Corrosion
Background Information
Introduction The equilibrium saturation point of water for calcium carbonate and other salts is described
by various indices which provide an indication of the scale-forming or corrosive potential
of the water. If water is supersaturated, it is scale forming, whereas if it is undersaturated,
it is non-scale forming or corrosive.
The distribution system is the most expensive component in a supply of potable water and
maintenance and replacement of corroded or scaled-up components imposes unnecessary
costs on the water supplier and ultimately on the domestic consumer. The application of
appropriate water treatment practices can minimise the adverse effects of scaling and
corrosion. Ideally, potable water that is stable, that is, non-corrosive and non-scaling,
should be distributed to consumers.
Occurrence Corrosion can be a problem in distribution systems and appliances with metallic structures
in contact with water. The following types of water are corrosive:
! Soft waters with little or no dissolved calcium bicarbonate, for example, rain water.
! Waters with high concentrations of chloride or sulphate.
! Waters with low or acidic pH values.
In order to quantitate the corrosivity or scaling tendency of water it is necessary to calculate
various indices. The corrosive/scaling properties of water can be manipulated during water
treatment by the addition of chemicals.
Interactions The corrosive properties of water are not only influenced by the chemical composition of
the water. Other determining factors include the bacteriological activity in the water, the
presence of electrical fields, the conjunction of dissimilar metals, and the constituent
properties accounted for in the derivation of corrosion indices.
Measurement Tables and formulas relating to the most well-known corrosion/scaling indices are given
below:
! Langelier index
The Langelier index is based on the calculation of the saturation pH (pHs) of water with
respect to calcium carbonate. The Langelier index (LI) describes the difference between
the measured (or actual) pH of the water (pHa) and the hypothetical pH (pH s ) of the
water if it were in equilibrium with solid CaCO3 at the actual concentrations of the
bicarbonate ion and the calcium ion present:
LI = pHa - pHs
A positive Langelier index indicates scale-forming tendency and a negative Langelier
index indicates a scale-dissolving tendency, with the possibility of corrosion. Calculation
of pHs is derived from the alkalinity, calcium, pH, the dissolved salts concentration and
the temperature of the water.
Domestic Water Use 2nd Edition, 1996 (1st Issue) Corrosion: Page 1 of 5
53
! Ryznar index
The Ryznar index (RI) is defined as:
RI = 2pHs - pHa , where pHs is the saturation pH as given by the Langelier
method, and pHa is the actual pH.
An alternate formula for the Ryznar index is:
RI = pHa - 2LI, where LI is the Langelier index.
Interpretation of the Ryznar index is as follows:
Ryznar index Water property
< 6.5 scale-forming tendency
> 6.5 corrosive tendency
! Corrosion ratio
The corrosion ratio (R) is used to estimate the corrosive tendency of chloride and
sulphate ions and is given by:
R = { me/R(Cl- + SO42-)}/{me/R alkalinity as CaCO3}
A ratio less than 0.1 indicates general freedom from corrosion in neutral to slightly
alkaline oxygenated waters. Higher ratios indicate a tendency towards progressive
corrosion, that is, aggressive waters.
! Aggressiveness index
The aggressiveness index (AI) formulated for evaluating corrosion in an asbestos cement
pipe, is defined as:
AI = pH + log10(AH), where;
A = total alkalinity in mg/R CaCO3; and
H = calcium hardness as mg/R CaCO3
Interpretation of the aggressiveness index is as follows:
Aggressiveness index (AI) Water property
$ 12 Non-aggressive
10.0 to 11.9 Moderately aggressive
# 10 Highly aggressive
Data Data interpretation depends on the index used. Generally, mean values can be used.
Interpretation
Domestic Water Use 2nd Edition, 1996 (1st Issue) Corrosion: Page 2 of 5
54
Treatment The tendency of a water to form a scaling film on plumbing fixtures and particularly in hot
Options water systems can be reduced by manipulating of the chemical composition of the water.
Scaling is commonly reduced by removal of alkalinity and calcium hardness from the water
until it becomes slightly undersaturated with respect to the calcium carbonate concentration,
and consequently slightly aggressive. Alkalinity can be reduced by adding a weak acid
solution, while calcium hardness is reduced by base exchange softening. Conversely, an
aggressive water which tends to attack unprotected concrete structures can be stabilised by
increasing its alkalinity or pH and calcium content. Poorly controlled additions may result
in a scaling water.
A water which is corrosive to metal fittings can usually be rendered less corrosive by
increasing its alkalinity or pH, and reducing the sulphate and chloride content. Alkalinity
addition is the more simple procedure since removal of sulphate and chloride would
necessitate using a desalination technique.
The modifications necessary to achieve acceptably stable waters may be very complex,
requiring strong treatment skills and sophisticated analytical facilities.
The Effects of Corrosion
Norms The norms used in the guideline for corrosion are based on economic considerations and
aesthetic and health effects.
Effects For the domestic user a corrosive or aggressive water may necessitate premature
replacement of plumbing, tanks, geysers and household appliances. A scaling water may
result in impaired water flow rates, especially in hot water systems, necessitate premature
replacement of hot water plumbing, result in increased power consumption and require
frequent replacement of heating elements as a result of poor heat transfer across the scale
layer.
