Unit-1, Chapter-1 (Digital

Devices)
Input: Data or commands sent to a computer or device. Ex-Microphone

Output: Data or results produced by a computer or device. Ex-Speaker

Digital devices are pieces of hardware that use computers or

microcontrollers, and they are found everywhere in our digital world.
They enhance and support how we live our lives every day.

There are many types of digital devices.

i) Mainframe Computers: Large, powerful systems that handle complex

tasks and support many users at once, used by large organizations for
tasks like statistical analysis.

ii) Microprocessors: Control computers by processing input data and

providing output, commonly used in household appliances.

**Portable: easy to carry or move**

** Personal computers (PCs) are common in homes and offices. They

come in many different shapes and sizes, such as desktops and laptops.

Desktops have more space for components than laptops and often
provide users with the option to upgrade them or add additional
components. A desktop computer usually needs to have peripheral
devices connected to it, such as a monitor, a printer, a mouse, and a
keyboard.

All-in-one Desktop: Combination of the monitor with the PC hardware.

upgrade to make a computer better and
able to do more things

peripheral device equipment that is

connected to a computer and used with
Laptops include a keyboard, a screen, a track pad and a rechargeable
battery. Having these features means that they can be taken away from
the desk, which makes them an example of a portable device.

Some laptops are called ‘desktop replacements’. These tend to be

larger than other laptops, as well as having a bigger and better-quality
screen and higher performance levels.

Mobile phones use a SIM card to connect to a mobile phone network.

SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) is used to identify the subscriber to a
mobile phone network.

**User: The person who uses a computer system.**

**Accessibility: How easy something is to use, especially for people

with disabilities.**

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): Connects devices to a network or the internet

using radio signals instead of wires.

Games Console: An electronic device used for playing video games on a

screen.

Application (App): A program that lets users perform specific tasks.

Virtual Keyboard: A keyboard displayed on a touch screen.

Compensate: to reduce or correct a negative effect.

Pixel: A small dot that helps to make up an image.

Peripheral devices are devices that can be connected to a computer,

such as a PC or tablet device. Peripherals can be connected inside or
outside a computer and can be grouped into three types:
 Shortcut: a combination of key
presses used to access common
software commands quickly.

▲◾ input Mapped: linked.

▲◾ output Pointer: an on-screen indicator

used to select displayed objects.
▲◾ storage

Input peripherals are devices that send data to a computer, allowing

users to control the computer or capture data from outside sources.

INPUT
Keyboards:
Keyboards are input devices with buttons (keys) that allow users to
input text and interact with software via wired or wireless connections.

Function: Keyboards send data to the computer for typing and

executing commands.

Advantages:

1. Efficient Data Entry: Enables quick and accurate typing.

2. Shortcut Access: Speeds up tasks with key combinations.
3. Customizable Layouts: Provides various styles and setups.

Disadvantages:

1. Can Cause Strain: Long use may lead to hand or wrist pain.
2. Takes Time to Learn: Learning touch typing and shortcuts can be
challenging.
3. Requires Space: Needs desk space and may not fit all setups.
Pointing Devices
A pointer is used on a screen to select displayed objects. There are
several types of device that allow you to control a pointer.

 Mouse: TrackerBall Mouse, Optical

Mouse, Wireless Mouse
A mouse is a device that controls the on-screen pointer, detecting
movement through an optical sensor or roller ball.

Function: It allows users to navigate, select, and interact with items on

a computer screen.

Advantages:

1. Easy to Use: Simple to move and click.

2. Precise Control: Good for accurate cursor movement.
3. Comfortable: Some designs fit well in your hand.

Disadvantages:

1. Surface Issues: May not work well on some surfaces.

2. Needs Space: Requires room to move.
3. Can Get Dirty: Roller ball mice need cleaning.

 Tracker Ball:
A tracker ball is rolled to move the pointer. It does not have buttons to
press.

Function: It allows users to control the cursor by rolling the ball in

different directions.
Advantages:

1. Space-Saving: Doesn't need much room to operate.

2. Less Strain: Reduces wrist movement compared to a mouse.
3. Precision: Offers fine control over the cursor.

Disadvantages:

1. Learning Curve: Can be tricky to get used to.

2. Less Common: Not as widely available as regular mice.
3. Can Get Dirty: The ball may need cleaning over time.

 Track Pad:
The track pad surface senses finger movements, touches and presses.

Function: It lets us navigate and interact with our computer by swiping

and tapping.

Advantages:

1. Compact: Takes up less space than a mouse.

2. Multi-Touch: Supports gestures like pinching and scrolling.
3. Built-In: Often included with laptops, so no extra device needed.

Disadvantages:

1. Less Precise: Can be harder to control than a mouse.

2. Learning Curve: Takes time to get used to gestures.
3. Can Be Unresponsive: May not work well if the surface is dirty or
wet.
  Joystick:
Joysticks are commonly used on games controllers to move sprites
around the game.

