in reporting it usually im-
pose limitations on a study. Other limitations may be lack of subjects or equipment or
difficulty in accessing particular resources. These kinds of limitations need to be clearly
stated.
Delimiting the Study
Delimitations, not to be confused with limitations, refer to ways in which the
investigation has been reduced in size to make it manageable. A study may, for example,
be delimited by investigating certain effects at particular levels or with particular age
groups. Almost every study requires some focusing and how this is done needs to be
stated.
Definition of Terms
All key terms and variables should be defined. The interpretation of the findings
of a study depends in part on the way major variables are defined.
Appropriateness of Research Design
The statistical methods for testing hypotheses need to be described and justified.
Why was a particular statistical test selected? Will its application lead to the acceptance

11
or rejection of hypotheses as stated? Significance levels for rejecting the null hypothesis
need to be stated before applying statistical tests.
Description of Population and Sample
Most empirical or experimental studies require a random or representative sample
to be drawn from some population. Questions to consider are whether the population and
sample are adequately described and whether the method of sampling is appropriate. A
basic concern in most studies is to guard against a biased sample. Considerable care
needs to be exercised (and shown to be exercised) to guard against bias.
The Control of Error
The control of error is a key factor in experimental studies. The researcher
conducting an experiment has to consider what variables are operating in a given
situation. In the laboratory it is usual1y possible to control major variables or sources of
error. For field studies it is usually only possible to control key variables, and researchers
endeavor to randomize all others. In both cases, the variables and their control need to be
described.
Reliability and Validity
In empirical studies it is necessary to establish the reliability and validity of test
instruments. That is, do tests provide consistent measurements (a key aspect of
reliability), and do tests measure what is claimed for them (a key aspect of validity)?
It cannot be emphasized too strongly that details of research design should be
decided (and, preferably, written down) before the collection of data. The method of
collecting data is often dictated by the research design. Indeed, most institutions require
the submission of a formal written research proposal that must be approved before the
student is permitted to undertake the study.
3.2. Elements of Qualitative Studies
Qualitative research stresses meanings in context rather than numerically
measured data. The following guidelines refer predominantly to qualitative research in
those disciplines or parts of disciplines that utilize such methods as case studies,
questionnaire surveys, personal interviews and participant observation.
Statement of Hypotheses
The qualitative study employs the term hypotheses in a broader sense than
empirical research. Instead, a particular argument or thesis is pursued. The qualitative
researcher often begins by defining rather general concepts that, as research progresses,
are tested, developed and often modified. Thus, there is need for some flexibility about
an originally proposed hypothesis. All of this information needs to be clearly stated at
the outset, along with how the work relates to previous research and the grounds for the
choice of area researched.
Statement of Assumptions
As happens with all studies, certain assumptions are made which must be stated
clearly so that there is no confusion as to the premises adopted. In studies where aspects
of the social world are being explored, the researcher will also have cultural assumptions
about various social groups or situations. While unavoidable, these must be kept in check
12
so that personal bias does not endanger the credibility and integrity of the researcher.
There are situations, however, where researchers can make known their personal values
and state where they have called upon these to aid in interpreting data.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of time, money and length of a study apply to all investigations, but
the interpretive nature of qualitative research introduces a specific problem. One
researcher's interpretations can often reasonably be challenged from quite a different
perspective or within the context of a different historical period. This limitation must be
kept in mind and formally acknowledged.
Delimitations
The topic of research must be focused to a manageable size and this usually
requires reducing either the number of subjects or the time involved. Field researchers, in
particular, often face the dilemma of knowing when to stop collect-ing data to prevent
overload. Careful judgment is required to realize when sufficient information has been
gathered to answer all initial and subsequent questions that have been posed.
Definition of Terms and Concepts
All key terms should be defined and stated clearly. The essence of some concepts,
however, may change over the course of a research study, and so updated definitions or
reclassifications of these are necessary. As an example of this, a researcher might start
out with a notion that the average amount of housework done by a husband is thirty per
cent of total shared duties, but after investigating might conclude that the average amount
is closer to twenty per cent. The word average has changed and so needs reclassification.
Appropriateness of Research Design
In contrast to the empirical study whose main aim is the rejection or retention of a
stated hypothesis, the qualitative study questions and interprets the meanings of the data
in relation to the initial presuppositions and methods used. If the findings are then
unsatisfactory or inconsistent, the structure of the study might need to be reassessed and
corrective measures taken. For example, survey questionnaires have to be structured in
such a way as to elicit the most useful responses. Closed questions (those with fixed
responses) and open questions (no fixed responses) can be suitable for different types of
research, and the advantages or disadvantages of each must be weighed up and justified.
Description of Population and Sample
While many studies require a random or representative sample to be drawn from a
population, care must be taken to describe the method by which the sample was chosen
and to ensure its appropriateness. Much social research employs the process of
theoretical sampling whereby the choice of subjects is guided by the researcher's
developing theory, thus making it impossible to select all subjects in advance. This is
because the researcher waits to see what the initial findings reveal before selecting
further participants.
In the case of analytical case studies, research is usually carried out on a very
small sample but in great detail and possibly for extended periods of time (sometimes
years). Rather than requiring statistical generalisability from the findings, the issue here

13
is more about recognizing significant patterns and recurring themes within the context of
a natural setting, which can then become catalysts for further research. The need to
monitor consistently for undue bias is particularly crucial as case studies involve much
researcher participation such as personal interviews and even lifestyle interaction.
The Control of Error
The concept of error is different from laboratory experiments since variables are
prone to much less control and so need to be taken account of and described, Results are
less concerned with statistical accuracy than with emerging concepts and categories that
propel the researcher continually to test and update theory. Of course, there is always
danger of error in the sense that a researcher's personal bias can interfere with suitable
interpretation. '
Reliability and Validity
It is as important in qualitative research as it is in quantitative research to evaluate
data to ensure that the most effective methods are employed in data collection, and that
the data directly address the questions posed at the outset. The methods should be
determined before research begins, and most institutions require this information
formally, for approval before research commences.
Qualitative researchers, while not relying on scientific measuring apparatus must
demonstrate reliability and validity by different means. Their credibility is confirmed to
the extent that data are collected ethically, that any personal biases are kept in check, and
that interpretations are sound. Because of the interpretive nature of the work, replication
is not the issue that it is in scientific experiments and often replication is virtually
impossible.
Interpreting the Data
Once data are collected, the qualitative researcher must be able to interpret these
reliably. This process can involve summarizing the data to a temporarily manageable
length to categorize, identify themes analyze and assess. From here, the researcher must
look for meanings within the data and often relate findings to previous studies to see if
these support existing research. If the findings seem to be in total opposition to the
majority of other well-conducted studies in the field, the interpretation may have to be
reassessed or the data collection process examined.
The main danger in interpretive data analysis is that interpretation is a personal
process and researchers must be careful to distance themselves to a certain extent. It is
also important that researchers do not over-generalize from small scale studies.
3.3. Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research
It is sometimes desirable to combine qualitative with quantitative research to
maximize the theoretical implications of research findings. Although this may be
frowned upon by some because of the vastly different theoretical backgrounds and
methods of data collection in the two approaches, a combined approach can prove
valuable in certain projects.
Such a case is where objectively measured variables may be further clarified in
ways that interpretive qualitative research can best offer. The reverse case applies when
qualitative research findings can be used as a basis for future empirical research in the

14
interests of expansion, explanation or support. Practical problems can arise, however,
and the researcher must be extremely cautious to combine methods only if it is
appropriate and if it ultimately leads to a greater understanding of underlying issues.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. Name and summarize each element of quantitative studies.
2. Name and summarize each element of qualitative studies.

Things to compare &

Quantitative Approach Qualititative Approach
contrast
- Typified by experimental/ - Typified by ethnographic,
- General empirical studies historical studies
- Commonly presented in - Commonly presented in
numeral forms words
- Statement of Hypotheses
- Statement of Assumptions
- Limitations of the Study
- Delimitations
- Definition of Terms and
Concepts
- Appropriateness of
Research Design
- Description of Population
and Sample
- The Control of Error
- Reliability and Validity
- Interpreting the Data
- Combined

15
 CHAPTER 4. THE GENERAL FORMAT

In presenting an assignment or thesis, there are a number of format specifications

that the writer should follow. These specifications allow them to encompass their
individual contributions within a conventional framework that is both logical and
sequential. By following stringent format requirements, writers not only can systematize
and structure their thinking in terms of theme, unity and clarity, but they also can
facilitate the reading and interpretation of the work by others.
By convention, a paper consists of three parts: the preliminaries, the text and the
reference materials. The length of any of these three parts is conditional on the extent of
the study. In a long paper, each of the main parts may consist of several subsections; in a
short paper, materials preceding the text might include only a title page while the
reference material might be limited to a listing of basic references.
The order in which individual items within the three main sections common-ly
appear is outlined below, although not every paper includes all the items listed.
Frequently, certain departments or faculties have special specifications that diverge from
this conventional pattern, but the following sequence is generally accepted:
The Preliminaries
(a) Title page
(b) Abstract
(c) Declaration
(d) Acknowledgments
(e) Table of contents
(f) List of tables
(I) List of figures
The Text
(a) Introduction (introductory chapter or chapters)
(b) Main body of the report (usually divided into chapters and sections)
(c) Conclusion (summary chapter or chapters)
The Reference Material
(a) References
(b) Appendix (or Appendixes)
4.1. The Preliminaries
4.1.1. Title Page
Most universities prescribe their own form of title page for theses, dissertations
and research papers, and these should be complied with in all matters of contents and
spacing. Generally, the following information is required:
Written Assignment
Title of the assignment
Name of the writer
Name of the course and lecturer for whom the assignment is written

16
 Name of the department
Name of the university, college or institution
Date on which the paper is due and, sometimes, the date when submitted.
Thesis
Title of the thesis
Designation of faculty (optional)
Name of the institution to which the thesis is being submitted
Degree for which the thesis is presented
Name of the candidate (if desired, degrees may be listed after the name)
Month and year of submission of thesis
Subject to the special requirements of individual institutions, the best practice is to
centre the title of the paper on the page in upper case letters. Where the title is too long
to be centered on one line, line breaks should be made at convenient points to avoid
splitting phrases. Titles may be in boldface but not usually underlined or placed within
inverted commas. Below the title, material may be centered or balanced against the left
and right margins of the page.
4.1.2. Abstract
In some departments and institutions an abstract may be required. An abstract
consists of the following parts:
a short statement of the problem
a brief description of the methods and procedures adopted
a condensed summary of the findings of the study.
The length of the abstract may be specified, for example, 200 words. Usually an
abstract is short. In some cases, the abstract is bound into the thesis; in others, it is printed
on a separate sheet and placed inside the front cover. If included in the thesis, it is placed
immediately following the title page. For an assignment, the abstract is often placed on
the same page as the title. For both theses and assignments, the abstract is normally
preceded by a centered capitalized heading ABSTRACT, and the first paragraph is not
indented.
4.1.3. Declaration
For theses it is usual to include a short statement declaring that the thesis has not
previously been submitted for any degree, and that acknowledgments have been made to
the contributions of others where appropriate. The statement is usually a single
paragraph, not indented, and under a centered heading DECLARATION, usually in
capitals. The statement is signed by the author of the thesis. Institutions often specify the
precise form of wording to be used such as that in Figure 4.1.
DECLARATION
I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledge-
ment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not
contain any material previously published or written by another person
where due reference is not made in the text.

Figure 4.1. Sample wording for declaration for a thesis

17
4.1.4. Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments recognize the persons to whom the writer is indebted for
guidance and assistance during the study, and credit institutions for providing funds to
implement the study or for use of personnel, facilities and other resources. For a term
paper or written assignment, it is not necessary to acknowledge staff or institutions. If the
list of acknowledgments is short, the heading Acknowledgments is omitted and a brief
statement containing the acknowledgments is placed slightly above the centre of the
page. Such a practice would be necessary for the brief acknowledgment in Figure 4.2.

Thanks are due to the Department of School Health

Services, the Queensland Radium Institute, the Institute of Child
Guidance, the Medical School, the University of Queensland,
and members of the Australian Medical Association for their
interest, assistance and support in the preparation of this
report.

Figure 4.2. Brief acknowledgment for a term report

To obtain a clear idea of what is included in lists of acknowledgments within
separate departments, writers are advised to examine a number of written reports and
theses to determine the approach usually taken within their own discipline. In all
instances, scholarly honesty demands that assistance be acknowledged, always within the
confines of simplicity and tact.
4.1.5. Table of Contents
The table of contents includes the major divisions of the thesis: the introduction,
the chapters with their subsections, and the references and appendix. Page numbers for
each of these divisions are given. Care should be taken that titles of chapters and captions
of subdivisions within chapters correspond exactly with those included in the body of the
report. In some cases, subheadings within chapters are not included in the table of
contents, although this is mandatory for many institutions. It is optional whether
acknowledgments, list of tables and list of figures are placed in the table of contents. The
purpose of a table of contents is to provide an analytical overview of the material
included in the study together with the sequence of presentation. To this end, the
relationship between major divisions and minor subdivisions needs to be shown by an
appropriate use of capitalization and indentation or by using a numeric system.
The heading TABLE OF CONTENTS typically in capitals, is centered at the top
of the page. Below this appears the heading Page at the right margin. Then come
abstract, declaration, acknowledgments, list of tables and list of figures (if included) and
others. All are typed without terminal punctuation. Chapters are numbered consecutively
in Arabic numerals. Subdivisions are indented.
The preliminary pages are numbered using roman numerals i. ii. iii ...). Note that
the title page does not appear in the Table of Contents, though a page is assigned to it.
Similarly, the Table of Contents itself has a page number assigned following the
Acknowledgments. The body or the thesis and the reference material are numbered using
Arabic numerals (1. 2. 3 ...). A final table of contents cannot be prepared until the entire

18
draft of a report or thesis is typed. Only then can page numbers be inserted. However, as
each chapter or section is being written, it is helpful to develop a table of contents as a
guide to the structure of the argument or thesis.