The presence of oxidised iron as a result of corrosion can give rise to a red discolouration
of the water and impact negatively on the aesthetic quality thereof. Possible health risks
associated with bacterial regrowth as a result of corrosion, may also exist.
Mitigation ! Scaling
As with chemical corrosion, scaling is best prevented by proper stabilisation of the
water. Electromagnetic anti-scaling devices are available on the market but have not
been proven or widely accepted. Scaling due to hard water may be alleviated by
lowering of pH and/or water softening processes, for example, lime softening. Scale is
extremely difficult to remove and even with the use of the stabilised acid wash
procedure, removal is seldom effective.
! Chemical corrosion
Chemical corrosion can be eliminated or alleviated by using corrosion-resistant coatings
or materials for all elements of the water supply system which come into direct contact
with the water. Normally, the proper stabilisation of the water during treatment through
the addition of pH and alkalinity-adjusting chemicals (for example, soda ash) should be
adequate to prevent chemical corrosion and scaling by treated potable water. Phosphates
or silicates can also be used as layer-forming materials. The amount and type of
Domestic Water Use 2nd Edition, 1996 (1st Issue) Corrosion: Page 3 of 5
55
chemicals to be added can be determined by graphical methods using manual calculations
or the computer software, Stasoft III.
The use of asbestos cement pipes or commercially available coatings for steel piping is
suitable for water of lower corrosivity but is not recommended where proper stabilisation
is a practicable alternative. For example, cement-lined and coated steel pipes are used
extensively in the Western Cape, where water is stabilised to protect the cement.
Cathodic protection may be required in some instances, for example, where pipelines run
close to electrical cables or close to electric railway lines.
! Biological corrosion
Biological corrosion is best prevented by commencing with a clean, sediment-free
system, that is maintained as such. The organic content of the water and especially the
Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) content should be kept as low as possible in order
to deprive micro-organisms of nutrition. This in turn limits the amount of post-
disinfection required. However, post-disinfection using chlorination or chloramination
is imperative at high AOC concentrations and/or in distribution systems with long
retention times. Multiple re-chlorination may be required in order to ensure the presence
of an adequate chlorine residual in all parts of the distribution system.
Criteria ! Scaling
Stabilise the water during treatment to the acknowledged standards for a stable water,
using either manual calculations or the Stasoft III software. Heated appliances such as
geysers and kettles should be taken into account.
! Chemical Corrosion
Because of the large number of possible effects, the following general criteria are
recommended:
- Stabilise the water during treatment to the acknowledged standards for a stable
water, using either manual calculations or the Stasoft III software;
- Avoid having different metals in contact with one another in the water distribution
system;
- Use the correct materials for construction and coating;
- Do not lay pipelines close to electric cables;
- Limit sulphate and chloride concentrations in the water; and
- Prevent any bacterial growth or other biological activity.
! Biological Corrosion
The following general criteria should be adhered to:
- Keep the organic content of the water, especially the AOC content, as low as
possible;
- Practise adequate post-disinfection of the treated water, especially where a treated
water has a high organic content and/or where retention times in the distribution
system are long. Chlorination or chloramination should be used for post-disinfection
and rechlorination in multiple steps may be required in order to ensure
Domestic Water Use 2nd Edition, 1996 (1st Issue) Corrosion: Page 4 of 5
56
the presence of adequate free chlorine residuals in all parts of the distribution system;
and
- Prevent or flush out any sediments in any part of the distribution system. New parts
of the distribution system should be thoroughly cleaned before commissioning in
order to commence with a clean system.
Sources of Information
APHA 1975. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water, 14th
Edition. American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, Water
Pollution Control Federation. Published by the American Public Health Association,
Washington DC, USA.
ASCE/AWWA 1990. Water Treatment Plant Design. American Society of Civil
Engineers/American Water Works Association. McGraw Hill, New York, USA, 2nd Edition.
DEPARTMENT OF WATER AFFAIRS AND FORESTRY 1993. South African Water
Quality Guidelines Volume 1: Domestic Use, 1st Edition. The Government Printer, Pretoria,
South Africa.
FRIEND F. and R.E. Loewenthal 1992. Stasoft III. Computer Program for Chemical
Conditioning of Low and Medium Salinity Waters. Water Research Commission, Pretoria,
South Africa.
SCHOCK M.R. 1984. JAWWA, 76 (8), p 72 - 76, Temperature and Ionic Strength
Corrections to the Langelier Index - Revisited.
LOEWENTHAL R.E. and G.V.R. Marais 1976. Carbonate Chemistry of Aquatic Systems:
Theory and Application. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, USA.
MERRILL D.T. and R.L. Sanks 1977. Corrosion Control by Deposition of CaCO3 Films:
Part 1, A Practical Approach for Plant Operators. J. Am. Water Works Assoc, 69, 592.
MILLETTE J.R., A.F. Hammonds, M.F. Pansing, E.C. Hansen and P.J. Clark 1980.
JAWWA, pp 262-266. Aggressive Water: Assessing the Extent of the Problem. May 1980.
Corrosion and Scaling.
Domestic Water Use 2nd Edition, 1996 (1st Issue) Corrosion: Page 5 of 5
57
