Troilus and Criseyde by Geoffrey Chaucer

Overview
Troilus and Criseyde, tragic verse romance by Geoffrey Chaucer, composed in the 1380s and
considered by some critics to be his finest work. The plot of this 8,239-line poem was taken
largely from Giovanni Boccaccio’s Il filostrato. It recounts the love story of Troilus, son of the
Trojan king Priam, and Criseyde, widowed daughter of the deserter priest Calchas.
The poem moves in leisurely fashion, with introspection and much of what would now be called
psychological insight dominating many sections. Aided by Criseyde’s uncle Pandarus, Troilus
and Criseyde are united in love about halfway through the poem, but then she is sent to join her
father in the Greek camp outside Troy. Despite her promise to return, she is loved by the Greek
warrior Diomedes and comes to love him. Troilus, left in despair, is killed in the Trojan War.
These events are interspersed with Boethian discussion of free will and determinism and the
direct comments of the narrator. At the end of the poem, when Troilus’s soul rises into the
heavens, the folly of complete immersion in sexual love is contrasted with the eternal love of
God.
Characters
Troilus
Troilus is the protagonist, and half of the titular couple. He is a Trojan prince, warrior, and son of
King Priam. In the beginning of the story, we see Troilus as being quite naïve in matters of love,
even mocking his knights when they develop feelings for women. As a result, he is struck by
Cupid and falls instantly in love with Criseyde. From here, he becomes single-mindedly focused
on winning her over as his lady. Troilus' inexplicable love for Criseyde transforms and humbles
him, influencing him to become a more chivalrous, honorable, and mature man who realizes the
true value of love as a divine force.
Yet for all of his virtues, Troilus struggles with extreme emotions and lovesickness throughout
the story. He becomes almost addicted to Criseyde and relentlessly pushes the relationship
forward to the point of being somewhat forceful and manipulative, not able to take no for an
answer. When fortune is in his favor, Troilus is blissful; when bad luck strikes, he curses his
existence. This instability is eventually what ruins the soldier, causing him to spiral into
desolation after being betrayed by Criseyde. Ultimately it is left up to the reader to decide if
Troilus is a hero or fool; if his actions are motivated by true love or utter madness.
Criseyde
Criseyde is a beautiful young woman in Troy and the daughter of the traitor, Calchas. Criseyde is
Troilus’ lover but her character is much more complex than this role alone. She is initially
reluctant to embark on the relationship with Troilus, and intelligently considers the effects an
affair will have on the freedom she currently has as a widow. Yet slowly she opens her heart to
Troilus and begins to admire his noble qualities. In Book 3 it seems especially as if she is equally
smitten as her partner. Yet when the two are forcibly separated, Criseyde cannot live up to the
vows of union she made.

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Criseyde may easily be criticized for her betrayal of Troilus in Book 5, but Chaucer is careful to
not paint her as all evil or heartless. Rather we are shown the complexity of Criseyde's situation
and even encouraged by the narrator to have empathy for her. On one hand, Criseyde undergoes
much grief and struggle as she chooses Diomede over Troilus. On the other hand, we are shown
that she is not always honest and does somewhat manipulate Troilus, such as when she falsely
suggests that it is he, not she, who has been unfaithful to her. Moral impeccability she may not
have, but as a woman in Ancient Greece we are made to sympathize with her desire for safety
and good standing over uniting with Troilus.
Pandarus
Pandarus is Criseyde’s uncle, and the only male presence in the young maiden's life. He is also
Troilus’ loyal friend, confidante, and advisor. He has been previously described as a "secondary"
narrator, prompting plot points to occur and pushing characters into action. He orchestrates
almost all of Troilus and Criseyde’s love affair, from manipulating Criseyde into agreeing to
meet Troilus, to physically pushing the two lovers into bed together. Pandarus is nearly as
invested in the relationship as Troilus, even telling Criseyde he will kill himself if she doesn't
accept Troilus' advances.
When Criseyde and Troilus are separated, Pandarus acts as a counselor and often soothes Troilus
in his bouts of sorrow and uncertainty. In his attempts at comforting his friend, Pandarus
sometimes distorts the truth—not only to alleviate Troilus' suffering but also to avoid any
potential blame for Troilus' heartbreak, as he has been the architect of the entire relationship. For
example, Pandarus denies the obvious meaning of Troilus' boar dream, not wanting to
acknowledge that Criseyde has, in fact, been unfaithful.
Diomede
Diomede is a Greek soldier that offers his friendship and protection as soon as he meets
Criseyde. Diomede is described as a brute, assertive, and masculine warrior. Not long after
Criseyde's arrival at the Greek camp, Diomede begins to woo the lady and convince her of his
qualifications as a partner. It can be interpreted that Diomede is not truly in love with Criseyde
but desires her out of a sense of dominance and competition; while bragging of his virtues, he
repeatedly tells her that Greek men are better than Trojans. Troilus is enraged when he discovers
Diomede is Criseyde's new lover, and later spars with him on the battlefield.
The Narrator
The narrator is somewhere between a character and the author of the story, Geoffrey Chaucer.
He is present at the start of each book in the proems to the gods and regularly interjects his
viewpoint. He especially makes himself known in the pivotal moments of the plot, such as when
the couple finally unites and when Criseyde betrays Troilus. He is sympathetic to Criseyde
despite her infidelity and encourages the reader to forgive her. At the start of the first book, the
narrator proclaims himself unworthy of love. Otherwise, we know little of the narrator's
character.

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Calchas
Calchas is Criseyde’s father and a soothsayer. Early in Book 1, he predicts that Troy will fall to
the Greeks and deserts the Trojans for the Greek camp, thus becoming a traitor. This leaves
Criseyde vulnerable and alone in Troy, where she is looked after by Pandarus. Calchas is also the
one who orchestrates the exchange of Antenor for Criseyde. Although a minor character, his
actions spark the separation of the lovers and Criseyde's eventual betrayal of Troilus.
Hector
Hector is the brother of Troilus and Paris, and a son of Priam, the Trojan king. Criseyde initially
appeals to him for protection, and he comes to her aid. He later dies in battle during the
destruction of Troy.
Deiphebus
Deiphebus is Troilus’ older brother and the character who arranges for Troilus and Criseyde to
meet for the first time at his house.
Antenor
Antenor is a Trojan lord captured by the Greeks. He becomes relevant when Calchas arranges for
Antenor to be exchanged for Criseyde, meaning Criseyde must leave Troy.
King Priam
He is the King of the Trojan state and the father of Troilus. Much to his son's lament, he
approves of sending Criseyde to the Greek side.
Cassandra
Cassandra is Troilus' sister who correctly interprets his dream of the boar as an indication of
Criseyde's betrayal.
Troilus and Criseyde Summary and Analysis of Book 1
Summary
The first book opens with the narrator telling us how he aims to impart the tragic story of
Troilus, who is the son of King Priam of Troy. Addressing the reader directly, the narrator asks
us to remember our own sadness and adversity in order to empathize with Troilus and for all
others who are “in despair in love and will never recover.” He also asks us to pray for those in
contentment to continue to be happy. He brings us to the setting of the story: the Greek invasion
of Troy. There is a lord there named Calchas who foresees the destruction of Troy. As a result,
he flees Troy and allies himself with the Greeks, thus becoming a traitor.
Calchas leaves behind a beautiful daughter named Criseyde, and she suffers greatly from this
situation. She begs forgiveness of her father from Hector, the brother of Troilus. Time passes and
there continues to be war between the Greeks and Trojans. Even in destruction, the Trojans
continue honoring their gods, especially at the Palladium, where there occurs many ceremonies.
Criseyde attends these, dressed in black. At the Palladium, the prince Troilus walks around with
his men, discouraging his knights from developing any love for the ladies there. Here, the
narrator notes that Troilus’ arrogance is observed by the God of Love and will lead to his later
downfall. According to the narrator, all men are bound to Love, which is a law of nature.