A table of contents is necessary only in those papers where the text has been
divided into chapters or several subheadings. Most short written assignments do not
require a table of contents. The basic criterion for the inclusion of subheadings under
major chapter divisions is whether the procedure facilitates the reading of a report and
especially the location of specific sections within a report.
4.1.6. List of Tables
Following the table of contents, the writer needs to prepare a list of tables. The
heading, LIST OF TABLES, is usually centered in capitals on a separate page. Below
this the headings Table and Page appear at the left and right margins respectively. For
each table there is needed the table number in Arabic numerals, the exact caption or title
of the table and the page number. The initial letters of key words in titles are capitalized.
No terminal punctuation is used.
4.1.7. List of Figures (or Illustrations)
The list of figures appears in the same form as the list of tables. The page is
headed LIST OF FIGURES, without terminal punctuation, and the numbers of the figures
are listed at the left of the page under the heading Figure. Normally Arabic numerals are
used for numbering. Page numbers appear under the heading Page at the right margin. If
there are several illustrations of anyone kind, for instance 10 or more maps in addition to
other illustrations, a separate division and listing is necessary. For example, if there were
15 figures, 2 maps, and 4 photographs, there would be two separate divisions: LIST OF
FIGURES (for the 15 figures) and LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (for the 2 maps and 4
photographs).
4.2. The Text
The main body of the thesis follows the preliminaries detailed above, and begins
with the first page of the text. The text is the most important part of a thesis, as it is in this
section that writers present the basic tenets of their arguments. Writers should devote
most of their energies to a careful organization and presentation of the findings or general
argument. The more logically, concisely and coherently the writer develops the thesis
through chapter divisions, the more readily the overall purpose and strength of a study
become evident; and so the possibility is increased of convincing readers of the
importance or power of an argument or of a series of findings.
Short assignments do not necessarily have chapter divisions or subject headings,
but there should be the same logical framework that is adopted for major theses: an
introductory section or sections; the major report of the study, subdivided where
appropriate; and a summary that contains the findings, conclusions and recommendations
arising from the study. The organization of the text needs careful planning so that each
section or subdivision represents an important logical division of the topic being
investigated and reported.

19
4.2.1. Introduction
An introduction should be written with considerable care, with two major aims in
view: to introduce the problem in a suitable context, and to arouse and stimulate the
reader's interest. If introductions are dull, aimless, confusing and rambling, and lacking in
precision, direction and specificity, there is little incentive for the reader to continue
reading. The reader begins to expect an overall dullness and aimlessness in the whole
paper. The length of an introduction varies according to the nature of the research project.
An introductory chapter usually contains:
(a) a lucid, complete, and concise statement of the problem being investigated or
the general purpose of the study
(b) a justification for the study establishing the importance of the problem (In
some disciplines, it is appropriate at this juncture to indicate the limitations of the project
and to define terms used in the study that have a special meaning or significance for the
investigation.)
(c) a preview of the organization of the rest of the paper or thesis to assist readers
in grasping the relationship between the various components
(d) in many disciplines, a resumé of the history and present status of the problem,
delineated by a concise, critical review of previous studies into closely related problems
(If this approach is adopted, it is important to discuss the contribution of these previous
studies to the question being investigated, and to show how the present investigation
either arises from contradictions or inadequacies of earlier investigations or builds on
their findings.)
(e) a brief statement of the sources of data, the procedure or methods of analysis,
and the proposed treatment of the findings. (Whereas such a statement is often included
in the introductory section(s) of small research papers in an experimental thesis a separate
chapter on design is more usually devoted to these aspects.)
4.2.2. Main Body of the Report
Because of the diversity of research topics and written assignments within separate
disciplines, it is not possible to specify directions for organizing the main body of a paper
or thesis. However, certain general principles should be followed:
(a) Organize the presentation of the argument or findings in a logical and orderly
way, developing the aims stated or implied in the introduction.
(b) Substantiate arguments or findings.
(c) Be accurate in documentation.
In both assignments and theses, every effort should be made to write clearly and
forcefully within a logical framework.
4.2.3. Conclusion
The conclusion serves the important function of tying together the whole
assignment or thesis. In summary form, the developments of the previous chapters should
be succinctly restated, important findings discussed, and conclusions drawn from the
whole study. In addition, the writer may list unanswered questions that have occurred
during the study, and which require further research beyond the limits of the project
being reported. The conclusion should leave the reader with the impression of
completeness and of positive gain. As with the introduction, the conclusion need not be a

20
separate chapter or section in a small assignment. In a thesis, it usually forms a separate
chapter called Conclusion(s), or some alternative descriptive term that gives finality to
the study.
4.3. Reference Material
A reference section containing details of works consulted or referred to during a
study follows the final section of a paper or the last chapter of a thesis. Also appended are
certain materials that are important for a full understanding of a study but which, perhaps
because of their length, may detract from the main argument if placed in the body of a
report. If an index (that is, an alphabetic listing of key terms and concepts in a report) is
included, it follows the list of references.
4.3.1. References
The list of references follows the main body of the text and is a separate, but
integral part of a report or thesis. It may be preceded by a division sheet or introduced by
a centered capitalized heading REFERENCES. Pagination is continuous and follows the
page numbers in the text. In many disciplines, a strong reference exists to list only works
cited or referred to in assignments and theses. A bibliography, by contrast, commonly
includes works consulted in addition to works to which specific reference is made in the
main text. The heading BIBLIOGRAPHY is then used in place of REFERENCES.
4.3.2. Appendix
The final part of an assignment or thesis, following the list of references, consists
of materials to be placed in an appendix. It is usual to include in an appendix such
matters as original data, tables not appearing in the body of the thesis that present
supporting evidence, tests that have been constructed by the research student, parts of
documents or any supporting evidence that would detract from the major line of
argument and would make the body of the text unduly large and poorly structured. Each
appendix should be clearly separated from the next and listed in the table of contents.
Use of Appendix
The point is made in preceding chapters that a written paper should aim at a high level of
readability. This implies that only pertinent arguments should be included. There are
times, however, when the inclusion of some relevant evidence or explanation in the body
of the text would only serve to clutter it, rendering the argument more difficult to follow.
By relegating such supporting evidence to an appendix, the text of a paper remains
uncluttered: yet the argument is not weakened because the interested reader can be
directed to consult particular pages of an appendix for further detail.
Each appendix should be referred to in the body of the paper. This is most directly
done by reference in the text itself, or it may be noted in a footnote. Such reference
should occur at the earliest point in the paper where the material appended is pertinent to
the discussion. For example:
A copy of the test instructions is included in Appendix A.
Subsequent reference also may be desirable. Ultimately, it is a matter of judgment
whether to include material in an appendix or not. As a general principle, however,

21
material should be appended if complete omission would tend to weaken the argument
yet its inclusion in the body of the paper is not absolutely necessary to the text.
Pertinent material such as extensive quotations from evidence gathered, excerpts
from diaries or transcripts from case studies, may appropriately be included in an
appendix. If a data-gathering instrument such as a questionnaire or test of some kind has
been used, a copy should be appended, together with any covering and follow-up letters.
Statistical or raw data from which summary tables presented in the text are drawn should
be included in an appendix. When a detailed explanation is relevant to one section of a
paper, but is not crucial to the whole, such explanation is often better placed in an
appendix. Also, usually it is desirable to append technical notes on experimental methods
such as sampling procedures, illustrative materials or copies of computer programs used
in data analysis.
Further notes:

The Final Product

From the outset, the student should strive for writing of high quality. The text
should be free of errors and untidy corrections. Spelling and grammar check computer
programs can help with this task. At an early stage, students should familiarize
themselves with the regulations of the institution concerning the submission of theses,
noting the requirements relating to:
 number of copies to be submitted (bound and unbound)
 method of binding to be used
 colour of the cloth required for the cover
 lettering that should appear on the spine and front cover.
Proofreading and Collating
The final draft should be checked very carefully. Spelling, punctuation, tables,
figures and setting out must be verified. This is a substantial task requiring considerable
patience and diligence. Good research can be marred by errors not detected in the
proofreading stage. Corrections must be checked for accuracy. Copies are then collated
and checked again to ensure that pages are in proper sequence before submission.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. How many parts are there in a thesis? What are they?
2. What are included in The Preliminaries?
3. What information is required in the title page of an assignment? A thesis?
4. What information does an abstract consist of?
5. What is meant by “Declaration”?
6. What is “Acknowledgements” aimed to?
7. What are included in “Table of Contents”?
8. In your own words, give a description of the layout of the Table of Contents.

22
9. Indicate if each of the following statements is true (T) or false (F), and then justify if
it is false.
a. All the details of a paper can be found in the Table of Contents.
b. Titles of chapters and captions of subdivisions within chapters must be exactly
the same as those in the body.
c. Roman numerals are used consistently throughout the whole paper to number
the pages.
d. Terminal punctuation is required for all headings in Table of Contents, List of
Tables, and List of Figures.
10. In your own words, write a summary (200-300 words) of the purposes, contents, and
requirements of The Text.
11. What does a list of References contain?
12. How are the two terms Bibliography and References different (In which case is each
used)?
13. What is the Appendix for? Name some types of materials included in the Appendix.

23
 CHAPTER 5. COMMON FEATURES OF EDITORIAL STYLE

Every writing genre has a style that sets it apart from other genres. So it is with
assignment and thesis writing. The editorial style for writing at the tertiary level includes
the various rules and conventions that are accepted for scholarly writing. Some of these
such as the avoidance of personal reference, colloquialisms, jargon, sexist language,
stereotyping, and ethnic bias, apply to writing style and are addressed in 5.1. This chapter
also focuses more on editorial style as it applies particularly to assignment and thesis
writing. Rules for capitalization, the use of italics, conventions for numbers, and
shortened forms are noted briefly. Observance of editorial conventions helps to ensure
consistency in presentation, thus freeing readers to focus properly on writing content.
5.1. Conventions of Scholarly Style
Correct form is as important in the presentation of a written assignment as it is in
a thesis. Similarly, both assignments and theses require the use of scholarly style, and so
most of the recommendations in this section apply to all writing at university.
Authorities have reached no absolute agreement regarding details of form in thesis
writing. In any particular situation, several different forms may be acceptable. Some
teaching departments require theses to follow special forms quite different from those
required elsewhere. For example, a department of sociology may require students to use a
particular referencing technique that would not be acceptable to the department of history
at the same university or to the department of sociology at another institution. The thesis
writer should find out the requirements of a particular department. The student also is
counseled to read widely on the special problems of form and style in thesis writing,
paying particular reference to the subject area of the thesis. Account should be taken of
special departmental requirements to achieve a standardized form of referencing,
footnoting, presenting tables, and so on.
Regardless of the particular system adopted, once the format to be used is
determined, the student must be consistent throughout the thesis. Thus, while the content
of the thesis is important, the presentation of the argument in a standard form is a
discipline that is vital to its acceptability. Good research may be marred by poor
reporting; proper presentation is an integral part of the whole project.
Research can become a contribution to a field of knowledge only when it is
adequately communicated. For this purpose, precise writing is essential. A careful choice
of words will serve to convey exact meaning. The best word to express an idea is not
necessarily the longest word. A thesaurus (e.g. the Macquarie Thesaurus) is an
invaluable reference. Terms should be clearly defined at the outset and their use must be
consistent with such definitions.
Colloquial, conversational and subjective, highly personalized modes of
expression are inappropriate in a thesis. Avoid abbreviations such as & and don't
(although abbreviations are acceptable in tables). Scientific writing is not of a personal or
conversational nature and for this reason the third person is commonly used. As a general
rule, personal pronouns such as I, we, you, me, my . . . should not appear except in
quotations. A thesis should not consist of the reporting of personal experience or opinion,

24
but should be a critical analysis of a problem and the presentation of evidence relating to
that problem, and this is better arrived at by using tone of scientific impersonality.
At the same time the thesis writer should strive for a high level of read-ability.
Avoid sentences that are too involved or complex. Scholarly writing is not crammed with
jargon. Avoid antiquated language: Use while instead of whilst; although rather than
albeit. Verbose, ambiguous, pedantic or pompous writing is not scholarly. Nor are
sweeping statements and exaggerated claims scholarly. Statements must be suitably
qualified or supported. Sound reasoning and intellectual honesty are hallmarks of
scholarly style. Quotations must be accurately cited and suitably acknowledged. The
contributions of other writers must be duly recognized. The extent and nature of the
thesis writer's contribution then are more readily apparent.
Since a thesis recounts what has already been done, it is written in the past tense.
While this does not altogether preclude the use of the present and future tenses, the thesis
writer should have a good reason for using these tenses. Note that the present tense is
always used - never the future tense - to indicate where topics or materials are located in
a thesis:
The literature is reviewed in Chapter 2.
Copies of test instruments are reproduced in Appendix B.
Accurate spelling is essential for scholarly writing. This applies both to common
words and proper names. Consult an authoritative dictionary for correct spelling, and in
the case of proper names, the best available authority. Pay particular attention to
grammar and punctuation. Where there is more than one spelling of a word, the writer
should try to be consistent:
Use either "s" or "z" spellings throughout (organise or organize).
Students should be aware of differences between Australian and American
spelling. The 's' form is the preferred Australian form in the Macquaric Dictionary.
Other examples of preferred spellings occur in words like:
centre (not center)
colour (not color)
behaviour (not behavior)
However, if quoting from an American source, use the exact spelling of the
original. Some university departments may express a preference for a particular spelling
style. Where no policy is laid down, the best rule to follow is be consistent.
Scholarly writing avoids the use of sexist language, stereotyping and ethnic bias.
Thus writers need consciously to use language that is gender neutral and avoid, for
instance, the use of man as a generic noun:
Use people or human species in place of man.
Similarly, it is preferable to avoid the pronouns he or she to refer to, say, the
teacher or the therapist:

Use instead the plural teachers and therapists followed by they.