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At the Palladium, Troilus spots Criseyde and is instantly enamored with her. He feels so
overwhelmed by his sudden love, he leaves the temple, feeling ashamed to have taunted the
“devotees” of love. At home, he dwells on what happened. He realizes he must now pursue
Criseyde and the art of love. The narrator then reveals Troilus’ song that he writes for Criseyde,
where he questions God and the nature of love. The “fire of love” continues to torture Troilus, as
he continually obsesses over Criseyde.
This burning passion motivates Troilus to act very fiercely in battle with the Greeks, secretly
wanting to please Criseyde. Eventually he becomes unable to sleep or eat. He worries that
Criseyde loves someone else and will never pay attention to him. His unhappiness becomes
unbearable. One day his friend Pandarus—who is also the uncle of Criseyde—visits him and
observes Troilus’ wailing. He questions the cause of such distress. Troilus tries to hide his
sorrows and Pandarus pushes him further to share. Finally, Troilus reveals how love is breaking
his heart and making him miserable.
Pandarus lectures Troilus, telling him that he should listen despite the fact that Pandarus doesn’t
seem like someone who is wise on matters of love. Pandarus states that his own hardships in love
make him well-qualified to advise Troilus. He vows to help Troilus and be a trustworthy friend.
He emphasizes how it is important for friends to share honestly with each other. This, according
to Pandarus, will make Troilus less unhappy.
Following this speech, Troilus says nothing and remains very still. Pandarus yells at his friend to
“wake up.” Troilus tells him to be quiet and stop shouting. Troilus says there is nothing Pandarus
can do, as he is too wretched of a creature to win over Criseyde. Pandarus responds that he
shouldn’t give up hope, and that he doesn’t have to be so unreasonable as to end his own life.
Troilus realizes his friend is right and that he would not gain anything by killing himself except
committing a sin.
Troilus blames the goddess Fortune for his troubles, calling her his “enemy.” Pandarus tells him
not to blame the goddess. He demands to know the name of Troilus’ love. When he reveals that
it is Criseyde, Pandarus is happy to hear this, as he knows Criseyde has a good heart and many
virtues. Pandarus is also elated that Troilus has surrendered to love and is finally able to see his
own foolishness in attacking it. Pandarus agrees to do everything he can to help Troilus unite
with Criseyde, for which Troilus is very grateful. From then on, Troilus becomes a much more
agreeable and pleasant person and his cruelty transforms into virtue.
Analysis
In the first pages of Troilus and Criseyde, we are introduced not to the protagonists but to the
narrator himself as a character, a prominent aspect of Chaucer’s storytelling. The narrator
introduces the story of the lovers by identifying himself as being loyal to the truth and calling
himself a “servant of the servant of the God of Love.” In this way, he aims to qualify himself as
an adequate narrator, who has compassion for his subject matter. He also asks the readers to feel
a similar empathy for the plight of Troilus and Criseyde. With this gesture, the reader is also
made to feel like an active participant in the story rather than just a passive observer.

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We then meet the main characters, Troilus and Criseyde, in the midst of intense circumstances.
Criseyde has recently lost her father after he commits treason and now she moves around the city
in constant grief. When we first encounter Troilus, we are immediately shown his tragic flaw:
pride and mockery of love. The narrator is sure to emphasize the irony of Troilus falling madly
in love right after taunting his knights for gazing affectionately at ladies in the Palladium. From
this humbling moment onward, Troilus is forever changed, as he begins to question not only how
to deal with his lovesickness but also why God has struck him in this unexpected way.
For the narrator, and Chaucer who speaks through him, love is not merely the mundane affection
between two people but a sort of universal force in itself, reflected in the way it is often
capitalized as a proper noun. As his good friend Pandarus points out, Troilus has long “attacked
Love scornfully” and regarded those who are in love as fools. By going against this fundamental
law of nature, Troilus has been dished a sort of karmic retribution by the gods, where he is made
to intimately understand love in both the bliss and utter devastation it provokes.
Within the first book, we already see how despite Troilus’ bouts of misery, he altogether benefits
from the presence of love in his life. We are told that he now is able to become a stronger and
fiercer warrior. He also is a much more kind person, whereas once he was known to be cold and
cruel. Love has humbled Troilus by showing him that he, as a mere mortal, has no means of
resisting this cosmic force when it is his turn. It is only the softness and beauty of a woman
which is able to take the brute force of a knight down a notch.
The reader will certainly note that Chaucer makes prominent use of metaphorical language. It is
especially obvious in the passionate conversation between Troilus and his friend Pandarus,
where the men speak poetically as a way to convey the emotional potency they are feeling. For
instance, at the sight of Troilus’ despondency and refusal to open up about his feelings, Pandarus
bluntly tells him that “whoever wants to be healed by his doctor must first uncover his wound.”
These sort of metaphors not only heighten the drama of the scene but also serve to more
accurately illustrate the point the character is trying to make.
These pages are also populated with many historical references and allusions that can become
confusing if we are not well-versed in ancient Greek history and myth. A good knowledge of the
invasion of Troy, Queen Niobe, or Tityus in hell may not be necessary for understanding the
overall plot, but reading the clarifications provided by the footnotes may help enrich our ability
to relate with the characters and their dialogue.
Troilus and Criseyde Summary and Analysis of Book 2
Summary
Book 2 begins with a “proem,” or preface where the narrator asks the reader to not get hung up
on the language and attitudes of the characters in the story, as they are reflective of that time
period. The story of the second book starts in May. We meet Pandarus, who has recently
experienced his own bad luck in love, on his way to the palace of Criseyde. There he informs
Criseyde about Hector and Troilus and their success in battle. He praises Troilus’ virtues, and
keeps telling Criseyde that she is very lucky, but he will not reveal why, annoying Criseyde.

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Finally Pandarus tells his niece about Troilus’ love for her. He begs her to consider him and be
more friendly towards him, not worrying what other people might think. Criseyde ponders this
and asks what she should do; Pandarus replies that she should try to love Troilus and be grateful
that he loves her. Pandarus’ words cause Criseyde to burst out crying and admit how unhappy
she is. Pandarus becomes more and more angry, insisting that if she doesn’t give Troilus a
chance, she will be responsible for both his and Troilus’ deaths. Criseyde finally agrees to fulfill
Pandarus’ request to treat Troilus kindly. Pandarus relays a speech Troilus made to Love, where
he apologizes to God for his rebellious thoughts and admits his despair at being “wounded” by
the gaze of Criseyde.
Pandarus leaves and Criseyde reflects on what he has told her, finding it curious that Troilus
could love her so intensely while she remains ambivalent. She concludes that there is nothing
dangerous in the situation, however. Then, suddenly, she hears commotion outside. It is Troilus
and his army coming down the street after a battle with the Greeks. Troilus appears like the god
Mars and Criseyde feels a stirring in her heart observing him. The narrator assures us that such
love at first sight is, in fact, possible.
The narrator reveals Criseyde’s conflicting considerations about Troilus. She realizes it is good if
she can be on good terms with him, as he is the son of the King and she doesn’t want him to hold
a grudge over her. She also acknowledges that he has many good qualities. She is somewhat
astonished to have his life now completely in her power. Suddenly, her considerations are
interrupted by a “thought like a cloud” which makes her feel fearful. This thought is that she
should perhaps surrender to the love of Troilus. This is in spite of the fact that she feels that
every woman in love becomes miserable and she worries how people will gossip about her.
Criseyde goes to the garden with her nieces, Flexippe, There, and Antigone. Antigone sings a
song to praise Love and declares that those who slander love know nothing about it. Criseyde is
moved by the song. She goes to bed that night thinking of love. She dreams of a white eagle
tearing out her heart and putting in her his own heart, which she doesn’t experience as painful or
frightening. The narrator shifts back to Troilus, who is visited by Pandarus. Pandarus tells him of
his conversation with Criseyde. Troilus is elated and thanks Venus that Criseyde is giving him a
chance. Pandarus encourages Troilus to write Criseyde a letter, to which he agrees. He sits down
to compose the letter, pouring out his heart and sealing it with his tears.
The next day, Pandarus delivers the letter to Criseyde. At first, she is annoyed at the gesture and
doesn’t want to read the letter, feeling she is being positioned to take pity on Troilus. Before
having dinner with her uncle, however, she reads the letter privately in her room. She is
impressed by it. At dinner, Pandarus demands to know what she thinks of it and asks her to write
Troilus back, to which she halfheartedly agrees. In her letter, she thanks Troilus but informs him
that she can’t make any false promises of uniting. She says that she is happy to serve as a more
sisterly figure to him.
When Criseyde hands her letter to Pandarus, they see Troilus walking down the street, who
meekly waves at them. Criseyde is overcome by attraction to his demeanor and dress. Pandarus
uses this moment to further try to convince her to give Troilus a chance. He goes to deliver the