25
 Patterns of language change over time when reference is made to ethnic groups.
Writers need to find out what is currently acceptable terminology:
The term Eskimo is rejected by those to whom it commonly refers.
The referred reference is now Inuit.
5.2. Other features
5.2.1. Capitalisation
Titles of Books, Journals and Other Works (title case)
Use capitals for the initial letters of key words in titles of books, journals, plays,
films, musical compositions, works of art, newspapers, magazines, published and
unpublished test instruments (that is. capitalise all words other than prepositions,
conjunctions and articles). This convention applies to citations in the text and to
references in bibliographies:
History of Australia since the Second World War
Journal Articles (sentence case):
For journal articles and theses, capitals are used for the first letter of the first word
and of the first word following a colon, and for proper nouns.
New technologies: Effective tools for Australian classrooms
Nouns Followed by Numerals or Letters
Use capitals for references to specific tables, figures, experiments, trials, chapters:
Table 12, Figure 3, Experiment 2, Trial 3, Chapter 4
but not for elements of tables or books such as rows, columns or pages:
row 2, column 3, page 4, pages 21-24
Headings and Subheadings
Chapter 6 deals with levels of headings within assignments or theses, and
recommends use of upper and lower case to distinguish between levels of head-ings. At
the top level (e.g. for chapter titles) full capitalization is common; at the next level down,
title case is usual; while at the bottom level, sentence case is the norm. Practice depends
on the number of levels of headings. See Chapter 6 for details.
Table and Figure Captions
Captions for tables and figures commonly use sentence case. The same
practice applies to table headings.
5.2.2. Italics
Titles
Italics are used in references or text when reference is made to titles of published
works: books, journals, plays, films, musical compositions, newspapers and magazines,
as well as to paintings and sculpture.

26
Cited Letters, Words or Phrases
When a letter, word or phrase is cited in the text as an example, such examples are
commonly italicized. Quotation marks may sometimes be used instead. Word processors
and printers, however, are making the use of italics more common:
The term title case refers to the use of initial capitals in key words in
titles of books and journals.
Australian spelling favors the use of s rather than z in words like
Italicise, capitalise, standardise, and so on.
Scientific Names
Scientific names of animals and plants, from the taxonomic level of genus
downwards, are italicized. Some generic names, however, have come into common
usage, in which case italics are not used (e.g. eucalyptus):
Kangaroo rats belong to the family Heteromyidae in the genus
Dipodomys.
Eucalyptus trees belong to the myrtle family, Myrtacea'e, in the
genus Eucalyptus.
5.2.3. Numbers
Spell out all one-digit numbers and to use figures for numbers containing two or
more digits. There are several exceptions to whichever rule is followed.
Numbers that Begin a Sentence
A number beginning a sentence is spelled out regardless of its size. Note the
hyphenation in numbers when spelled out such as twenty-eight, thirty-two, sixty-seven
and so on.
One hundred and twenty-eight students were included in the
survey.
Quoting Percentages
Figures are used in quoting percentages.
The class roll showed that 9 per cent of children were absent.
Note that per and cent are two words, but percentage and percentile are single words.
Street Numbers, Dates and Times
Street numbers, dates and time of day (when used with a.m. or p.m.) are
always expressed in figures.
He moved into 10 Downing Street.
The election was held on October 6.
Testing commenced at 10.30 a.m.

27
Numbers in Tables
Table numbers and reference to numbers in tables are never spelled out:
Reference to Table 2 shows that the Central district received 18
centimeters of rain in February and the Northern district, 9
centimeters.
Fractions and Ordinal Numbers
Fractions are usually spelled out unless part of a large number:
The families spent one fifth of their Income on accommodation.
Rules for ordinal numbers (first. second. third ... 10th…) follow the same rules as
indicated for cardinal numbers (one. two. three 10 ...) above:
The students were in the fourth grade.
The second item of the 16th trial.
Series of Numbers
Where there is a series of numbers, some of which have one digit and some more
than one digit, the numbers are expressed in figures:
The subject scored 9, 11, 8, 13 and 12 over five trials.
Plurals of Numbers
The plural of dates and numbers is formed by adding s or es:
1980s
three fours and two sixes
5.2.4. Shortened Forms
Abbreviations and Full Stops
The general rule is to use a full stop if an abbreviation does not end with the letter
of the word being abbreviated:
p. pp. Vic. Jan. ibid. loc.cit. '
but to omit periods if the abbreviation and word end with the same letter:
vols Dept
Using Shortened Forms
Generally, shortened forms should be defined before use: once defined, the
sortened form may be used:
The Australian Reading Association (ARA) was formed in 1975. ARA
now has a membership of …
If the shortened form is so well known as not to cause confusion, definition is
unnecessary:
USA, UN, NATO…

28
The abbreviation etc. (et cetera) is often a sign of lazy writing. Its use is to be
discouraged.
Special Symbols
Shortened forms are often used, especially in tables or figures, though such use
needs generally to be defined either in the caption or in a footnote. This ruling applies to
all but the most common abbreviations encountered in mathematical and scientific
writing such as:
cm centimetre(s)
km kilometre(s)
sin sine
p probability
F Fahrenheit or F-ratio
log logarithm
A good rule to follow with all shortened forms is spell out if there is any doubt.
Other General Features
The following additional points regarding format can aid readability and the
general appearance of printed text:
1. Only one space is necessary after a full stop and other punctuation marks.
2. Paragraphs may be indented or additional spacing left between paragraphs. To do
both is unnecessary. Following a heading, it is common practice not to indent the first
paragraph.
3. The first sentence following a heading should stand alone and not depend on the
heading to complete its meaning.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. Indicate the justifications for conforming to the editorial style?
- To set it apart from other genres with its own rules and conventions
- To ensure the consistency in presentation of a research paper
- To help readers focus more properly on the writing content
2. Summarize the dos and don’ts regarding the scholarly style, in terms of:
- Words/ expressions
- Sentence
- Spelling
- Style
- Support
- Intellectual honesty
- Tense

29
 DOS (What should be done?) DON’TS (What should
NOT be done?)
Style - Use a scientific impersonalized tone - Use colloquial,
conversational,
subjective, personalized
mode
Words/ - Use gender-neutral terms, third person
Expressions pronouns (e.g., he, she …), currently - Use (first and second)
acceptable terminology personal pronouns (e.g.,
I, my…), jargons,
abbreviations (e.g. &,
don’t…), antiquated
language, gender/ ethnic
biased language …
Sentence - Use sentences that ensure a high level of - Use sentences that are
readability too involved and complex
Spelling
Support - Statements must be suitably qualified - Use Sweeping,
and supported; personal, exaggerated
- Statements must be supported with statements
relevant evidence based on your critical
analysis.
Intellectual - Quotations must be exactly cited and - Report results
honesty suitably acknowledged; dishonestly;
- Others’ contributions must be dully - Forget to acknowledge
recognized; others’ contributions
- Your research design and results must be adequately
honestly reported
Tense - Use the simple past tense to report what - Use verb tenses
has been done; inconsistently
- Use the simple present tense to introduce
major sections, to summarize major
sections, and indicate where topics and
materials are located;
- Be careful when using the simple future
tense and use it with good reasons

30
 CHAPTER 6. FORMATTING

Because of the length of a thesis, it is common practice to divide it into chapters

and, within each chapter, subdivide the text into sections. Topics then may be addressed
separately within chapters. To guide the reader through the document, different level
headings are used (with corresponding entries in the table of contents). This chapter
details the various options for using headings with accompanying examples. Matters of
formatting and style such as margins, spacing, pagination, paragraph indentation and
justification also are addressed.
6.1. Chapter Divisions and Subdivisions
In the interests of readability and ease of reference, chapters of theses are usually
divided into sections and subsections. This practice is not always necessary in the shorter
assignment or term paper.
The method of indicating chapter divisions and subdivisions depends on the
number of such divisions to be made. The kinds of headings employed include centered
headings, side headings and paragraph headings. In addition, each chapter has a chapter
number and chapter heading. Conventionally, centered headings are used for major
divisions and side and paragraph headings for further subdivisions.
6.1.1. Levels of Headings
Many combinations of headings may be used. Modem word processors and
printers permit considerable variety in the style of headings adopted. The use of upper
case, title case (key words capitalized) and sentence case (first word capitalized), plus the
use of boldface and italics, indicate the hierarchy of headings. The use of underlining is
not recommended nor is it necessary to change fonts.

For most purposes, no more than 4 levels of headings are needed, and this includes
the chapter heading. As with other matters of style, consistency of use is a prime
consideration. The following examples illustrate three, four and five levels or headings.

Five Levels
Level 1 CENTERED HEADING UPPER CASE IN BOLD
Level 2 Centered Heading Title Case in Bold
Level 3 Side Heading Title case in Bold
Level 4 Side Heading Title Case in Italics
Level 5 Paragraph heading sentence case in italics, ending with full stop.

Four Levels
Level 1 CENTERED HEADING UPPER CASE IN BOLD
Level 2 Centered Heading Title Case in Bold
Level 3 Side Heading Title Case in Bold
Level 4 Side Heading Title Case in Italics

31
Three Levels
Level 1 CENTERED HEADING UPPER CASE IN BOLD
Level 2 Centered Heading Title Case in Bold
Level 3 Side Heading Title case in Bold
The above examples cover most requirements. If fewer than three levels of
subdivision are required, centered and/or side headings can be used. The use of more than
five levels tends to confuse by subdividing into parts that are too small. Once a method of
headings and subheadings has been adopted, this method should be consistent from
chapter to chapter. Certain conventions apply to the printing and spacing of headings, the
purpose of which is to maintain a consistent format.
6.1.2. Chapter Headings
Each chapter begins on a new page. This applies even if the last page of the
preceding chapter has only two or three lines. Chapters are identified by a number and a
title. The chapter designation with number is printed in capitals and arabic numerals with
no punctuation, and is usually centered horizontally about 5 cm from the top of the page.
The chapter title is also printed in capitals with no final punctuation. It, too, is centered
horizontally one double space below the chapter number. Additional spacing (triple)
normally separates the chapter title from the text following.

About 5 cm
from top of page

CHAPTER 5 double space

TITLE FOR THIS CHAPTER triple space

This chapter contains……

6.1.3. Centered Headings

Centered headings are used for major chapter divisions. Since division implies
more than one, there must be at least two major divisions in a chapter before centered
headings are necessary. The heading is centered horizontally on the page and printed in
lower case except for the initial letter of key words. It may be numbered for purposes of
referencing but this is optional. Normally three single spaces separate the centered
heading from text above and below. No period follows centered headings.

32
6.1.4. Side Headings
Side headings, if used with centered headings, indicate further subdivisions: if
used without centered headings, side headings indicate major chapter divisions. The side
heading is printed flush with the left margin. Numbering is optional. Lower case lettering
is used except for the initial letter of key words. Three single spaces normally separate
the side heading from text above and one double space from the text below. Again, no
period follows side headings.
6.1.5. Paragraph Headings
Paragraph headings are used to indicate divisions within subdivisions, and are
often printed in italics and aligned with the left margin. Headings are typed in sentence
case (i.e. only the first word and proper nouns are capitalized), and ended with a full stop
to separate them from the paragraph beginning on the same line. Spacing follows that
used for the rest of the text.

A Note Regarding Headings

All headings should be captions, not sentences. Therefore, no terminal punctuation
is used except for paragraph headings where a full stop serves as a separator. Each
heading should be brief, yet informative - a statement rather than a question. Headings
should not be essential for continuity. A good test is if the sense remains clear when
headings are removed. The first sentence following a heading should not depend on the
heading for its meaning.
6.2. Other considerations
Besides chapter divisions and subdivisions, other considerations concern relate to
margins, spacing, pagination, paragraph indentation and justification.
6.2.1. Margins
The usual margins recommended are 2.5 cm at the top, bottom and right side of
the page, and 4 cm at the left of the page. The wider margin at the left is to allow for
binding. These margins give a balanced appearance to the whole. Most word processors
make it easy to specify standard margins for all pages.
6.2.2. Spacing
The body of text is normally double spaced, though longer theses sometimes use
space and a half. Convention requires different spacing for quotations, footnotes, tables
and figures, and appendixes. These special requirements are outlined in the relevant
chapters that follow.
6.2.3. Pagination
Every page in an assignment or thesis is given a number, although not every page
has its page number printed on it. There are two separate series of page numbers. The
preliminaries are numbered using small roman numerals (i, ii, iii, and so on). The title
page is assigned the number i although this number is not printed. Page numbers of the
preliminaries normally appear at the bottom of the page without punctuation, are
centered, and positioned approximately 1.5 cm from the bottom of the page.
33
 All other pages, beginning with the first page of Chapter 1 and including pages of
tables and figures, references and appendixes, are numbered with arabic numerals. This
number normally appears without punctuation in the top right-hand corner of the page
approximately 1.5 cm from the top and aligned with the text 2.5 cm in from the right-
hand edge of the paper; or it may be centered at the bottom of the page like the
preliminary pages. The exception is the first page of each chapter; like the title page, this
may have no page number appearing or, if a page number is printed, it is centered about
1.5 cm from the bottom of the page. Most word processors allow placement of page
numbers to be specified easily.

6.2.4. Paragraph Indentation

Formatting styles change as does language usage. It is quite common now not to
indent paragraphs (newspapers are an exception) but to provide additional spacing
between paragraphs. It is unnecessary both to indent paragraphs and to have additional
spacing between paragraphs.
6.2.5. Justification of Text

The use of word processors makes it easy to justify text (i.e. have straight edges on
both left and right sides). There is some evidence that a ragged right edge or unjustified
text is easier to read. Unless there are institutional specifications, it is optional for text to
be fully justified.
6.3. Format of Appendix
A single appendix should be headed APPENDIX without punctuation, and
positioned on a page in a similar way to major or chapter headings. An appendix
desirably should have a title that usually is positioned three single spaces below the
heading, also without punctuation:
APPENDIX

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Where materials for inclusion in an appendix are numerous, it may be desirable to

place each category of material into a separate appendix. Each appendix then should be
separately identified and titled.
Subsequent appendixes are then numbered A B, C, and so on, each starting on a
new page. It is optional whether the title for each appendix appears on a page by itself or
whether the content follows immediately underneath. It is important, however, to be
consistent.
Each page in the appendix is numbered consecutively with the rest of the paper,
and margins should be maintained. Positioning of page numbers should be consistent
with the rest of the paper. The nature of the material determines the spacing to be used in
each appendix.

34
 Appendixes are listed in the table of contents with commencing page numbers
shown.
In theses, appendixes are placed immediately after the references or between the
final chapter and the references. For assignments, appendixes normally follow the list of
references. There is no fixed rule about placement, and it is largely left to the discretion
of the research student as to which of these alternatives to follow.

35
 CHAPTER 7. TABLES AND FIGURES

Writers can often help readers' understanding of text by using tables and figures to
convey certain information. The use of tables and figures is recom-mended to present
data of different kinds or to show the interrelationship of a number of parts. Their use is
not recommended simply to repeat information adequately covered in the text. This
chapter illustrates the various uses of tables and figures, their placement in a paper, and
conventions and guidelines for numbering, formatting, and preparing tables and figures.
7.1. Use of Tables and Figures
The word table is usually restricted to information presented in a tabular form
whereas the term figure is used to designate any other illustrative material such as graphs,
charts, diagrams, drawings, maps or photographs. Sometimes the term plate is used for
photographic materials.
A table or figure should not merely repeat information covered in the text but
augment it. The text always must contain sufficient detail to sustain the particular
argument being put forward. Some readers shy away from a table of numbers and prefer
to read the evidence presented. Other readers find a tabular presentation quicker to follow
than textual presentation. The same information should not, of course, be presented in
both tabular and graphical form. A table of the running speed in seconds of a group of
athletes over a hundred meters and a bar graph of the same information would be
needlessly repetitive. However, an appendix often contains data on which a figure is
based.
7.2. Placement of Tables and Figures
Tables and figures should always be introduced. Stated another way, the table or
figure should always follow its first mention in the text. Further, a table or figure should
follow its first mention as closely as possible. Typical ways of introducing tables and
figures are the following:
Means, standard deviations and standard errors of means are
presented in Table 22.

Figure 4 shows the apparatus used in the second experiment.

With a word processor, it is usually quite easy to place a table or figure
conveniently close to, and following its first mention in the text.
While it is possible to place larger tables and figures on separate pages - and in
days gone by when most papers were prepared by typewriter this was the recommended
practice - it is more usual now to surround tables and figures by text so that normal
margins are maintained. An exception is when preparing a paper for publication.
Guidelines for particular journals then need to be followed:
Often a decision must be made whether to include tables in the body of the text or
in an appendix. The writer must be guided here according to whether the material being
presented is essential for an understanding of the argument or whether the material
36
consists of supporting details to which interested readers may refer if they wish. If the
material is essential for the conclusions that follow, it should be presented in the main
body of the text. The aim should always be to present a smooth flowing argument or
thesis. Incidentally, sufficient information should be provided for the interested reader to
rework calculations or to replicate a study. The place for these basic test data, as they are
often called, is an appendix.
7.3. Numbering of Tables and Figures
All tables should be numbered to permit easy identification. One method is to
number tables consecutively through a thesis using arabic numerals (Table 1, Table 2,
Table 3 . . .). Another method is to number tables consecutively within chapters (Table
4.1. Table 4.2, Table 4.3 ... for tables in chapter 4, Table 5.1, Table 5.2, Table 5.3 ... for
chapter 5, and so on). If tables are included in an appendix, the numbering sequence
continues from the last table number in the text if the first of these methods is used:
otherwise, the numbering is consecutive within appendixes (e.g. Table A.1. Table A.2 ...
within Appendix A. Table B.1. B.2 . . . within Appendix B).
The same conventions for numbering and format of tables apply to figures, with
one important exception: the word figure with its appropriate number is placed below the
figure.
7.4. Table and Figure Captions
Every table or figure has a title. In a way the title is a concise summary of what is
presented. It is self-contained and usually in caption form (not a complete sentence). The
first letter of the first word and proper nouns are capitalized. Unless the caption is a
sentence, there is no full stop. The table number and caption are always placed above the
table, whereas for a figure, the caption is placed below. An example of a commonly used
format is seen in Table 12.1 which shows a short excerpt from a table. The word Table
and its number are in boldface; the accompanying caption is aligned with the left hand
edge of the table. The whole table (including caption) is separated from the text by a
triple space above and below:
Table 12.1 Indices of weekly award rates of pay of full-time adult
employees (June 1990 = 100.00)
NSW Vic Qld SA WA Tas "
1990
1991

An alternative format (see Table 12.2) sometimes seen is to centre the caption
above a table and use full capitals for the word Table:
TABLE 12.2
Global primary energy consumption per capita, 1990
Word processors have, however, reduced the need to use capitals as a form of
emphasis.
If the length of any caption extends over a line, it is commonly single spaced and
indented so that the second and subsequent lines align with the start of the caption (called

37
a hanging indent). The caption for each table or figure must correspond exactly with that
given in the List of Tables or List of Figures.
7.5. Format of Tables
The different components of a table are:
I. the table number
2. the caption or title
3. the boxheads - the captions identifying the vertical columns
4. the stub, the first column in the table. identifying the row entries
5. the field, the columns containing data.
Tables should be presented as simply as possible. Table 7.1 illustrates the format
of a relatively straightforward table.
Table 7.1. Area of the states and

territories of Australia
in square kilometers
States/Territories Area (km2)
WA 2 515 500
Qld 1 727 .20
NT 1 326 200
0
SA 984 000
NSW 801 600
Vic. 227 600
Tas. 67 800
ACT 2 400
Total 7 682 300

Note the following points:

1. Table 12.3 (the table number) is aligned with the left of the table and the caption is
formatted as a hanging indent.
2. A horizontal line closes the table at the top and bottom.
3. There are no vertical lines. Modem formatting almost completely precludes the use of
vertical lines in tables.
4. The boxheads for the stub and field are taken from the caption of the table.
5. The stub (column 1) identifies the states/territories.
6. There is only one field of data (column 2).
Table 7.1 illustrates further desirable features of tables:
1. The units of measurement are stated and, although an abbreviation is used, it is clear
since it occurs in the caption for the table.
2. The entries in the stub are arranged so that areas are in descending order of magnitude.
This arrangement assists in interpreting the data in the table.
3. The entries in the stub, which consist of words, are left-justified (aligned with the left
margin of the table); and the entries in the field which are numbers, are right justified.

38
4. The boxhead for the stub and the field have a ruled line below them to function as a
separator from the table entries: similarly, the bottom table entry has a ruled line above
it to separate it from the state entries from which it differs, representing as it does the
total area of the country.
Consistency and simplicity are key criteria in setting out tables. The best guide is to keep
readers constantly in mind: Does the setting out assist comprehension?
Table 7.2. Significance of differences between deletion rates (every
2nd, 4th, 8th, 16th and 32nd words omitted) for easy and
difficult passages, together with means for different
deletion rates
Deletion

2nd 4th 8th 16th Means

Easy passages
2nd 1.50
4th 1.94* 3.44
8th 2.24* 0.50 3.94
16th 2.88* 0.94 0.44 4.38
32nd 3.44* 1.50* 1.00 0.56 4.94
Critical difference = 0.951
Difficult passages
2nd 1.19
4th 0.81* 2.00
8th 1.25* 0.44 2.44
16th 1.25* 0.44 0.00 2.44
32nd 1.50* 0.69 0.25 0.25 2.69
Critical difference = 0.808
*Denote significant differences at the 0.05 level.

Table 7.2 illustrates a slightly more complex table. Note the method of presenting
sub-sets of data within the one table. This is often preferable to having two separate
tables for the same data. The use of an asterisk is a common way of indicating if results
in tables are statistically significant. A table should be self-contained and self-
explanatory. That is, all information necessary for interpreting the table should be
present.
7.6. Format of Figures
Much tabular information can be presented alternatively as a chart or graph. The
term figure encompasses diagrammatic forms of presenting information such as pie
graphs, bar charts, column charts, line charts, area charts, scatter plots, time line charts
and three-dimensional charts. Besides these diagrammatic forms of presenting
information, the term figure includes drawings, plans and other diagrams.
The format of figures, like tables, should be as simple as the data presented permit.
The essential components of which are the figure itself, the figure identification and
caption. Note that the figure number and caption appear below the figure. The source of

39
the data on which the figure is based is acknowledged using a special symbol and is set in
a smaller font size.
7.7. Other features
Footnotes to Tables and Figures
Footnotes are often used with tables and figures to explain a point within a table or
figure or to define an abbreviation or symbol. Letters of the alphabet or special symbols
such as * are used for referencing rather than arabic numerals as the former are less likely
to be confused with table and figure numbers. Footnotes are normally single spaced with
one-line spacing between footnotes.
Very Large Tables and Figures
There are several methods for dealing with tables or figures too large to fit on one
page:
1. The table or figure may be placed sideways (sometimes called land-scape
orientation) on a page.
2. The table or figure may be reduced photographically.
3. The table may be continued over more than one page (usually not applicable to
figures).
4. The table or figure may be produced on a larger sheet of paper and folded into
the report or thesis.
The particular method chosen reflects to some extent thesis style. Nevertheless,
the following points in connection with the above methods should be considered before
reaching a decision:
1. Generally, avoid presenting material sideways on the page if the same material
can be presented without readers having to alter their normal reading position. When the
page is turned on its side, the table or figure number and caption appear on the spine or
binding edge.
2. If photographic facilities are available, and if reduction does not cause
difficulties in reading, photographic reduction is a good solution to the very large table or
figure.
3. If a graphics program is not available, it is a good technique to draw graphs,
diagrams, charts or maps on cartridge paper for subsequent reduction since this smooths
blemishes and irregularities and helps to give a polished presentation.
4. Consider whether a large table should not appear in an appendix. If not, the
setting out of the second and subsequent pages of a continued table is the same as for the
first page of the table except that the word continued is used, and the table heading is not
repeated. Only the last page of the table is closed at the bottom (that is, contains a single
horizontal line across all the columns).
5. The folding of pages tends to make an assignment or thesis bulky. If folding is
used, the page should be folded right over left to a maximum width of 10.5 cm (with the
standard 29.5 cm x 21 cm A4 paper). This allows the pages to be trimmed (in the case of
binding) without cutting the folded page in two. Unless absolutely necessary, the page
should not be folded from the top or from the bottom.

40
Pagination and Margins
Pages containing tables or figures are numbered as are all pages of an assignment
or thesis. The page number should appear in the normal position (for example, the top
right-hand comer or bottom centered) even when material is presented sideways on the
page or when the page is folded. If normal margins are not maintained, the page number
may need to be moved slightly from its normal position.
Where possible, pages containing tables or figures should conform to the normal
margins (3.5 cm on the left-hand side and 2.5 cm at top, bottom and right hand side).
However, exceptions to this rule include the following:
1. Where tables and figures are spaced one per page, they should be placed in the
normal position with respect to the top of the page. Any blank space is left at the bottom
of the page.
2. Narrow tables should not be stretched to full width if readability or appearance
on the page is impaired as a result.
3. Broad tables or figures may exceed the normal margins but binding and
trimming need to be considered carefully.
Spacing and Alignment
Whereas the text of an assignment or thesis is normally double-spaced, this does
not necessarily apply to the typing of tables. Single or one and a half spacing may be
used. With columns of numbers, it is common to single-space and leave one double
space after every fifth or tenth row. The key consideration is ease of reference. Spacing
between columns in a table is governed by the same consideration - ease of reference.
Columns consisting of words are normally left-justified whereas columns of figures are
right-justified.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. What are the purposes of using tables/figures?
2. Complete the following statements:
a. Tables and figures should always be _______ and _____________ its first
mention in the _______ as closely as possible.
b. Numbering tables/figures is to permit easy _____________, which can be
consecutively either from _________ to __________ of a whole thesis or
within ________.
c. Every table/figure must have a _________, which is a brief summary of what it
represents, and usually in _________ form rather than a ___________.

41
 CHAPTER 8. USING INFORMATION FROM PRINT/ NON-
PRINT SOURCES

8.1. Quoting and Paraphrasing versus Plagiarism

Good scholars always acknowledge their indebtedness to others by appropriate
referencing. Care needs to be taken when quoting and paraphrasing to acknowledge the
work of other researchers appropriately.
When taking notes, paraphrases or summaries can be combined with verba-tim
quotes but always use quotation marks for direct quotes. It is too easy later to forget that
certain phrases belong to other writers and so be guilty of plagiarism. An author's ideas,
even if stated in other words, need to be acknowledged.
Plagiarism is generally defined as the deliberate incorporation in an essay or paper
of material from the work of another person without acknowledgment. The penalty for
plagiarizing is high: in some departments it results in a failure for the essay and
sometimes an automatic failure in a course. Yet a narrow line often separates plagiarism
from good scholarship. In scholarly writing, it is nearly always essential to refer to the
work of others. Since an essay, assignment or project is individual work, it is important to
document any indebtedness in the appropriate way.
A quotation from the paragraph above, for example, might be acknowledged in the
following way:
Anderson and Poole (l998, p. 16) state that "a narrow line often
separates plagiarism from good scholarship."
A paraphrase of the same idea, on the other hand, could be acknowledged as
follows:
A subtle distinction often exists between plagiarism and good
scholarship. Anderson and Poole (l998, p. 16)
Another form of plagiarism to guard against may arise in the context of the
relationship between the postgraduate student and the supervisor, where plagiarism may
include false or misleading claims of ownership of what is termed intellectual property.
During a research project, students receive guidance, criticism and suggest-ions
from supervisors. What students must avoid is inadvertently presenting any of a
supervisor's original material as their own. The supervisor, too, has a responsibility not to
contribute too much to a student's work, such as rewriting large sections: this can be a
temptation in that a supervisor's professional status is enhanced through their successful
students' achievements.
Likewise, students must take care to protect their own intellectual property. It
might seem unthinkable for supervisors to pass off theories, hypotheses and findings
arising from a student's work as their own but it does happen, although rarely. If any
question of joint authorship arises - and it is standard practice in some of the science
disciplines - it must be agreed upon by both student and supervisor. Further, it must not
infringe on the originality of the student's completed work.