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letter to Troilus, who reads it excitedly and feels hope from Criseyde’s words, despite her
guarded style of writing. From this moment, Troilus’ desire for Criseyde burns even stronger.
Pandarus, trying to help, goes to Troilus’ brother Deiphebus. He asks Deiphebus to talk with
Criseyde and convince him of Troilus’ worthiness. He agrees and invites Criseyde to dinner.
Pandarus then goes to Troilus and tells him to go to Deiphebus’ house the night before Criseyde
comes and fake an illness so that Criseyde will take pity on him when she arrives. The plan
works out, with Criseyde and her sisters arriving at Deiphebus’ palace to the news that Troilus is
sick and in bed. The other guests begin to lament his illness and praise him. Pandarus encourages
Deiphebus and Helen to start also praising Criseyde and decrying her enemy, Poliphetes.
Criseyde is convinced to go and visit Troilus in bed, under the guise that he could be sympathetic
to her conflict with Poliphetes. The second book ends before we are shown the conversation
between Troilus and Criseyde.
Analysis
The second book of Troilus and Criseyde brings us deeper into the developing relationship
between the title characters. For much of this chapter, we see each one occupy a quite different
space. For Troilus, the degree of his infatuation brings him agony to the point of physical illness.
Criseyde, on the other hand, remains hesitant about the potential of a relationship with Troilus,
not wrecked by his sort of passion. This ambivalence is also reflected in her letter, where she
suggests that she can act as a sister to Troilus rather than a lover. As a result, Pandarus has to
jump through hoops and orchestrate a complex setup just to get Criseyde in the same room with
Troilus finally.
At the same time, the astute reader will notice that there are deeper feelings brewing in Criseyde.
On her conscious level, she seems intent on denying the reality of such a connection. Yet
Chaucer hints in several ways that her heart is slowly opening to Troilus. It is there in the way
she dreams of the pure white eagle ripping open her heart and in her curiosity after hearing her
sister Antigone’s devotional song to Love. There is also the moment when Criseyde and her
uncle see Troilus walking on the street and Criseyde is very drawn to Troilus’ appearance,
almost as if forgetting what she has just written in her letter to him.
In this book, we also see Pandarus emerge as a heroic friend and mentor to Troilus. In many
ways, Pandarus goes out of his way and puts all of his effort and passion into assisting Troilus in
uniting with Criseyde. From this, the reader can conclude that this is no ordinary friendship but a
strong bond where Pandarus is willing to sacrifice himself—even his good standing with his
niece—in order to lift up his friend. Larger than this, however, we see in Pandarus’ actions a
dedication to the force of Love itself. He realizes, even before Criseyde does, that there is a true
potential for romance between the two, and in doing everything he can for their union, he feels
himself to be serving the God of Love to whom Chaucer so often alludes.
The pantheon of gods is a strong presence throughout these pages. Consistent references to
Roman gods such as Neptune, Venus, and Minerva serve as an important means for
characterization. For instance, Troilus is compared to Mars in order to illustrate his warlike
swagger in the eyes of Criseyde. At another moment, Criseyde begs of Pallas, a virgin goddess,

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to look after her in her bewilderment. For characters living in this historical period, the gods are
not merely ideal deities occupying the heavens but wholly present in the workings of daily life,
consistently evoked for strength, protection, and inspiration. Thus, familiarizing oneself with the
qualities of the gods may be useful in understanding the full meaning of these quips.
Geoffrey Chaucer makes use of an array of literary techniques to enhance the drama of the story.
For one, he ends the second book on a suspenseful moment, just as Criseyde is about to
encounter Troilus for the first time. This choice serves to keep the reader entranced in their
budding relationship, wondering how their meeting might play out. Chaucer also continues to
employ frequent metaphorical and symbolic statements, as mentioned in the previous section
analysis. In this book we also see him using personification of natural elements—the Sun,
animals, and plants—in order to make the characters’ world come alive and show us that all
living beings are somehow invested in the love of Troilus.
Troilus and Criseyde Summary and Analysis of Book 3
Summary
Book 3 opens with a proem praising Venus, the goddess of love. The proem speaks of how Jove,
the god of the sky, has been influenced by Venus to be loving towards humans. The narrator asks
Venus to help him express some of the joy and feeling she stimulates in him. We then are
brought back to the scene of Troilus in his sickbed, right before he is to meet with Criseyde. He
is praying to God and preparing what he will say to her. When Pandarus and Criseyde enter the
room, Troilus becomes frozen with nervousness and can only ask for mercy, gush about his
feelings towards her, and ask to serve her. Pandarus prods his niece to take pity on his anguish.
Criseyde finally agrees to allow Troilus to serve her and begs him to stop lamenting. She also
warns him that just because he is the king’s son does not mean she will tolerate wrong behavior.
She then embraces Troilus and kisses him. Pandarus falls onto his knees with happiness, praising
Venus and Cupid. Criseyde leaves and Pandarus and Troilus are able to talk. Pandarus tells him
soberly how his workings have made it so Troilus will be successful in his romance. He stresses
that he has done none of this for personal gain but solely to alleviate Troilus’ distress. Pandarus
warns Troilus to never let onto his role in arranging the affair and that he must treat Criseyde
with respect, as he does not want to ever become the betrayer of his niece. Lastly, he swears by
God that he will set it up so that Troilus will be satisfied.
Troilus is delighted to hear his friend’s promise. He gives his thanks to Pandarus and
acknowledges how deeply he owes him, vowing to be his slave “forever more.” He also strongly
states that he does not see Pandarus’ assistance as “pimping” but as a noble act of friendship.
They both go to bed. In the following days, Troilus serves as a warrior by day and at night thinks
about how he can best serve Criseyde. He occasionally gets to speak to her directly, as well.
Criseyde becomes enamored with how well Troilus understands her and employs his words.
Pandarus continues to serve an an intermediary.
One morning Pandarus goes to Criseyde to invite her to his house for supper one evening. This is
part of a plot he has devised with Troilus. When she asks him if Troilus will be there, he says he
will not be. She agrees and later shows up at Pandarus’ house with many other people, including