42
 The above cases are difficult to regulate and monitor. Therefore, it is left to the
integrity and ethical' standards of both parties to ensure honest professional conduct.
8.2. The use of quotations
While examining the research literature, particularly when photocopying and
taking notes, the research student may copy extracts from sources verbatim with the
intention that these extracts may be incorporated into a final written report. Although in
the initial information gathering stage it is common to accumulate an abundance of
appropriate possible quotations from which to choose, it is essential when writing the
final report that quotations be selected judiciously and used sparingly. Over quoting can
often be equated with poorly integrated argumentation. The essential selection criterion
to follow is relevance whereas the basic mechanical consideration is length of quotation.
Long quotations are rarely justified and may cause readers to forget whose ideas they are
assessing.
The ability to cite the work of others appropriately is a major indicator of
scholarly writing. This chapter discusses when and what to quote, and it details
conventions to follow in quoting the work or ideas of others.
8.2.1. When to Quote
Although the final decision of when to quote depends on the problem being
investigated and on the judgment of the research student, certain guidelines may assist
the student in reaching a decision:
1. Direct quotations should be used only when the original words of the author are
expressed so concisely and convincingly that the student cannot improve on these words.
Then, the words in the quotation add force, even punch to the research paper or thesis.
2. Direct quotations may be used when the student wishes to comment upon, refute
or analyze ideas expressed by another writer.
3. Direct quotations may be used when changes, through paraphrasing, could
cause misunderstanding or misinterpretation, for instance in citing the words of the law,
in stating assumptions underlying a statistical procedure.
4. Direct quotations should be used when citing mathematical, scientific and other
formulae.
5. For unpublished material, it is not necessary to obtain permission to quote. If,
however, a thesis is to be published, certain copyright problems arise and it is normal
practice first to request the publisher' s and the author's permission.
8.2.2. What to Quote
Although there is some flexibility in deciding when to quote, more stringent
conventions apply to what is quoted:
1. The exact words of an author or the exact words from an official publication
must be quoted. Exact means using the same words, the same punctuation, the same
spelling, the same capitalization. Extreme care must be taken to reproduce quotations
exactly. Complete accuracy is essential.
2. If the tense of a quotation does not fit the context in which it is inserted, if a
non-specific pronoun is used for example, and on other occasions as necessary,
interpolations may be used in quoted material. However, every interpolation must be

43
enclosed in square brackets, not parentheses, to indicate that words in the original
document have been changed or that words have been added.
3. Where a quotation is very long, or where a student wants to use only selected
portions, it is permissible to omit sections of an original passage. This procedure is called
ellipsis. It should be used with extreme care so that the tone, meaning and intention of the
original extract are not altered. To indicate ellipsis, three spaced full stops are inserted.
8.2.3. How to Quote
The conventions adopted by different departments vary, but unless given specific
directions to the contrary, there are certain general procedures to follow when quoting.
Short Quote vs. Long Quote
The basic form of a quotation' is initially determined by its length.
Short Quotation (up to about three lines)
Where a quotation is short - there are no fixed rules but up to about three lines in
length - it is common to incorporate the quotation into a sentence or paragraph
framework without disrupting the flow of the text. Use double quotation marks at the
beginning and the end of the quotation and adopt the same spacing as the rest of the text
(that is, double or one and a half line spacing):
It is clear that society today depends heavily on computer-based
technologies and will continue increasingly to do so. As the
chairman of one of the world's major airlines noted, "by bits and
bytes the world has become computerized over the last fifty years".
It is possible to acknowledge the above quotation in several ways. One way is to
place a numbered superscript at the end of the quotation:
… "by bits and bytes the world has become computerized over the
last fifty years".1
The source of the quotation then is provided in a footnote. Note that there is no
spacing between the period and the footnote number.
A second way to acknowledge the quotation is to place a number in square
brackets following the quote and then to list the source in a list of references ordered by
cited number:
… "by bits and bytes the world has become computerized over the
last fifty years".[1]
A third, much more widely used and more direct method of acknowledging the
quotation is to use a citation in the text that points forward to a list of references:
… "by bits and bytes the world has become computerized over the
last fifty years" (Ferguson 1991, p. 67).
Readers then may refer to a list of references, ordered alphabetically at the end of
the work, for the source of the quotation. Note that the citation is enclosed in parentheses
followed by a period, thus linking the citation to the sentence where it belongs. There is
no punctuation between name and date and, where a page reference is given, a comma
follows the date. The abbreviation for page (p.) is used or, if the quotation extends over
two pages, the abbreviation for pages (pp.).

44
 Yet another way of acknowledging the quotation above, also part of the author-
date system, is to place the author's name in the text followed by the date (and page
number as appropriate) in parentheses:
As Ferguson (l991, p. 67), chairman of one of the world’s major
airlines noted, "by bits and bytes the world has become
computerized over the last fifty years”.
Where reference is to an author's work, but not to a specific page or volume, the
author's name is followed just by the date. The alteratives in the author-date system are:
(Ferguson 1991) or Ferguson (l991)
If there is more than one author, all are included in the citation:
(Ferguson and Clark 1991) or Ferguson and Clark (1991)
Because it is cumbersome to list all names with multiple authors, the usual
practice with four or more names is to use the abbreviation for and others (et al.):
(Ferguson et al. 1991) or Ferguson et al. (1991)
Sometimes reference is made to different works. The citation then becomes:
(Ferguson 1991; Clark 1991), (Ferguson 1991; Ferguson 1992), or
Ferguson (1991) and Clark (1991), Ferguson (1991, 1992)
If reference is to works by the same author published within the same year, the
different works are distinguished by the letters a, b, c... after the date:
(Ferguson 1991 a; Ferguson 1991 b)
On occasion, an author may not be stated. If the work is a book, the title of the
work takes the place of the author: if the work is a newspaper article, the newspaper
replaces the author:

Politics in Fiji (1992) is a ...

It was reported (Australian 8 June 1993. p. 24) ...
Long Quotation (usually four or more lines)
The author-date system of acknowledging quotations applies to long quotations as
it does to short quotations. Note, however, the following points:
Use no quotation marks at the beginning and end of a quotation.
Use single line spacing for the quotation and indent it (usually 1cm) from the left
margin.
Introduce the quotation appropriately.
A colon is often added to follow the words of introduction:

The reaction of parents to the experiment was interesting. For a start,

all wanted their children to be involved. The class teacher recorded
what happened when students took their laptop computers home:
It was interesting to hear the reactions of students when they
first took their units home. One of the biggest problems was

45
 finding time to do their homework because everyone wanted
to play with the computer. What started out as a curiosity has
been an added bonus, in that parents and families have
shown an interest in what their children are doing on the units
and have often become more directly involved in their child's
development as a writer. (Cooke 1986, p. 12)

Note that the author-date citation in parentheses follows the final full stop since
here it links to the entire quotation, not just the final sentence.
Ellipsis
To avoid long quotations that are not completely relevant or to extract
critical sections from a longer extract, it is possible to omit part of a quotation.

Many parents encourage a learning environment at home ... and

the advertisements of computer companies, often directed at
parents, boldly claim better opportunities and higher grades for
students who have their own computers. (Hancock 1997, pp. 44-45)

The omission of words is indicated by ellipsis (three full stops). Ellipses can occur
at any point within quoted text. If words are omitted at the end of a sentence, the modem
practice is to indicate ellipsis again by three full stops.

The specification of a simple computer programming language

consists in specifying three components: (a) a set of primitives ... (b)
a set of general flow charts; and (c) a computation process ... (Barr
1995, p. 7)
Interpolations
When it is considered necessary to insert an explanation or correction into a
quotation, the convention requires any such editorial change to be placed in square
brackets, never parentheses.
Sic
A common interpolation is the inclusion of sic after an error in a quotation. In this
way the research student indicates that what might be considered an error in reproducing
a quotation is an integral part of the original.
The theory of ferroelectric domains has not been worked out but the
theory of ferromagnetic domains is well understood. Although
modification to provide for charge neutralization and high
electromachanical [sic] coupling is required before it could be
applied to ferroelectrics. (Kautsky 1994, p. 26)
Here, the inclusion of sic indicates that the research student realises that
electromachanical is misspelt and should be electromechanical.

46
Comment
If a comment is necessary within a quotation to clarify a point, interpolation may
again be used:
Cobalt, an hexagonal crystal, exemplifies anisotropy energy. The
direction of the hexagonal axis is the direction of easy
magnetization [at room temperature], while all directions in the
basal plane, normal to the axis, are hard directions. (Robertson 1995,
p. 223)
The function of the interpolation here is to specify conditions of temperature and
to avoid inaccuracy or error in interpretation.
Supplying all Antecedent
When a non-specific pronoun occurs within a quotation, it is permissible to clarify
the issue by inserting the appropriate word or words in square brackets.

He [William Shakespeare] was undoubtedly the greatest dramatist

to date. No other dramatist has rivaled his ability to portray
characters with such liveliness and color. (Snewin 1996, p. 276)
Special Quotations
In a number of disciplines, special problems in quoting can arise. Some of these
are indicated below as a guide to developing a consistent pattern of quoting material.
Quote within Quotes
If a quotation occurs within a short extract being quoted, the usual procedure is to
enclose the whole quotation within double quotation marks and the internal quotation in
single quotation marks:
Hoggart (1983) has depicted vividly the stereotype attributed to the
upper-class by the lower-class in terms of "the ideas of the group,
'acting posh’, 'giving y'self airs', 'getting above y'self' ... "
If, however, the quotation is long, it is usual to indent the quotation in the normal
way without using quotation marks and to use double quotation marks for any internal
quotes:
In discussing equipment required by an Examinations Agency,
Keeves 0996, p. 54) notes that:
Desk-top publishing equipment is today so versatile, that skilled
staff can prepare "camera ready" copy relatively easily.
Moreover, facilities are now available for the drawing of high
quality and detailed diagrams using a desk-top computer,
provided the staff have the necessary skills.

47
Quoting Poetry
The method used to quote poetry depends on the length of the quotation: a short
quotation (a line or part of a line) is enclosed in double quotation marks and runs into the
text:

It is easy to feel the mystique of the songs of Ireland through the

sound of "thrush, linnet, stare, and wren".

If two lines are quoted, a slash (/) may be used to separate the lines:
Synge sensed the inevitability of death when he said, “There'll come
a season when you'll stretch/ Black boards to cover me”.
In longer poetry quotations, quotation marks are not needed: lines are single
spaced and indented. Between stanzas, there is a double space:
Something of this power can be felt in Synge's "A Question" where
he says:
I asked if I -got sick and died, would you
With my black funeral go walking too,
If you'd stand close to hear them talk or pray
While I'm let down in that steep bank of clay.

And, No, you said, for if you saw a crew

Of living idiots pressing round that new
Oak coffin - they alive, I dead beneath
That board - you'd rave arid rend them with your teeth.
Indirect Quotations or Paraphrases
To avoid excessively long quotations, it is sometimes necessary to para-phrase a
writer's words. The ideas are not enclosed in quotation marks but must still be
acknowledged. .
Patrick White was different from ordinary people, and this explains
how even his friends often felt inadequate in his company. They
could not respond to his needs and in that sense they failed him.
(Clark 1991, p. 12)
In some cases, where a paraphrase contains controversial viewpoints or the
starting point for a detailed analysis, a page reference may be included following the
author and date, in the same way that page numbers are given for direct quotes.
8.2.4. Acknowledge Sources and Quote Accurately
The use of quotations varies across disciplines. In Mathematics, for instance,
quotations are more sparingly used than in History. Between disciplines there also are
minor differences in conventions for quoting. Students need to be aware of practices in
the discipline within which they are writing.
The most important message from this chapter is the necessity to acknowledge
sources of information and quote accurately. For all disciplines, it is essential to refer to

48
the work of others, if only to indicate the context of a particular study. Reference may be
made by quoting excerpts from authors' writings (more common in some disciplines than
others) or by citing publications of researchers.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. What is meant by “Plagiarism”?
2. Name three possible ways to use information from the works of other researchers?
3. When should direct quotations be used?
4. In direct quoting, when and how to omit some sections from a long original
passage?
5. What does each of these underlined sections in the following example represent?
“by bits and bytes the world has become computerized over the last 50 years.”
(Ferguson 1991, p. 67)
6. How to quote extracts of 4 or more lines?