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her niece Antigone. Troilus watches the supper through a window from a little closet. Just as
Criseyde is about to leave for the night, the gods’ will is carried out and it starts to rain heavily.
Criseyde decides to spend the night at Pandarus’ house.
During the night, Pandarus wakes up his niece and tells her that she is being deceiving by calling
Troilus her “dear one” without following through in their relationship. He tells her that Troilus
has come into the house to escape the rains, and he is in misery because he has been told that
Criseyde loves someone called Orestes. Criseyde denies this and delivers a monologue in which
she decries worldly happiness, concluding that there is no true joy in the world. She is upset that
Troilus has become so distrusting of her. Pandarus presses her to clear up the matter with Troilus
immediately, or else put his life at risk. She agrees.
Troilus comes in suddenly and kneels before Criseyde. She feels as Troilus’ “true lady” and
speaks to Troilus of his goodness, vowing that she will always be true to him. She questions why
he has been overcome with jealousy. She laments the fact that jealousy is often equated with
love, which is an illusion. She finishes her speech by weeping, and Troilus momentarily panics at
her emotions and falls into bed in weakness. Criseyde has to kiss him and assure him that she is
not angry. She tries to reason with Troilus and tells him not to be so dramatic. They agree, with
the urging of Pandarus, to put the conflict behind them.
The lovers then spend a blissful and romantic night together, not sleeping at all and instead
intimately talking and touching. They both feel incredibly elated and exchange rings to
symbolize their vows to each other. As the sun starts to rise, they feel frustration, as they now
must part ways for the moment. The narrator also declares his delight that Troilus and Criseyde
have finally united. As they leave each other, Criseyde reminds Troilus not to fall into delusions
of jealousy again. Troilus retires to his palace, feeling the pain of separation. Criseyde does the
same. Pandarus visits her later and she jokes with him how he has orchestrated the whole love
affair.
Pandarus goes to visit Troilus, who thanks and blesses him profusely. Pandarus responds by
warning him of possible misfortune if he becomes too rash. Troilus assures his friend that his
behavior will be faultless and that his heart is pure. He then talks on and on about his night with
Criseyde. Pandarus leaves and later the lovers reunite for the night. At this meeting, they are free
of their previous sorrows and fears. They are so full of happiness, the narrator states it is
impossible to describe with words. As day comes, they again curse the light for cutting their time
short. They continue in this way during the many nights that follow.
The book ends with Troilus’ song, which is an ode to Love. He praises Love as the source of all
harmony and natural order. He wishes that all cold hearts can encounter love’s blessings. Troilus
continues on in his soldier duties as the fiercest warrior, who inspires fear in his enemies. He also
begins to shun vices like pride and envy. We are told that this increase of virtue comes from his
newfound love.
Analysis
The third book of Troilus and Criseyde marks the peak moment in the narrative, where the lovers
are finally able to blissfully unite. This was no easy occurrence, taking much planning and

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plotting from the loyal Pandarus to finally bring the two together and convince Criseyde to take a
chance on Troilus. She only has to open her heart slightly—as seen when she agrees to let
Troilus serve her—to be completely swept up with all-encompassing love. Again we see how
Chaucer views love as not just attraction between two mates, but as a transpersonal force that
throws people off their feet like the current of a river.
Yet, utterly enthralled by his emotions, Troilus still worries that the relationship isn’t moving
quickly enough, and thus employs Pandarus to once again create a scheme whereby he can draw
Criseyde closer to him and share a more intimate type of union. For this plot, Pandarus tells his
niece that Troilus is crushed and believes she is involved with another man. Though this lie
ultimately succeeds in bringing Troilus and Criseyde together for the night, it also creates a
conflict. Criseyde is maddened that such a rumor of infidelity could be circulated, and delivers
an entire monologue about the destructiveness of jealousy.
This speech underscores some very important themes in the story, making us question the true
nature of love. Criseyde argues that constant jealousy—which she describes as a “wicked
viper”—is a sign of an impure heart and a love that is perhaps not completely genuine. Worldly
love, according to her, will always make one insecure about one's beloved, whereas more
spiritual love is free of all lower emotions and vices. Her words challenge the ubiquitous idea
that romance must be wrought with continual pain and betrayal. We can also infer here that the
passion with which Criseyde speaks also comes from her own anger at being seen as disloyal.
Their relationship momentarily seems like it will fall apart, as Criseyde voices her anger and
Troilus in response breaks down in sorrow. With the help of Pandarus, however, they are
convinced to leave the altercation behind and start anew. From there, the couple spends their first
night together, the joy of which is described in several passages, where Chaucer employs much
metaphorical and poetic language to emphasize the sheer ecstasy of their love. We are told that it
is this painful situation beforehand that makes their happiness all the more sweet. These dramatic
ups and downs are a consistent part of the story; as the characters enlarge their capacity to feel
love, they also become more and more sensitive to all sorts of emotional triggers.
We may notice how the passion of the protagonists is reflected in the style of the prose. Chaucer
tends to write in long and verbose sentences, with several clauses connected by commas or
semicolons. The length of these sentences becomes even more extreme in the most exhilarating
moments of the lovers’ story, such as when Troilus must part from his lady and obsessively
thinks about her, going over every detail of their date. This stylistic choice conveys both the
excitement and the nervousness of the lovers and demonstrates a sort of madness they have
developed as a result of their burning desire.
Amidst their fiery love, Pandarus stands as the voice of reason and cautiousness, reminding
Troilus to take the relationship slowly and not become irrational in his behavior. Pandarus says
this not only because he wants to protect his dear niece, but also because he understands how
unrestrained passion can oftentimes be catastrophic if not periodically reigned in. In this way,
Chaucer subtly foreshadows a twist of fate that is to come in the following pages.

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Troilus and Criseyde Summary and Analysis of Book 4
Summary
The proem of the fourth book tells us that the intense happiness of lovers rarely lasts for long,
due to the goddess Fortune, who controls the fate of men. The narrator forewarns us that he must
tell the story of Criseyde’s unkindness to Troilus, but assures us that this is solely the perspective
of those people involved, and that he regrets speaking ill of her.
The fourth book starts by taking us again to the conflict between the Greeks and Trojans. The
Greeks have been steadily demolishing Troy and so one day Hector and his nobleman try to fight
them in battle. In the battle, the Trojan army acts brutally and as a result, their soldier Antenor is
captured and it seems as if the city of Troy will be entirely taken. Calchas, the father of Criseyde
and the one who fled to the Greeks after foreseeing the fall of Troy, tries to convince the Greek
army to exchange the captured soldier for his daughter, who he has missed terribly.
Calchas’ emotional speech is met with acceptance by the Greeks, who agree to release Antenor.
Greek ambassadors are sent to Troy to propose the exchange to King Priam. Troilus is present
when they speak of exchanging Criseyde for Antenor, and he instantly becomes full of dread,
although he can’t voice this. Hector opposes the deal because he doesn’t feel it is right to sell a
woman for a prisoner. All of the other lords object to Hector and say that Antenor is very
valuable to Troy and that Criseyde should be surrendered. The narrator hints at the foolishness of
this decision, revealing that later on Antenor will actually betray the Trojans.
Troilus goes home and lies in bed, feeling out of his mind with sorrow. He flings himself around
the room and batters his own body in frustration. He speaks to Fortune, demanding to know what
he did to deserve such a cruel fate. He delivers a monologue where he describes his misery and
cries out to Love. Pandarus comes to visit him. Seeing Troilus’ anguish, his heart goes cold.
Though he is sad for his friend, he also encourages him to get out of his grief, pointing out that
Troilus has gotten what he desired fully in that he has already united and fallen in love with
Criseyde. He also reminds him that there will be other women.
Troilus, so deep in sorrow, takes little notice of his friend’s words. He tells Pandarus that for his
whole life he will always be faithful to Criseyde. He says it is not in his power whether he is able
to let go of Criseyde; love has him in its grip. Troilus becomes angry with Pandarus and tells him
his advice is worthless. Pandarus responds by challenging Troilus to be a man and take Criseyde
“by force.” Troilus explains that he will not do this, because to take a woman by force is seen as
a great wrong in the city of Troy. His father, the King, has already decreed the exchange,
anyway.
Pandarus advises Troilus that he shouldn’t pay any mind to what other people would think by
stealing Criseyde. Perhaps Criseyde will even be expecting Troilus to take her back from the
Greeks, and she won’t be upset. Pandarus tells him to go to the King and try to communicate his
desires.
Rumor is quickly spreading about the exchange of Criseyde. When Criseyde hears of the news,
she feels great rage at those who made the decision. Some women friends come to Criseyde and
congratulate her on the news, thinking she should be happy to return to her father. Criseyde

11
cannot hold back her emotions, and the friends believe she is weeping because she has to leave
them behind. They try to comfort her to no avail and Criseyde runs to her bed, where she curses
her existence and asks for death.
Pandarus comes to Criseyde and reads her a message from Troilus. Pandarus encourages his
niece not to give up and put her energy in finding a “remedy” to the situation. Meanwhile,
Troilus is alone in the temple, speaking passionately about predestination and whether God has
decreed this fate for Troilus or not. When Troilus later goes to Criseyde, the lovers are so
sorrowful that they can barely embrace each other.
They speak for awhile and Crisedye proposes a plan: she will return in 10 days, once a truce is
reached between the Greeks and Trojans. She also suggests that in case there is no peace
between the cities, there is a possibility she can trick her father into coming back to Troy. Troilus
questions Criseyde if she will be true to her promise, threatening that if not he will never again
have health or happiness. He worries that Calchas will overpower her and try to marry her to
someone else. He begs her to run away with him instead. Criseyde replies that if they do this,
they will regret it deeply later. She also advises him not to run away from his duties as a solider
while she is away, because it is cowardly.
Criseyde states how she will always be faithful and will act in such a way to honor Troilus, not
because of his position or riches but because of his virtues. Her love for Troilus will be
everlasting, no matter the whims of the goddess Fortune. They say goodbye emotionally and part
ways.
Analysis
The fourth book sees a major conflict appear within the trajectory of Troilus and Criseyde’s
flowering romance. In this section, we re-encounter Calchas who has unwittingly made a
decision that impacts the life of the protagonists in a tragic way. Calchas’ insistence to have his
daughter returned to him is an ironic moment where we see how even the best of intentions—
reuniting with family—can have dire and unforeseen consequences. In this book, we see Troilus
and Criseyde question whether they even wish to continue living, as their pain at being separated
is so severe. Pandarus serves to bring in a dose of rationality, preventing the couple from making
any irreversible decisions.
Throughout this act of the story, Chaucer repeatedly emphasizes how the news of Criseyde’s
move to Greece devastates the lovers. Many of the pages of this book are dedicated to long
speeches by Troilus and Criseyde lamenting and trying to make sense of why and how this twist
of fates has occurred. The shock comes all the more severely because they are in the peak of
their relationship, still somewhat blinded by the bliss of infatuation. Their sorrow even affects
them on a physical level; in one scene, Criseyde’s beautiful face which was “once the image of
paradise” can now only contain sadness, making her almost unrecognizable.
Here, Troilus is faced with a very important decision and test of his virtues, pushing him to
ponder what is truly the right thing to do in this situation on all levels. On one hand, his passions
tell him to disregard the decree of his own father, King Priam, and “steal” Criseyde before she
can be taken by Calchas. On the other hand, Troilus thoughtfully considers Criseyde’s feelings in

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the matter, holding her viewpoint in the highest regard. To steal her would perhaps ruin his
lady’s reputation, the thought of which makes him wish for death. Yet Troilus’ back and forth on
the issue prevents him from taking action, instead spending most of this book wallowing in self-
pity.
It is Pandarus, again, who comes to the aid of his friend and helps him snap out of it to some
degree. Finding Troilus in utter desolation, he feels that he can only truly do one thing: try to
reenergize his friend by speaking quite directly and powerfully about his responsibility in this
circumstance. When Troilus admits he is reluctant to steal Criseyde and break the law, Pandarus
responds sharply, exclaiming how “laws are broken all the time through love.” Pandarus, who
has somewhat engineered Criseyde and Troilus’ entire romance, is not willing to let all be lost
for the sake of social appearances, and his advice reflects one of the greater themes in Troilus
and Criseyde, that of the supremacy of love above all else.
This book also brings to surface the theme of fortune versus free will. In the first few pages, the
author notes the unpredictability of the goddess Fortune, who has favored Troilus in one
moment, and in the next, has “thrown him from her wheel.” Later, Troilus speaks lengthily about
predestination, wondering if it is in fact true that all events are ordained by God before birth, as
was commonly believed in that historical period. Troilus considers various views of human
choice in the unfolding of destiny, yet ultimately can’t come to any conclusion about which
vision is the correct one, and his philosophizing brings him to the same place in which he started:
the state of having a heavy heart.
Troilus and Criseyde Summary and Analysis of Book 5
Summary
The day comes when Criseyde must go to the Greek side and she feels incredibly sad. Troilus
also feels much anxiety and sorrow, yet tries to hide it. He again considers stealing Criseyde, but
only doesn’t do so because he fears there could be a violent backlash that puts his love in danger.
Criseyde is taken to the Greeks by the Greek soldier Diomede, who questions why she is so upset
and immediately starts offering himself as a lover, to which Criseyde responds civilly but
sparsely. They arrive at her father’s house. Calchas is delighted to see his daughter while
Criseyde remains quiet and withdrawn.
Back in Troy, Troilus goes to his palace and vents his sorrows, cursing many of the gods. He can
only think of his lady and when she will return to him. When he sleeps, he has nightmares of
being alone forever or caught by his enemies. When Pandarus comes to see him the next day,
Troilus tells him he can’t take the sorrow any longer and speaks about dying. Pandarus
exasperatedly tells Troilus that this is madness and that others before him have suffered from
heartbreak without taking their own life. Pandarus asks Troilus to spend time with him and get
his mind off his own misery.
Troilus and Pandarus go to visit King Sarpedon, who feeds and entertains them magnificently.
Troilus, in his sorrow, can’t appreciate it. The next day the friends go around the city, visiting
places that remind Troilus of Criseyde, including her palace. This evokes more sadness in him,
inspiring him to beg Cupid for mercy and to send him Criseyde soon. Over the next few days,