49
 CHAPTER 9. REFERENCING

Mention is made in previous chapters of the need to refer to the work of other
researchers in a field, to take notes carefully so that quotes are accurate, and to observe
the conventions for quotations and footnotes in the printed text. Chapter 8 describes how
to acknowledge sources within text, while this chapter contains details of methods of
referencing in bibliographies of assignments and theses. The author-date system, now
widely accepted across most (but not all) disciplines, is described, and examples are
given for a range of materials to which reference may be made.
9.1. Reference Systems
Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a list of published works, although by common
usage both published and unpublished materials are listed in a bibliography. There are
several different kinds of bibliography.
1. Works Cited comprises a list of sources that has been referred to in the text or
the footnotes of a paper.
2. Sources Consulted is a broader kind of bibliography and consists of a
comprehensive listing of works consulted, including those that are not quoted from,
referred to or strictly relevant to the subject of a particular paper.
3. A Selected Bibliography contains those sources cited, together with the more
relevant of the works that have been consulted.
4. A Brief Annotated Bibliography is a list of references, at least some of which are
followed by a note on the content and usefulness of the references.
The Works Cited is the most common form of bibliography, although the heading
Bibliography or References or List of References is normally substituted for Works Cited.
The term References is the most commonly used of these terms across different
disciplines and is the term used in this book. Whichever term is used, however, the
heading is placed, in the case of theses, at the top of a page using a similar format to
chapter headings. For assignments, the heading comes at the end of the paper, either
following immediately on or commencing a new page. For assignments and theses, each
page is numbered following on from the last page of the preceding section. The
references are usually placed immediately after the last chapter of a thesis.
Every book, article, thesis, document or manuscript that has been consulted and
cited should be included in the list of references. The references should follow a logical
arrangement in alphabetical order of author's surname.
There are no absolute rules on referencing. The method adopted is influenced by
the method of citation in the body of the assignment or thesis, the system of footnoting
employed, the practice of a particular field of study, and the requirements of the lecturer
setting the assignment or of the institution conferring the degree. The major aim always
should be to achieve clarity and consistency and, above all, accuracy in referencing.
Setting out and punctuation in references follow a different format from a
footnote. For example, in a footnote the author's name is given in the natural order of
initials or first names followed by the surname, but in a list of references the surname
precedes the initials of first names. The reason for differences in format lies in the
purpose of each system. The purpose of a footnote is to give the specific location of the
50
source of a statement (fact, idea, concept) made in the text, including the number of the
actual page on which the statement appears in the original source. Such a practice assists
the reader to verify the information readily. The purpose of a bibliographical entry in a
list of references, on the other hand, is to identify the whole work rather than a specific
part of it.
It would be cumbersome to repeat the general reference on each occasion that a
source is cited in a footnote. yet the full details of the source need to be included
somewhere in the assignment or thesis for readers to consult as required. This is
especially important with revised editions (in which case the number of the edition also
should be given), or where a work has been republished by another publisher.
Harvard and APA Systems
Two widely adopted forms of referencing, well established in the natural sciences
and quite widespread in the social sciences and education, are the Harvard and APA
(American Psychological Association) systems.
The Harvard system was developed at Harvard University in the 1930s; it was an
adaptation and simplification of referencing conventions in the Chicago Manual of Style,
first published by the University of Chicago Press in 1906. Characteristic of the Harvard
system is the use of author and date as the form of referring to sources in text with
authors' works listed alphabetically in a separate list of references.
The APA system is a variation of the author-date system presented by the
American Psychological Association as a guide to publication. This system also dates
from the 1930s and 1940s, and has been promoted through the APA's Publication
Manual,
Minor and subtle differences exist between the Harvard and APA systems and
writers often adopt a mixture of the two. Table 9.1 illustrates some of these differences.

Table 9.1. Differences between Harvard and APA systems of referencing

Harvard System APA System
Anderson, J and Poole, M (1998) Anderson, J., & Poole, M. (1998).
Assignment and Thesis Writing, 3rd ed, Assignment and thesis writing, (3rd ed.).
John Wiley and Sons, Brisbane. Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons.
no punctuation after initials or date full stops after initials and dates; for
multiple authors, comma separates authors
names joined by &
names joined by and book names in sentence case, journal
book and journal names in title case names in title case
period after title or edition colon after place
commas separate publishing elements of publication
edition with brackets and periods
edition without brackets or punctuation place of publication followed by publisher
publisher followed by place of publication
9.2. Essential Information
Three key kinds of references are to books (authored and edited), journal articles
and articles or chapters in edited books.

51
Book References
Essential information for each book reference has three components:
 name(s) and initials of author(s) together with date of publication
 book title (from a full page, not the spine) including edition if other than the first
 details concerning the imprint (publisher and place of publication). Each of these three
components is followed by a period. In a list of references, it is standard practice to use
initials of authors, rather than first names:

Baker, M., Robertson, F. and Sloan, J. 1993. The Role of

Immigration in the Australian Higher Education Market.
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Wilson, P. 1992. Trends and Issues in Australian Crime and Criminal
Justice. Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.
If a book is edited, the abbreviation ed. or eds is placed in parentheses following
the name of the author(s):
Wingrove, K. (ed.) 1990. Norman Lindsay on Art, Life and
Literature. University of Queensland Press, Brisbane.
Journal Article References
In the case of journal articles, the place of publication and the publisher are not
included since this information is usually well known, particularly for the more
important periodicals. However, the volume number, issue number if used, and the
inclusive page numbers for the article are given. The essential information, then, for
journal articles also has three components and, as for book references, each component is
followed by a full stop:
- name(s) and initials of author(s) together with date of periodical
- title of article
- title of periodical, volume /and or issue number and page numbers
Dyson, J. 1993. Shocking behaviour of young stars in Orion. Nature,
(363), 21-22.
If an issue number is available as well as a volume number, it is placed in
parentheses after the volume number:

Hart, G. 1990. Peer consultation in review. Australian Journal of

Advanced Nursing, 5 (4), 22-27.

Note that for journal articles. page-numbers are specified without accompanying
abbreviations (p. or pp.).
Articles or Chapters in Edited Works
Where reference is made to a chapter or article in an edited book, both the author
and title of the chapter or article, together with the editor and other details of the book,
are included in the one bibliographical entry. Essential information for such entries has
three components, each followed by a full stop:

52
- name(s) and initials of author(s) together with date of edited work
- title of chapter or article
- name(s) of editor(s), title of edited work. publisher and place of publication
Optionally, page numbers of a chapter or article are added after the title of the
edited work.
The third component is preceded by the word In which serves to link all its sub-
parts together:

Slee, R. 1991. Institutional approaches to discipline. In M. Lovegrove

and R. Lewis, (eds) Classroom Discipline, Longman Cheshire,
Melbourne.

Trabasso, T., Secco, T. and Van den Broek, P. 1984. Causal cohesion
and story coherence. In H. Mandl, N.L. Steinarid T. Trabasso
(eds) Learning and Comprehension of Text, Erlbaum, Hillsdale,
NJ.

Note that the initials of editors precede their names since this information is not
used to order reference entries alphabetically. The date cited in the list of references is the
date of the edited work (not necessarily the date of the original article) since the edited
work is listed as the source of information. Where a city may not be well known, place of
publication sometimes includes state (usually abbreviated) as well as city.
Abbreviations, Spacing and Capitalisation
Abbreviating periodical names is generally to be avoided since confusion may
result with little saving of space. Certain abbreviations listed in Table 9.2.are, however,
acceptable for additional information about publications.
The general rule for punctuation is to follow the abbreviated form with a full stop
if the final letter is not the same as the final letter of the full form.
Single-spaced entries for references, with double spacing between entries, give a
readable format. Names of authors stand out more clearly if references are entered using
what is called a hanging indent. That is indent the second and subsequent lines of each
entry about 0.5 em as illustrated in all the sample references in this chapter.
In a list of references, title case is used for book titles (that is, capitalize all key
words) and titles are italicized, or underlined where italics is unavailable. No italics or
underlining is used for unpublished works. If a reference comprises more than one
volume, the entry must state the total number of volumes comprising the reference:
Jessop, J. P. and Toelken, H.R. (eds) 1986. Flora of South Australia (4
vols). South Australian Government Printing Division,
Adelaide.
In the case of journal articles, the titles of journals are italicized and in title case.
Titles of journal articles are in sentence case (that is, capitalize only first word, proper
nouns and first word after a colon):

53
 Winne. P.R., Graham L. and Prock, L. 1993. A model of poor
readers’ text-based inferencing: Effects of explanatory
feedback. Reading Research Quarterly. 28 (l), 52-66.
Table 9.2. Abbreviations in referencing and their use
Abbreviated Form Full Form Use
ed. edition, edited, editor
eds editors for edited works
2nd ed. second edition
3rd ed. third edition
rev. ed. revised edition
p. page for newspaper but not
journal articles
pp. pages for newspaper but not
journal articles
Vol. Volume for volume number
vols volumes for number of
volumes
Alphabetical and Chronological Order
To locate references quickly in an alphabetically ordered list of references,
author's names always appear with initials following the name (though in all other cases
such as names of editors and translators. initials precede the name). The determination of
a strict alphabetical order can sometimes still be a problem. Note that Mc and Mac are
listed under M as though the prefix were spelled Mac, and surnames starting with St are
treated as though they were given in full, that is. Saint). The simple way to treat names
such as de Jong, D'Orsogna, Le Thomas is to order them alphabetically starting with the
first letter of the prefix. If in doubt, a telephone book or electoral role may be a helpful
guide.
In the case of compound surnames such as P.L. Ferguson-Smith, the name
becomes Ferguson-Smith. P.L. and is placed in alphabetical order beginning with the
initial letter of the first part of the surname. Initials help alphabetical ordering where
names are identical:
Farraday, N.
Ferguson, J.
Ferguson, W.S.
Ferguson-Smith, P.L.
Ferguson-Stuart, W.
Fordson, V.
Some authorities state that, where there is more than one author of a particular
publication, it is only necessary to reverse the surname and initials of the first (senior)
author of the reference. However, it is recommended that the order of the names of each
co-author be reversed because it is consistent with the general format of references to do
so.

54
 Ruby, A., Cashman, M. and Byrnes, M. 1992. Targets, competencies
and Australia's teachers. Unicorn, 18(1), 23-30.
Reversing the order of names and initials of all co-authors also assists the listing
of references in alphabetical order. Where several references by the same author are
listed, entries are ordered chronologically from oldest to most recent. Often entries need
to be ordered alphabetically within a chronological sequence, but in such cases any
works by a single author precede those works in which she or he is senior co-author:
Guthrie, J.T. 1981. Reading in New Zealand: Achievement and
volume. Reading Research Quarterly, 17 (1), 6-27.
Guthrie, J.T. and Greaney, V. 1991. Literacy acts. In R, Barr, M.L.
Kamil, P. Mosenthal, and P.D. Pearson (eds) Handbook of
Reading Research (Vol. 2, pp. 68-96), Longman, New York.

Guthrie, J.T., Schafer, W.D., and Hutchinson, S.R. 1991. Relations

of document literacy and prose literacy to occupational
and societal characteristics of young black and white
adults. Reading Research Quarterly, 26 (1), 30-48.

Guthrie, J.T. and Seifert, M. 1983. Profiles of reading activity in

a community. Journal of Reading, 26 (4), 498-508.
A procedure that is not recommended is the practice of starting an entry with a
solid line followed by a stop to indicate a second or subsequent work by the same author
as the preceding work. Such a practice requires readers to refer upwards until they find
the first entry giving the author's name in full. Little or no extra effort or cost is incurred
ill repeating the author's name for each reference by the same author. Such repetition
adds clarity to a list of references.
If there is more than one entry for the same author in anyone year, a lower case
letter (a, b, c) immediately after the date differentiates between references. The order is
given by the sequence in which the references are referred to in the text:
Shannon, P. 1990a. Joining the debate: Researchers and reading
education curriculum. In J. Zutell and S. McCormick (eds),
Literacy Theory and Research, National Reading Conference,
Chicago".
Shannon, P. 1990b. The Struggle to Continue: Progressive Reading
Instruction in the 20th Century United States, Heinemann,
Portsmouth, NH.
Shannon, P. 1990c. The struggle for control of literacy lessons.
Language Arts, 66, 625-634.
Some Special Cases
The next section presents a number of special cases. The examples serve as a
guide to referencing, format for translated works, works that are anonymous or where the

55
author writes under a pseudonym, publications where an association or institution is
author or where there is no author, proceedings or conferences, unpublished materials,
theses and newspaper articles.
Translation of Another Author's Work
The translator's name is placed in brackets following the title of the work:
Davalo, E. and Naim, P. 1991. Neural Networks (Translated by A.
Rawsthorne). Macmillan, Basingstoke.
Anonymous Publication
Works of anonymous authors are alphabetised under their titles. If the author of an
anonymous work is known, the name is placed in square brackets and entered in the
reference under that name:
Politics in Fiji. 1992. Current Affairs Bulletin. 69 (6), 30-31.
[Dorward, D.] 1992. Crisis in Somalia: A failure for the United Nations
and the new world order? Current Affairs Bulletin, 69 (6), 28-
29.
Square brackets are commonly used since the writer is providing this information.
Pseudonymous Publication
Pseudonymous works are listed under the pseudonym with the author's
name, where known, following in brackets:
Vine, B. [Rendell, R.] 1987. A Fatal Inversion.Penguin,
Harmondsworth.
Again, square brackets are used since the writer provides or adds this information.
Association or Institution as Author
Where an association or institution is author, the association/institution appears in
the author position. The initials of the institution may be added where such information
more readily identifies the institution:
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 1984. Classifications Manual for
Government Finance Statistics, Australia. Australian
Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Where the association/institution is both author and publisher, it is best to repeat
the information in author and publisher positions:
American Psychological Association 1994. Publication Manual of
the American Psychological Association (4th ed.). American
Psychological Association, Washington, DC.
No Author
Where there is no stated author, the title is placed in the author position:
Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (4th ed.) 1988.
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

56
Conference Papers and Proceedings of Conferences
Papers presented at conferences have author and date followed by title of
conference paper, name of conference, conference venue .and dates:
Blandy, R. 1993. The state of the Australian academic labor
market. Paper presented to Conference on Higher
Education and Immigration Issues, National Institute of Labor
Studies, Adelaide, June 28.
Where proceedings of conferences are published, referencing follows the practice
of an article in an edited work, with the association and venue for the conference
included in the reference:
Boissonnat, J. D. 1992. Some new directions in robot motion
planning. In van Leeuwen (ed.) Algorithms, Software,
Architecture: Information processing 92 (Vol. 1), North-Holtand,
Amsterdam, Proceedings of the IFIP 12th World Computer
Congress, Madrid, September 7-11.
Unpublished Materials
Titles of unpublished materials are not italicized or underlined and are in sentence
case:
McGaw, B. 1993. Improving education and training research.
Unpublished manuscript, Australian Council for Educational
Research, Melbourne.
Theses
Theses are not considered published materials. Therefore, titles are not italicised
or underlined and are in sentence case:
Birkeland, J. 1992. Planning for a sustainable society. Unpublished
doctoral thesis, University of Tasmania.
Koulouris, G. 1990. Measurement of low levels of 226Ra in
environmental waters using liquid scintillation counting.
Unpublished Masters thesis, Queensland University of
Technology.
Newspaper Articles
Newspaper or magazine articles are treated similarly to periodicals except that it
is normal to precede the page numbers with the abbreviation p, or pp. as appropriate:
Denholm, M. 1997, April 14. Report card on schools' job success. The
Advertiser, p. 1.
If an article continues to a non-consecutive page, all page numbers are indicated:

57
 Walker, J. 1993, June 8. States face showdown over Mabo legal
powers. The Australian, pp. 1-2, 11.
Where an article is in a section of a newspaper, page numbers may be preceded by
the name of the section rather than the abbreviation for pages:
O'Neill, H. 1997, April 12-13. Crackers, hackers and their million -
dollar backers. The Weekend Australian, Syte 1, 6.
Newspaper editorials and letters to the editor are distinguished from articles by
inserting [Editorial] or [Letter to the Editor] after the title of the editorial or letter
respectively:
Judicial debate is correct [Editorial]. 1997, April 15. The Australian, p.
14.