13
Troilus barely hangs onto life. He composes a song about his feelings and speaks each night to
the moon.
Meanwhile, Crirseyde is also pining for her love and becoming despondent as she realizes her
father won’t let her return to Troy for any reason. She is worried Troilus will think she has
betrayed him. Every day she weeps. She considers running away but two months go by and she
still can’t bring herself to do it. Diomede continues to woo Criseyde, even though he can sense
she has a man in Troy. One day he visits her and they have a long conversation, during which
Diomede encourages her not to pine over her lover in Troy, telling her that Troy and all of its
people will be destroyed anyway. Diomede speaks lengthily of his virtues and asks Criseyde to
consider him as her partner.
Criseyde tells Diomede that although she respects his nobility, her heart totally belongs to a
“lord” in Troy. Yet she doesn’t completely reject Diomede either, and even lies, saying that
Troilus is dead. That night, she ponders over Diomede’s offer and decides to stay on the Greek
side. The next morning Diomede comes to her again and she warms up to him, giving him the
brooch that belonged to Troilus. Despite her choice to be with Diomede, her betrayal of Troilus
bothers her greatly. The narrator tells us he will not reproach Criseyde too much because her
name has already been ruined by her actions.
Troilus continues to wait for Criseyde and shows up at the border on the tenth day, when she
promised to return. When she doesn’t show up, Troilus keeps justifying it, imagining that maybe
he misunderstood which day she meant. Yet as many days go by, he starts to realize she isn’t
coming and his heart is completely shattered. He sees death as the only option. His sorrow is so
extreme, the people around him start to wonder what is wrong. One night he dreams of Criseyde
embracing a boar with large tusks. From this dream, he concludes that his lady has betrayed him.
He shares his dream with Pandarus, who again tells him that dreams can have more than one
interpretation and to not jump to conclusions. He suggests that Troilus write a letter to her.
Troilus agrees and writes to Criseyde, describing his suffering and asking her when she will
return to Troy. Criseyde receives the letter and writes back, promising vaguely to return and
swearing that she loves him. Her delaying causes Troilus to take to bed and become very sickly.
He goes to his sister Cassandra and asks for her interpretation of his dream about the boar.
Cassandra, referencing many myths and histories, concludes that the boar represents Diomede.
This enrages Troilus, who calls his sister a “sorceress.”
Troy is being lost day by day to the Greek army, underscored especially when Hector dies in
battle. Troilus continues to try and make sense of Criseyde’s absence and writes her many letters.
Crisedye writes back to him out of pity, where she explains how distressing Troilus’ suffering is
to her and even suggests that Troilus has been unfaithful to her. She says it is still too difficult for
her to flee and that he should consider her a friend. After reading this letter, Troilus slowly
comes to his senses and realizes that Criseyde is not as truthful as he had wanted to believe. This
is confirmed when he sees Diomede’s tunic displayed in Troy (as a sign of victory), which is
adorned with the brooch he gave Criseyde.

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Troilus, shocked, goes to Pandarus and informs him of Criseyde’s infidelity. Troilus proclaims
that he hates Criseyde and that he did not deserve this betrayal. Pandarus is very sad to hear the
news and embarrassed by the actions of his niece. The wrath of Troilus leads to thousands of
Greek deaths, and Troilus even spars with Diomede several times, but doesn’t kill him. Troilus is
eventually slain in battle and his soul ascends to the eighth sphere of the heavens, from where he
can see the stars and planets and look down upon earth, feeling it is a wretched place. From
heaven, he laughs at those mourning for him and condemns the blind pursuit of earthly pleasure.
The narrator concludes this book by encouraging the reader to leave behind “worldly vanity” and
learn to love not the pagan gods but the one true God who is Christ.
Analysis
In the final book of Troilus and Criseyde, the love story takes a tragic turn of events. Unlike
many other works of romance literature, there is no happy ending and securing of a permanent
union between lovers. Rather, the main theme of this section is betrayal, with Criseyde going
against her vows to Troilus and taking up Diomede as her new partner on the Greek side. With
this dramatic plot twist, many issues of morality and virtue are put into question. Chaucer leaves
much room for the reader to ponder the real intentions and feelings of the characters and come to
their own conclusions about whether or not their integrity has been maintained.
For instance, Criseyde, through her letters, insists that she truly desires to come back to Troy and
reunite with Troilus, but feels it is much too difficult under the watchful eye of her father. This
begs the question of whether Criseyde is being totally honest. If she truly loves Troilus as
passionately as he loves her, could she not make the effort to flee the Greek side, even if it puts
her reputation at stake? On the other hand, as a woman in ancient Greece, she puts her own life
at risk by disobeying her father and the commands of the nobility. It is evident that Criseyde
genuinely feels remorse and shame by breaking her promise and being unfaithful to Troilus, and
in many ways the reader may able to sympathize with her situation and the difficult choice she is
forced to make.
Here we again note the obvious difference between the love of Troilus and Criseyde, which in
some ways has been evident from the start of their romance, when Troilus single-mindedly
pursued Criseyde to the point of obsession. In Book 5, we see how Troilus views Criseyde as his
one and only love and would rather die than lose her. Criseyde, on the other hand, has
affectionate feelings towards Troilus, but ultimately cares more about her own safety and
comfort. She chooses to be with Diomede not necessarily because she falls madly in love with
him, but because she is allured by the security of having a male companion to protect and serve
her in foreign territory. For her, this protection is very much worth the betrayal of her former
lover. To Troilus, this infidelity is unimaginable.
The narrator’s voice is very prominent in this book, revealing to us the outcome of the story in
the first few pages and commenting on the actions of his characters with much humor and
passion. For example, when Diomede tries to woo Criseyde, the narrator interjects and cuts the
dialogue short, telling us that Diomede talks too much and that his words are not worth
transcribing. Later, when we learn of Criseyde’s betrayal, the narrator encourages us to not
become too angry with her, explaining that she has already met the wrath of many others for her

15
decision. In this way, the narrator serves to present a full perspective of the events, from both
characters’ points of view, thus allowing the reader to develop their own interpretation of what
transpires.
Yet one thing is clear: Troilus is the one who suffers the most and throughout this book we see
him falling apart and questioning his own capacity to continue living. His whole world is turned
upside down as he realizes that the love which he believed to be most pure and true was actually
one-sided. This revelation makes him doubt the worth of worldly life altogether. With nothing
left to live for, he exerts himself in war and eventually dies in the battlefield. After his death, he
rises above to heaven and watches earth below, where he comes to a spiritual recognition that
eluded him during his lifetime. He feels embraced by the love of God, who Chaucer equates with
Jesus Christ, and understands that any other type of love is fleeting and illusory.
This ultimate conclusion of the story may seem somewhat morbid, but in another way is merely
reflective of Chaucer’s own religious faith. The tragic ending is not a disavowal of love itself but
an attempt by the author to demonstrate love in its highest sense, a spiritual love that is
everlasting and not subject to the selfish whims of mortal humans. In the last scene, the narrator
also contrasts the Christian God with the Greek pantheon of gods and goddesses, concluding that
only a singular, supreme form of God can alleviate suffering and lead to truth. Though Troilus
has had to endure much sorrow and death to come to his epiphany, we see his departure into the
“eighth sphere” as finally bringing him a sense of peace that he never knew while so desperately
pursuing Criseyde.
Troilus and Criseyde Themes
Fortune versus Human Choice
Chaucer’s narrator regularly alludes to the concept of fortune, personified by the goddess
Fortuna and her symbol of the wheel. While a man is held at the top of Fortuna’s wheel, he has
good luck and experiences positive outcomes. Yet, he is always in danger of the wheel suddenly
turning and encountering major challenges. At the beginning of the first book, it is warned that
Troilus will move "from woe to joy, and then out of joy," confirming from the start that his
fortune will fluctuate and end quite badly. The question of fortune is poised throughout
Chaucer’s text: are the characters wholly controlled by fate or are they able to intervene through
their own choices?
There are some decisions made within the romance that are clearly the product of free will:
Troilus and Criseyde’s initial meeting at Deiphebus’ house, the exchange of letters, and the
lovers' consummation. Yet, Fortune also seems to orchestrate some decisions throughout:
Criseyde looks out her window just as Troilus is riding past and becomes smitten; she hears
Antigone sing a love song in the garden just as she considers Troilus as a love interest; Troilus
spots Criseyde’s brooch on Diomede's tunic, confirming her betrayal.
Fortune is not only a thematic concept in Chaucer’s romance, but also a structural one. The
pattern of Troilus’ fortune is wheel-like, with him building himself up in the first two books,
reaching his peak moment in the third, and falling for the remainder of the story.

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Courtly Love
Love is central to Chaucer’s tale, and Troilus and Criseyde’s love affair follows many
conventions of the medieval concept of "courtly love." This includes worship of the maiden from
afar (Book 1), rejection of the male by the virtuous lady (Book 2), and chivalric behavior (Book
5). In Book 2, Troilus complains of a sickness that he cannot recover from, and he regularly
faints. These are presented as symptoms of "lovesickness," a medieval idea that suggested to be
deprived of one’s love was akin to a physical illness.
The maiden initially rejecting her suitor was also a characteristic element that is included in
Chaucer's text. As the convention goes, the lady must first be seen as publicly demure, and reject
the man's first advances before submitting to his desire. However, Chaucer's story differs slightly
from other literary romances in that it doesn't comfort readers with a happy ending. Instead,
Criseyde decides to betray Troilus for Diomede for the sake of comfort and security.
Troilus' insurmountable heartbreak is a rather dire conclusion to the drama, yet it is a conscious
plot choice by the author, who uses his hero's downfall to impart a lesson to his readers about the
true nature of love. For Chaucer, the silly conventions of courtship and infatuation are a mere
shadow of a greater spiritual love which must first be directed towards God. All else, as
demonstrated through Troilus' example, brings immense suffering and binds one ultimately to
the illusion of "worldly vanity."
The Stars and the Gods
As previously stated, Fortune and human choice dictate much of the action in Troilus and
Criseyde. Yet ancient astrology and mythology is also a very important structure in the
worldview of the characters. Chaucer refers to the Ptomelaic structure of medieval astrology,
which is based on eight spheres, with each sphere corresponding to a planet in the solar system.
The placements of the planets at any moment have a direct effect on earthly events. At the
beginning of each book, the narrator dedicates verses to a certain gods or goddesses whose
influence is dominant in the characters' affairs. Chaucer often invokes astrological placements to
explain plot points, such as when Criseyde first lays her eyes on Troilus. Her immediate
attraction is rationalized as the workings of Venus, who represents love, being "wel’ arayed"—
meaning that it is situated in the right place for a romance to blossom.
The gods, both as planets and as personified deities, rule the characters' lives, frequently
mentioned and prayed to as purveyors of all human drama and destiny. Troilus especially sees
the gods as pulling the strings of his life, whether it be the joy or the sorrow, attributing his
downfall not to error or bad luck but the conscious tinkering of the celestial spheres.
However, by the end, Chaucer as the narrator brings the conclusion that the "pagan gods" of the
Greek pantheon are not of a higher divine order, even suggesting that these gods are somewhat
responsible in the vanity and downfall of his characters. The book finishes with his urging that
the reader put his faith in God, who he equates with Christ. In this way, Chaucer brings a
Christian message: that worshipping multiple deities is a form of idolatry and that there is only
one true God.

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Betrayal
The romance of Troilus and Criseyde ultimately ends in betrayal; a turn of events that may
surprise the reader if it were not for the narrator’s frequent allusions to future events. Criseyde,
going against her passionately spoken vows and promises of faithfulness, ends up staying on the
Greek side and partnering up with a new lover. There are many clues that suggest Criseyde is
dishonest with Troilus in her letters about her desire to return, and seemingly makes little effort
to flee to Troy. Yet the betrayal here is not one-dimensional and it would be too easy to merely
paint Criseyde as a villain who has acted wrongly. Rather, Chaucer shows us how Criseyde
suffers and struggles deeply over her decision and feels legitimate remorse. In many ways, the
maiden is put into a difficult situation, where she must either risk her reputation and even her life
for Troilus, or settle for the security and comfort of a life with Diomede. Clearly, her passion is
not as strong as that of Troilus, yet the reader is made to question whether it is right to hate
Criseyde for her actions, as Troilus does. And there is a silver lining to it all; while the betrayal
brings Troilus extreme suffering and eventual death, he also learns the value of spiritual love of
God over worldly love, realizing that only a relationship with God can be a completely faithful
and trustworthy one.
Dreams
There are two very important dreams that occur in the story, with both having prophetic
connotations. The first dream is Criseyde’s: she dreams that a large white eagle swoops down to
her and painlessly removes her heart from her chest and replaces it with its own. This is
representative of the introduction of Troilus into her life, and the affair where they will commit
their hearts to each other. The second dream is Troilus' and occurs after Criseyde has left for the
Greek camp. In the dream, he witnesses a large boar embracing Criseyde. Troilus interprets the
boar as a representation of Criseyde's new lover. After the boar dream, Pandarus tries to soothe
Troilus by insisting that dreams are not as meaningful as he believes. This advice is proven to be
ironically wrong when Troilus consults his sister Cassandra, who uses myth and history to show
the significance of the dream as a definite symbol of betrayal.
Thus in the world of Troilus and Criseyde, dreams are more than random occurrences but serve
as an important means for revelation. The willingness of the characters to fully embrace the
symbolic meaning of their dreams either aids or hinders them; Troilus' initial denial of his
dream's clear message, for instance, only creates more suffering for him in the long run.
Duality
Troilus and Criseyde deals with many extremes: love and hatred, life and death, war and peace.
The character of Troilus demonstrates the intense ups and downs of someone ruled totally by
their emotions, as he bounces from sorrow, to elation, and back to grief throughout the course of
the story. This instability is mirrored in the external events, where there is clash between Greece
and Troy, temporarily peace, and then eventually renewed conflict to an even more violent level.
It becomes obvious that such extreme duality can only result in a chaos that breeds destruction,
whether it be of men or of cities. This is elaborated also in the persistent symbol of Fortune; her
wheel may temporarily bring one up, but what goes up most come down, and often the fall is felt
as a crushing blow to the soul. After Troilus dies and ascends to heaven, he comes to the

18
realization that the conflicts of the world cause much suffering and finally he finds stability and
peace in his love for God.
A Code Of Chivalry
A medieval chivalric code differs slightly from the modern definition of courtesy. Chivalry was a
strict code for warriors that involved courage and ability on the battlefield, courtesy in love, and
an absolute code of honor. While there are implications of the Trojan War, the romance is set
almost wholly away from the battlefield. It therefore becomes difficult to judge Troilus on his
chivalry as a warrior, as it is never witnessed firsthand. In his relationship, Troilus tries to follow
conventions of courtly love, yet is not always perfectly honorable; he and Pandarus almost
forcefully try to woo Criseyde initially, with Troilus even spying on the lady at one instance.
Yet, in Book 4, Troilus comes out as virtuous and chivalric in his ability to let go of Criseyde
and resist the temptation to kidnap and elope with her. When Troilus discovers Criseyde's
betrayal, he is also chivalrous in his defeat, allowing himself to fall down the wheel of fortune
with sorrow but without much of a fight. This is evident in the way that he confronts Diomedes
on the battlefield but does not slaughter him.
Troilus and Criseyde Symbols, Allegory and Motifs
Motif: The Wheel of Fortune
One of the main questions that arises when reading Troilus and Criseyde is that of fate: do
Troilus and Criseyde truly decide their own destiny or are they mere puppets of Fortune? The
Wheel of Fortune is a pivotal archetype in ancient mythology, expressing the cyclical nature of
life in its seemingly random ups and downs. This unpredictability is personified in a goddess,
Fortuna, who was said to control the fates of men.
In the opening of Book I, the narrator suggests that the couple are at the mercy of this deity,
deeming her symbolic wheel as vitally important in the unfolding of the story. Fortune is evoked
regularly throughout the book as the architect and instigator of all major plot points. Her
constantly spinning wheel is regarded as the force behind Troilus' emotional highs and lows.
After news of Criseyde's departure to Greece, Troilus directly addresses Fortune and asks if his
entire life is truly directed by her whims. For the majority of the story, Troilus believes that
everything is preordained; it is not until he experiences heartbreak that he begins to question if
such suffering is purposely inflicted on him through predetermined means.
Symbol: The Brooch
Before Criseyde departs for the Greek camp, Troilus gifts her a special brooch to remember him
by and keep with her always. It is a symbol of their shared love and dedication, and suggests that
she will return to Troilus as soon as she can. This is a symbol that then evolves, as Troilus later
finds the brooch on a tunic that was captured from Diomedes, confirming that Criseyde has been
unfaithful. The brooch for Troilus is multi-faceted, representing both the blissful love that the
couple once shared and the shocking infidelity of Criseyde. Yet, it holds another meaning for
Criseyde, who regards the brooch in a more practical way, unaffected by any romantic
implications. In a foreign land, she feels she must offer her brooch, and thus her loyalty, to
whoever can protect her, even if it goes agains the vows she made to Troilus.