O'Leary, B. 1997, April 15. Gripe with grammar's latest fad [Letter to
the Editor]. The Australian, p. 14.
9.3. Non-print Sources
Increasingly, writers need to refer to non-print as well as to printed sources. The
final section of this chapter provides guidelines for referencing two main categories of
non-print sources: (a) electronic media sources, such as computer programs, CD-ROMs,
film and videotape, and (b) online information sources from the Internet and the World
Wide Web.
Electronic Media Sources
Reference entries for a computer program, machine-readable data file, CD-ROM,
film or videotape are identified by inserting in square brackets after the title a phrase
specifying the non-print medium:

Anderson, J. 1996. Text Detective [Computer program]. Dataworks,

Melbourne.

Libby, B. 1994. Australian Walkabout (CD - ROM]. Enville Holdings,

Sydney.
Online Sources
The basic principles and the purposes are the same: to acknowledge one's
indebtedness to others and to provide readers with sufficient information to locate the
original source.
Considered first are ways to reference works that are published in print form but
which are also available online. For such cases, the reference to the printed source is
given in the usual way (author, date and publishing details). The type of medium is then
indicated in square brackets, for example [Online], to indicate an Internet source. This is
followed by the availability of the source in the form of its Web address or URL. Finally,
it is suggested that the date when the material was accessed be included also, again in
square brackets.

58
 Anderson, J. 1997. Australian College of Education review: 1996 in
retrospect. Unicorn. Vol. 23, No.1, 3-13. [Online] Available:
http://wwwed.sturt. flinders. edu. au/Readings /Unicorn. html
[1997, August 4]
Petre, D. and Harrington, D. 1996. The Clever Country? Australia's
Digital future. Lansdowne and Macmillan, Sydney. [1997, June
24, Book's Web site at http://www.ozfuture.com.nf]
In the last example, the Web address does not contain the full text of the work but
rather a description of the main features and discussion of the work. Here, this
supplementary information is placed in square brackets for the information of readers, to
follow up if they wish.
Much information on the World Wide Web is available online only. Referencing
of such materials is like referencing unpublished work, with the addition of [Online] to
indicate the type of medium, followed by the Web address or URL where the work is
available.

Spender. D. 1996. Creativity and the computer education industry.

Paper presented to the International Federation for
Information Processing Conference. Canberra. September
1996. [Online]. Available:
http://www.acs.org.au/ifip96/dales.htrnl [1997. July 1]
.
ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES
Practice: Students are presented with a range of references and are to prepare a list of
the references. (Group-work)

59
 CHAPTER 10. COMPUTER TOOLS

10.1. Computer Tools for Writing

Students at all levels find that the computer not only makes them more productive
but is fast becoming indispensable for writing and research. Foremost among computer
software tools are word processors. Further useful text tools include spelling checkers,
thesauri and even programs to check grammar and analyze style. Available also are
publishing and printing tools, management and presentation tools. These, and other tools
for scanning, can help in different facets of assignment and thesis writing. Of course,
term papers and even theses will continue to be produced with the older technologies of
pen and typewriter, but newer computer-based technologies are making available exciting
planning and organizational tools. Students not familiar with these can handicap
themselves.
This chapter describes the range of writing and research tools ushered in by the
computer as well as how these can help with many aspects ofassignment and thesis
writing.
What transforms the desktop, laptop or notebook computer into a versatile writing
tool are application programs or software. One does not need to be a programmer to use
such programs although a familiarity with computers is helpful (loading programs and
saving documents, for example), as is knowing how a particular program works (for
instance. to centre headings or indent text). This section provides a brief introduction to
the most important text tool of all - word processors. There follows a brief note of other
writing aids such as spelling checkers, thesauri, grammar checkers and style analyzers.
Word Processors
A word processor is an application program that is acquired for running on a
particular computer. There are scores of word processors on the market, designed for
different kinds of computers and offering a variety of functions or features. A word
processor is like a typewriter in that it enables one to type and display text on a page.
However, because word processors work electronically rather than manually, text is
stored, which means it can subsequently be retrieved amended, added to, and arranged in
different ways before printing. Thus revision of writing becomes far less of a chore, even
enjoyable. Furthermore, lecturers and thesis supervisors can be presented with drafts that
are easy to read. Students, too, can work on printed copies, and many writers still prefer
to do their finer editing on paper. The added bonus is that much of the worry about losing
drafts is removed since back-up copies of all writing can be made easily on disk or paper.
Text is generally entered at a keyboard, though for some purposes text may be
scanned. Many writers soon become sufficiently familiar with computers to compose at
the keyboard, thus achieving enormous savings of time.
The word wrap feature of word processors allows one to concentrate on writing
without regard to length of line - if a word does not fit on a line within the margins set, it
automatically wraps around to the next line.
Other features common to most word processors allow one to position a cursor or
pointer within text to insert or delete portions, or to cut parts and copy these to other

60
sections (termed cut. copy. and paste). An undo function is useful to reverse an editing
function that was not intended or which had unexpected consequences.
Search and replace are other functions common to most word processors. The
search function allows particular text to be located (useful in a long document) while the
search and replace functions in combination allow text to be changed, perhaps for
consistency of spelling or form of citation.
A save function allows writing to be saved periodically. Some word pro-cessors
save automatically after given periods of time or a certain number of keystrokes; or the
user may be prompted to save regularly. The best advice for all computer users is to save
often and to make regular back-ups of all writing. Making a back-up involves saving
another copy on another disk or medium (and, sensibly. keeping the copy in a different
place from the original). Disks are not indestructible and accidents do happen. However,
saving is quick and should be done frequently.
. Other functions of word processors fall into the category of formatting or
arranging the appearance of text on a page, such as the use of boldface or italics.
Other fairly standard formatting functions include:
- setting of margins allowing the user to set left and right margins land so fix line
length) and to set top and bottom margins
- setting tabs so that pressing the tab key indents the cursor to predefined positions
- justification permitting fully justified text as in the paragraphs above where lines arc
extended to the right margin giving straight edges on the right and the left
- centering to centre a heading or line
- line spacing for specifying the printing of text as single spaced, space and a half, or
double spaced
- page numbering for automatic increments of page numbers through a document.
Other word processing features permit the use of various fonts (e.g. Times New
Roman, VnAvant, Calibri) and different point sizes (e.g. 12 point, 14 point, 18 point).
For some users, superscripts (e.g. 32°) and subscripts (e.g. H2S04) will be
important features. Important for others will be the facility to include statistical formulae
or mathematical equations in documents. For yet others, the use of footnotes or endnotes
will be essential features. Where running heads or footers are desired to print items such
as section or chapter titles at the top or bottom of pages, a program with a headers and
footers facility will be sought. For writing where tabular information is common, a tables
feature will be a valuable asset. Many other features (e.g. the use of glossaries, indexing,
compiling tables of contents, kerning. hyphenation, multiple columns, nested indents) are
included in larger, more professional (and usually more expensive) word processing
programs.
The purpose of this section is to highlight those aspects of assignment and thesis
writing where the use of a word processor takes - account of many of the routine tasks of
editing and formatting, allowing the writer then to focus on content.
Spelling Checkers
Spelling errors in written assignments or graduate theses mar the finished product
and suggest a degree of carelessness. This is unfortunate because some errors may be
typographic. Spelling errors can be difficult to when reading for meaning yet examiners
nearly always seem to find some.

61
 Help is at hand with spelling checkers, available sometimes as separate programs
used in conjunction with a word processor or as part of a word processor itself. Such
checkers work extremely fast, checking every word in a document against an in-built
dictionary often containing 80,000 words or more. Whenever a mismatch is found, it is.
Many spelling checkers may even include suggestions for correction. Some words may
be shown as rnismatches because they are technical words and not included in a
particular dictionary. Users often have the option here to create their own user
dictionaries to augment the in-built dictionary provided. In all cases, however, it is the
writer who must decide what action to take for each mismatch - ignoring it, for instance
in the case of technical words known to be correct, accepting one of the suggested
changes, or checking the spelling in a reputable dictionary like the Macquarie and then
making changes as necessary.
Thesauri
When looking for just the right word to place in a phrase or sentence, most writers
turn to a thesaurus such as that first produced by Roget in 1852. Thesauri are now
available on computer, either as separate programs or as add-on modules to word
processors. Look up the word separate, for instance, and one electronic thesaurus shows
three meanings: the adjective apart. and two verbs split and isolate (see Figure 5.)).
Synonyms for apart – the word highlighted, are given in the right column. To obtain
synonyms for isolate or split, simply point to the word (that is. click with a mouse), and a
list of synonyms is displayed in the right column. To find words opposite in meaning to
separate, click on Antonyms to see a further scrolling list.
Grammar Checkers
Writers also can check certain aspects of grammar and punctuation with grammar
checkers which, like spelling checkers and thesauri, come as separate programs or as part
of some word processors.
Style Analyzers
Closely related to grammar checkers are style analyzers that commonly check
documents for use of clichés, wordy expressions, imprecise use of language,
colloquialisms, non-standard expressions, and even words that may offend.
Style analyzers frequently include various counts and averages (number and length
of words, average sentence length, and so on) and may even provide estimates of the
overall reading difficulty of documents.
Some of these checks, counts and indexes will be more useful than others, or may
be more useful at certain stages of writing. All are designed essentially to signal to
authors what may be potential problems or tumbling blocks in writing,
Statistical Analysis
Complex statistical analysis of data, once accessible only on large mainframe
computers, now can be performed on personal computers.

62
Graphs and Charts
In the days before computers, students either made drawings themselves or, more
likely in the case of theses, had these professionally drawn. Today there are many
programs for producing book quality diagrams on personal computers easily and quickly.
The computer is an almost anything tool. Change the software and the computer is
transformed into a different tool. It is no exaggeration to say that the computer has had a
dramatic impact on the way that assignments and theses are written and produced, just as
it has impinged on so many other facets of daily life.
This chapter provides an overview of those software programs that can help in the
many tasks involved in writing assignments and theses. From a knowledge of what
programs are available in general terms and what different programs are designed to do,
students can judge what tools are most helpful for the kinds of writing demanded in
different fields. As with other aspects of scholarly writing, it is best to begin preparation
early.
10.2. The computer as an information tool
Indispensable as the computer is as a writing and publishing tool for assign-ments
or theses, it is becoming equally indispensable as a tool for accessing information. This
part describes the virtual library and its rich storehouse of electronic information
resources.
Electronic Information Resources
Today's modem university and college library has undergone a wonderful
transformation. Gone are the drawers of library cards recording details of all the library's
holdings. In their place are computer workstations where students and researchers can
rapidly check the availability of books and periodicals by author, title or call number.
Where there are several libraries on campus, users can determine where a particular work
is located, find out whether it is on the shelf or on loan, place a reservation on it if they
wish, and later even renew the period of loan. Furthermore, users can often do all of this
without even going to the library, by means of computers networked to the library's
cataloguing system. And browsing through an electronic catalogue can often bring to
light related works of high potential interest.
But the transformation of libraries goes far beyond the electronic catalogu-ing
system. Also available from computer workstations in the library, or by remote access if
you have a computer network connection to the library, are links to vast electronic
information resources. Reference and subject librarians will happily show you what can
be accessed from your particular library. This part provides just a taste of the rich
information store available at your fingertips.
Online Literature Searches
Online literature searches of databases arc called online since users connect to
remote databases to access machine-readable information stored on large computers
frequently located interstate or overseas using a personal computer, modem and
telephone line. Online searching is a convenient means of gaining access to vast
storehouses of information. The information is available virtually instantly and may be
downloaded to the user's computer.