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Motif: The Chivalric Knight
Knights are important figures in the social world of ancient Troy. The image of the heroic knight
is what initially lures Criseyde into opening her heart to Troilus. When she first sees him out the
window, she is impressed; he has just returned from war, and is the perfect embodiment of the
chivalric knight. He is triumphant from battle yet modest and handsome. In Troilus embodying
this motif, he confirms to Criseyde that he is a suitable match. Later on, Criseyde is wooed by
Diomedes who also fits into this archetype in his stature and desire to serve and protect her.
Symbol: The Eagle
After Criseyde’s initial meeting with Troilus, she goes to sleep and dreams that a large, white
eagle swoops down and replaces her heart with his own. This is symbolically important in a
number of ways. We can understand that the eagle is a manifestation of Troilus, whose
appearance as an eagle shows himself to be a chivalric and masculine character, as the eagle
often represents the God of War. The quick give and take of hearts suggests not only a love at
first sight, but also a lack of thoughtfulness and agency, with Criseyde having no time to
consider if this is an exchange she desires. This once again colors their relationship as fated and
controlled by a superior force of Fortune. Despite the violent imagery, Criseyde describes the
exchange of hearts as "painless." This is symbolic of how easy it can be to fall in love and
foretells a major lesson of the story: it is effortless to give your heart away, but increasingly
painful when one tries to take it back.
Motif: The Letters
The many letters exchanged between Troilus and Criseyde in their initial courtship are of great
importance. They serve as motifs of traditional courtly love, offering Troilus the chance to
express his "lovesickness" to the reader. Yet, they also illustrate the role of Pandarus in
orchestrating the relationship. It is Pandarus who suggests to Criseyde what to write, and who
urges Troilus to wet his letter with tears to show his emotional capacity. This brings us to
question if the love affair would have naturally bloomed without the interference of Pandarus.
After Criseyde's betrayal, Troilus continues to write to her in desperation. Pandarus no longer
assists his friend, understanding that the relationship is all but doomed. Criseyde's cold and brief
responses to Troilus' dramatic letters suggest that perhaps Criseyde was never as devoted to
Troilus as she presented herself to be.
Troilus and Criseyde Literary Elements
Genre
Medieval Romance
Setting and Context
Ancient Greece, during the Siege of Troy
Narrator and Point of View
Third-person narration, alternating between Troilus' and Criseyde's points of view

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Tone and Mood
The mood changes with each book. In the first two books, Troilus begins to woo Criseyde and
there is a constant upbeat sense of new love and beginnings. This changes in the third book, and
the fourth and fifth are undeniably tragic as Criseyde must leave Troilus.
Protagonist and Antagonist
Protagonists: Troilus and Criseyde | Antagonists: Diomedes and Calchas
Major Conflict
Troilus and Criseyde try to develop their relationship, only to be separated after a decision made
by Calchas. Following this, their faithfulness is put to the test.
Climax
Troilus discovers Criseyde has been unfaithful with Diomedes and as a result, dedicates himself
fully to battle, eventually being killed by Achilles.
Foreshadowing
Much of the foreshadowing occurs through the presence of Fortune. At the beginning of the play,
the narrator states that Troilus is at the top of Fortune's wheel, and will soon fall. Another
instance is when Pandarus tells Troilus to be steady and calm in his dealings with Criseyde,
foreshadowing trouble to come.
Understatement
Troilus' expression of both his bliss and sorrow can be seen as understatements, with the narrator
repeatedly telling us that words can't suffice in describing the extremity of Troilus' emotions.
Allusions
Allusions occur constantly throughout the text, with many references to other literary works,
ancient myths, and astrological lore. For example, Cassandra's allusion to a lengthy Greek
history of Diomedes and his father is what brings Troilus to understand Criseyde's betrayal.
Imagery
Animal imagery occurs throughout to symbolize different archetypes and characters; the eagle,
for example, is a representation of Troilus' masculinity, while the boar stands in for Diomedes.
Paradox
The main paradox is Troilus himself. Within the first book, he openly mocks the God of Love,
and anyone who is a slave to love. Almost immediately after, he sees and falls in love with
Criseyde, whose presence controls him for the remainder of the story.
Parallelism
Chaucer opens Book 1 with the siege of Troy. In the middle sections, it seems as if Troy will
remain a stronghold, just as Troilus and Criseyde's love is seemingly unbreakable. As the play
ends, both Troy and their romance fall.
Personification
Criseyde personifies jealousy as a "wicked serpent."

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Shakespeare’s Version
Troilus and Cressida is a drama in five acts by William Shakespeare, written about 1601–02. Its
genre is indeed anomalous; many scholars prefer to classify it with the “problem plays” or the
“dark” comedies. Based on George Chapman’s translation of the Iliad and on 15th-century
accounts of the Trojan War by John Lydgate and William Caxton, Troilus and Cressida is an
often cynical exploration of the causes of strife between and within the Greek and Trojan
armies—the betrayal of love, the absence of heroism, and the emptiness of honour. The play was
also influenced by Geoffrey Chaucer’s love poem Troilus and Criseyde, although Shakespeare’s
treatment of the lovers and his attitude toward their dilemma is in sharp contrast to Chaucer’s.
Cressida, a Trojan woman whose father has defected to the Greeks, pledges her love to Troilus,
one of King Priam’s sons. However, when her father demands her presence in the Greek camp,
she reluctantly accepts the attentions of Diomedes, the Greek officer who has been sent to escort
her to the Greek side. Given her situation in an enemy camp and being an attractive woman
among sex-starved warriors, she has few choices. The love between Troilus and Cressida, begun
on such a hopeful note, is at last overwhelmed by the circumstances of war that they cannot
control. Meanwhile, the war itself is presented in all its seamy aspects, since it is at bottom a
senseless war fought over the possession of Helen, wife of Menelaus of Sparta but now the
mistress of the Trojan prince Paris. Their one scene together presents Helen and Paris as vapid
and self-centred. Other figures fare no less well. The legendary Greek hero Achilles is depicted
as petulant and greedy for honour, so much so that he brutally massacres the great Hector when
that warrior is unarmed. Hector, for his part, is at once the wisest of the Trojans and a captive of
his own sense of honour that obliges him to go into battle when his wife and family all warn him
of ominous prognostications. The Greek general Agamemnon is given to long-winded speeches;
so is old Nestor. Ulysses, the most astute of the Greek generals, is right-minded about many
things but also cynical and calculating. Ajax, another Greek officer, is an oaf, easily put upon by
his colleagues. Thersites, a deformed Greek, comments wryly on the actions of the other
characters, while Pandarus, the bawdy go-between of the lovers, enjoys watching their
degradation. The drama ends on a note of complete moral and political disintegration.

Sources
GradeSaver "Troilus and Criseyde Troilus and Criseyde Before Chaucer". GradeSaver, Web.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Troilus-and-Criseyde

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