63
CD-ROM Databases
CD-ROM changed the way computers are used to store and retrieve inform-ation.
Optical discs, similar to audio compact discs or CDs, hold staggering amounts of
information that can be read by a personal computer. The information can only be read,
not amended or added to, and hence the term read only memories or ROMs. Because of
their vast storage capacity, CD-ROMs' became the preferred medium for many
information services. Libraries prefer them because there are no online telephone
charges. For users, they are powerful research tools since the researcher interacts directly
with the information base. On top of all of this, CD-ROMs can contain sound, pictures
and animation in addition to text.
The Internet and the World Wide Web
With the Internet and the World Wide Web, researchers, students and indivi-duals
in the community now have at their fingertips the resources of a worldwide storehouse of
information, vastly more comprehensive than that contained in any single library or
museum, and in many ways easier to locate. All this information may be viewed or
downloaded to a computer university or home. Through the Web or with specialist
software, users may also send messages electronically (email) to colleagues or fellow
students almost anywhere in the world. Distance ceases to be a barrier.
Cautions with Web Materials
What is the downside of what seems like the utopian development of the Internet
and the World Wide Web? First, the Web contains an immense amount of trivia, much
information is transient, and some is biased or inaccurate. To this, others might add that
much is offensive, obscene and positively dangerous information. Of course, the print
media are not always free from similar criticisms, but printed sources usually undergo
more stringent refereeing processes than currently does most information appearing on
the Web. On the Web many can become publishers. What becomes crucially important
then for researchers and students is to evaluate critically all information, whether this
comes from electronic or non-electronic data sources.
A second difficulty about online information sources like Web pages is how to cite
these in assignments and theses. A third potential danger about Web materials, associated
with referencing, is the critical need to acknowledge sources. The situation is no different
from the need to acknowledge sources in journals and books, but with the ease of
downloading material from the Internet and the facility of word processors to copy and
paste, it becomes even more important to note all words that are not your own and to
record the source of all quotations. The facility of word and text processors to find words
or phrases in electronic materials makes it in some ways easier to detect instances of
suspected plagiarism.
Yet a further problem, or frustration, is that at times the Internet is slow; at times it
seems unreliable in that a hypertext link that you want to follow shows an error message
(Web addresses do change and if you enter an address it must be entered exactly and
without any spaces); and at times servers or the computers holding the information you
want to see are not operational (possibly because of maintenance or perhaps because the
site is too busy to handle another request at that moment). It is useful to know about these
problems and to take into account that the Internet is still very much evolving.

64
 No longer are students and researchers bound by their locally based libraries. With
appropriate technology and access to the Internet, students completing assignments and
theses can search for and retrieve electronic information across institutions and across
worldwide networks. The computer becomes an indispens-able research tool.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

IN YOUR OWN WORDS, write a summary (400-500) on the benefits of the
computer in doing a scientific research. (Group-work)

65
 CHAPTER 11. REVISING THE FINAL PRODUCT

This chapter describes procedures for editing, evaluating and proofreading

assignments and theses. A series of check lists is presented that are useful not only for
the final stage of writing before submission but also for the initial stages when
determining a consistent format.
11.1. Editing the Final Draft
Before the final draft of an assignment, or thesis is printed, it should be carefully
edited. It is the writer's responsibility to ensure that the text is free from spelling and
grammatical errors. The spelling of unusual words should be checked in an authoritative
dictionary. For questions of punctuation, capitalization, hyphenation and abbreviations
reference should be made to a recognized text of English language usage.
Word processors make light work of much of the careful checking necessary in
the final draft of a paper. A spelling checker will detect most (but not all) spelling and
typographical errors while the find and replace facility helps to achieve consistency as,
for example, in replacing all –iz- spelling by -is- or ensuring that words like program are
spelled consistently throughout a document. But a word processor is even more useful
for adventurous editing of the kind where the order of phrases in sentences is altered
perhaps to provide increased emphasis, or where the order of sentences within a
paragraph, or paragraphs themselves, are interchanged to achieve greater clarity.
With a word processor, too, it is relatively straightforward to locate every author
whose work has been cited and index these, or perhaps copy and paste to another file to
form the basis of a list of references. Similarly, one can locate every table and figure in
turn, copy the captions, and so ensure that the List of Tables and of Figures in the
contents pages correspond with what appears in the text. Some word processors contain a
feature for compiling a table of contents showing headings and levels of headings in a
document, all with corresponding page numbers.
It is useful in revising and editing the final draft to carry out a number of
systematic checks on such points as the use of headings and subheadings, quotations,
footnotes, tables and figures, references and appendixes. The following check lists may
prove useful in making these checks.
11.1.1. Check List for General Format
1. Is the paper or thesis divided clearly into preliminaries, text and reference material?
2. Are the preliminaries
- in the correct sequence
- in the correct format
- numbered in small roman numerals?
3. Does the title page indicate
- title of the paper
- name of the author
- name of the course, department; and faculty (where necessary)
- name of the institution to which the paper is being submitted
- date of submission

66
- degree for which thesis is submitted?
4. Does the table of contents contain
- an abstract or summary as appropriate
- acknowledgments
- list of tables
- list of figures
- bibliography or references
- appendixes?
5. Is the main text
- carefully organised with subheadings matching the headings in the table of contents
- properly sequenced with chapter headings matching those in the table of contents
- structured with a carefully designed introduction and conclusion?
- Is the reference material
- subdivided (where necessary) in the bibliography
- given a title (where necessary)?
11.1.2. Check List for Headings and Subheadings
1. Are headings and subheadings formatted consistently throughout the assignment or
thesis?
2. Are chapter designations and numbers
- consistently spaced from the top of the page
- consistently formatted as level 1 headings
- numbered with arabic numerals?
3. Are chapter titles
- consistently formatted as level 1headings
- double spaced below chapter designation and number
- three single spaces above the next heading or first line of text?
4. Are centred headings (if used)
- separated from the text above and below by three single spaces
- in lower case except for the first letter of the first word and of all key words
- at least two to a chapter?
5. Are all side headings
- flush with left-hand margin
- consistently formatted according to number of levels of headings
- in caption form and without periods?
11.1.3. Check List for Quotations
1. Have quotations been assessed for
- relevance
- forceful expression
- validating an argument
- providing a basis for discussion or critical analysis?
2. Have extracts copied verbatim been checked for accuracy in
- spelling
- punctuation
- capitalisation
- word order?

67
3. Where an extract is modified, is this shown by
- interpolation and the use of square brackets
- ellipsis?
4. Are long quotations
- single spaced and indented
- appropriately introduced?
5. Is each quotation accurately referenced?
11.1.4. Check List for Tables
1. Is the table warranted?
2. Have the data been checked?
3. Is the table positioned close to but following its mention in the text?
4. Is the table appropriately included in the text or JI1 appendix?
5. Are tables numbered consecutively?
6. Are sufficient details given to interpret the table?
7. Is the table number and caption above the table?
8. Does the table caption detail the table contents sufficiently?
9. Does the wording of the caption correspond to that given in the list of Tables?
10. Is a consistent format used for all tables?
11. Is the wording for the stub box head and field (boxheads) contained in the table
caption'?
12. Are units of measurement stated?
13. Are abbreviations explained in the table?
14.Could the table be presented more simply?
15. Are column entries correctly aligned?
16. Is footnote usage consistent?
11.1.5. Check List for Figures
1. Does the figure contribute to the presentation?
2. Has the accuracy of the figure been checked?
3. Is the figure positioned close to but following its mention in the text?
4. Are figures numbered consecutively?
5. Is the figure self-explanatory?
6. Is the figure number and caption below the figure?
7. Does the figure caption detail the contents of the figure sufficiently?
8. Does the wording of the caption correspond to that given in the List of Figures?
9. Are vertical and horizontal axes of graphs labelled?
10. Is the zero position on the vertical axis of graphs shown?
11. Are the units of measurement indicated and clearly shown on axes?
12. Are the separate observations comprising any graph marked?
13. Are all components of the figure clearly labelled?
14. Are all abbreviations explained in the figure?
15. Does the arrangement of the figure proceed from left to right?
16. Are the numerical data from which the figure was drawn given (not necessarily with
figure)?
17. Can the figure be easily read?
18. Is the figure correctly positioned on the page?
68
19. Is the page number shown?
11.1.6. Check List for Referencing
1. Is the heading .
- formatted and positioned appropriately
- without punctuation?
2. Has each page of the references been numbered?
3. Has every work cited been included in the list of references?
4. Have the rules for alphabetical and chronological ordering of references been
consistently followed?
5. Have institutional requirements for referencing format been met?
6. Does each book reference include
- author(s)
- date of publication
- title of book (from title page)
- publisher
- place of publication?
7. Does each periodical reference include
- author(s)
- date of publication
- title of article
- name of journal
- volume number (and, if available, issue number)
- inclusive page numbers?
8. Do references to non-print sources include the type of medium enclosed in square
brackets following the title?
9. Do references to online sources include URLs, carefully checked and without spaces?
10. Have the rules for spacing, sequencing, capitalisation and use of italics been
consistently followed?
11. Is the list of references correctly placed?
11.1.7. Check List for Appendixes
1. Is the body of the thesis unnecessarily cluttered?
2. What material in the text, if any, might better be placed in an appendix?
3. Is the argument weakened by appending material which should be included in the
text?
4. Is the appendix warranted?
5. Is the appendix referred to in the text?
6. Is reference to the appendix made at the earliest point in the thesis where the material
appended is relevant to the discussion?
7. Is subsequent reference to the appendix desirable?
8. Have any raw data collected in the study been appended?
9. Have copies of data-gathering instruments, and of covering and follow-up letters been
appended?
10. Are technical notes and explanations of experimental procedures appended
11. Has the accuracy of the appendix been checked?
12. Are sufficient details given to interpret the appendix?

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13. Can the appendix be easily read?
14. Does each appendix start a new page?
15. Are appendixes lettered consecutively?
16. Does the title of the appendix correspond to that listed in the Table of Contents?
17. Is the title of the appendix correctly positioned without punctuation?
18. Is the appendix correctly placed?
19. Has each page in the appendix been given a number'?
11.2. Evaluating the Final Draft
Throughout the revising and rewriting of the several drafts of an assignment, or
thesis it is necessary to examine the work critically, to be detached, and to see it as
others might see it. Experienced writers commonly report how valuable it is to leave a
period of time to intervene between the penultimate and the final draft. The passing of
time helps to separate writers from their work. This serves to give that feeling of
detachment that is so necessary to assess critically the expression and organisation of
one's ideas.
Writers also need to evaluate their writing against the recognized canons of
research. The following two check lists may prove useful in providing criteria for
evaluating research reports. The first is more suited to the empirical/experimental study,
and the second to the analytical/literary study. Not all the criteria will be applicable to
every study but the check lists may be adapted to meet particular needs.

Check List for Evaluating Empirical /Experimental Research Studies

Problem
1. Is the problem clearly stated?
2. Is the problem significant - will the results contribute to the solution of some practical
or theoretical problem?
3. Are the hypotheses clearly stated?
4. Are the hypotheses logically deduced from some theory or problem?
5. Is the relationship to previous research made clear?
Design
6. Are the assumptions of the study clearly stated?
7. Is the research design free of weaknesses?
8. Are important terms in the study defined?
9. Is the research design fully described?
10. Is the research design appropriate?
11. Are the population and sample described?
12. Is the method of sampling appropriate?
13. Are the controls described and appropriate?

Procedure
14. Are the data-gathering methods described?
15. Are the data-gathering methods appropriate?
16. Are the data-gathering methods properly used?
17. Are the validity and reliability of the evidence established?

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Analysis
18. Are the methods of analysis appropriate and are they properly applied?
19. Are the results of the analysis clearly presented?
Conclusions
20. Are the conclusions clearly stated?
21. Are the conclusions substantiated by the evidence presented?
22. Are the generalisations confined to the population from which the sample was drawn?
23. Is the report logically organized and clearly written?
24. Is the tone of the report impartial and scientific?

Check List for Evaluating Analytical/Literary Research Studies

Objectives
1. Are the purposes of the study stated clearly?
2. Does the study make a contribution to existing knowledge?
3. Is the background to the study clearly described?
4. Have previous studies in the field relevant to the thesis been evaluated?
Procedures
5. Are the underlying assumptions clearly stated?
6. Are the limitations to the study stated?
7. Are important terms in the study defined?
8. Are the methods for locating source materials described?
9. Have the appropriate source materials been selected?
10. Has the quality of the source materials been assessed?
11. Are the source materials clearly documented?
12. Has the reliability of the evidence been established?
Analysis
13. Are all pertinent facts included in the analysis?
14. Have the source materials been critically evaluated?
15.Is the logic of the argument sound?
16. Is the interpretation of findings clear?
Conclusions
17. Are the findings clearly stated?
I S. Arc the conclusions substantiated by the evidence presented?
19. Is the report logically organized?
20. Is the report clearly written?
11.3. Proofreading the Final Printed Copy
After an assignment or thesis has been printed for what, hopefully, is the last time,
it is still necessary to carry out a few final checks. First, proofread each page carefully.
Spelling checkers do not detect all errors. Errors in the spellings of names will obviously
not be indicated. A special check should be made next of the correct syllabic division of
words at the end of lines if words have been divided between lines. Fortunately, with a
word processor it is quick to reprint a page, without the need for extensive retyping.

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 Special symbols not available on a particular word processor or printer may need
to be inserted in a document. Such insertions should be in india ink. It is important to
check one last time that the page numbers in the Table of Contents. List of Tables and
List of Figures correspond exactly with headings, tables and figures in the text. Finally,
before binding or attaching the pages together in some way, a check should be made that
pages are in correct sequence.

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 REFERENCES

1. Anderson, J. and Poole, M. 1998. Assignment and Thesis Writing. Sydney:

Jacaranda Wiley Ltd.
2. Coffey, A. and Atkinson, P. 1996. Making Sense of Qualitative Data. London:
Sage Publcations, Inc.
3. Fogiel. M. 1996. REA’s Quick and Easy Guide to Writing Your A+ Research
Paper. New Jersey: Research and Education Association.
4. Gillham, B. 200. The Research Interview. London: Continuum.
5. Gillham, B. 2000. Developing a Questionnaire. London: Continuum.
6. Hacker, D. 1998. Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age. USA: St.
Martin’s Press, Inc.
7. Hart, C. 1998. Doing a Literature Review – Releasing the Social Science Research
Imagination. London: Sage Publications, Inc.
8. Kirszner, L. G. and Mandell, S. R. 1998. Patterns for College Writing – A
Rhetorical Reader and Guide. New York: St, Martin’s Press.
9. Nunan, D. 1992. Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
10. Seliger, H. W. and Shohamy, E. 1989. Second Language Research Methods.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
11. Stake, R. E. 1995. The Art of Case Study. Sage Publications, Inc.
12. Turabian, K. L. 1976. Student’s Guide for Writing College Papers. London: The
University of Chicago Press.
13. Veit, R., Gould, C., and Clifford, J. 2001. Writing, Reading, and Researching.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
14. Nguyễn Thiện Giáp. (2009). Các phương pháp nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ. Nxb Giáo
dục.

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