Function: It lets players control game movements by tilting the stick.

Advantages:

1. Precise Control: Moves game characters accurately.

2. Comfortable: Feels good to hold during long gaming sessions.
3. Fun: Makes gaming more enjoyable.

Disadvantages:

1. Game-Specific: Mostly used for gaming, not other tasks.

2. Takes Time to Learn: Can be tricky to master.
3. Needs Space: Requires room to move around.
 Graphics Tablet:
A graphics tablet is a flat pad used with a stylus for drawing or writing.

Function: It allows users to create digital art or designs by using the

stylus to interact directly with the tablet's surface

Advantages:

1. Accurate Drawing: Good for detailed work.

2. Natural Drawing: Similar to using a real pen.
3. Pressure Sensitivity: Adjusts line thickness with pressure.

Disadvantages:

1. Hard to Learn: Takes practice to use well.

2. Costs More: Can be pricier than other tools.
3. Needs Programs: Requires special software to work.
Scanner
ii) OMR Optical Mark Recognization

ii) OCR Optical Character Recognization

OCR (Optical Character Recognition) is technology that converts

scanned images of text into editable and searchable digital text.

Function: It allows you to turn physical documents into text files by

recognizing and converting printed or handwritten characters.

Advantages:

1. Editable Text
2. Saves Time

Disadvantages:

1. Accuracy Issues
2. Requires Clean Scans

OMR (Optical Mark Recognization) software can be used with

scanners to detect simple marks on a document.

Function: It allows you to automatically read and process marked

responses on documents, like multiple-choice tests or surveys.

Advantages:

1. Fast Processing
2. Accurate Counting
Disadvantages:

1. Limited to Simple Marks

2. Requires Proper Marking

A Scanner is a device that turns physical documents into digital files.

Function: It creates digital copies of documents that you can save, edit,
or share.

Advantages:

1. Digital Copies: Makes it easy to save and share documents.

2. Text Conversion: Can turn scanned text into editable files.
3. Easy Sharing: Digital files are simple to share online.

Disadvantages:

1. Image Quality: Scans may not always be clear.

2. Slow: Scanning large documents takes time.
3. Needs Software: Some features need special programs to work.

A Barcode is a pattern of lines or dots that stores information, which

can be read by barcode scanners. Two types of Barcode- Linear, Matrix

A Barcode Scanner is a device that reads and decodes barcodes to

identify items.

Function: It scans barcodes on products or packages to retrieve and

process information like prices or tracking details.

Advantages:

1. Quick Scanning: Instantly reads and identifies items.

2. Efficient Data Entry: Speeds up information input.
3. Wide Use: Common in retail, logistics, and inventory.
Disadvantages:

1. Directional Limitation: Must be aligned correctly to scan.

2. Limited Information Capacity: Can only read basic data.
3. Needs Power: Requires electricity or batteries.

Matrix codes, or QR codes, are newer than linear barcodes and have
advantages like:

 Holding more information.

 Scanning from any angle.

A QR Scanner is a device or app that reads QR codes, which are

square-shaped patterns storing information.

Function: It scans QR codes to quickly access data like website links,

product details, or payment information.

Advantages:

1. High Data Capacity: Stores more information than traditional

barcodes.
2. Flexible Scanning: Can be read from any angle.
3. Widely Used: Common for payments, links, and product info.

Disadvantages:

1. Requires QR-Compatible Devices: Needs a camera or scanner.

2. Visibility Issues: Difficult to scan if damaged or dirty.
3. Physical Space: Needs enough space to display the code clearly.
Webcams are cameras that connect to a computer to capture and
stream video or images, often with built-in microphones.

Function: They are used for video calls, recording, live streaming, and
security.

Advantages:

1. Easy to Use: Simple to set up and operate.

2. Real-Time Streaming: Provides live video feeds.
3. Multi-Purpose: Useful for calls, recording, and monitoring.

Disadvantages:

1. Lower Quality: Typically lower resolution than camcorders.

2. Privacy Concerns: Risk of being hacked.
3. Limited Features: Lacks advanced camera features

A Microphone captures sound with a diaphragm, converts it into an

analogue signal, and then digitizes it with a sound card.

Function: It records audio for voice recognition, speech recording, and

VoIP calls.

Advantages:

1. Convenient Communication: Facilitates easy voice interaction.

2. High-Quality Recording: Produces clear and detailed audio.
3. Variety of Quality: Available in both low and high-quality options.

Disadvantages:

1. External Noise Sensitivity: Can pick up unwanted background

sounds.
 2. Placement Sensitivity: Needs proper positioning for optimal
performance.
3. Quality Variability: Sound clarity can vary with microphone
quality.

A TouchScreen is a display that responds to touch, letting you

control the device by tapping or swiping on the screen. Two Types-
Resistive, Capacitive

Function: It allows you to interact directly with devices like

smartphones and tablets.

Advantages:

1. Direct Control: Touch directly where you want to interact.

2. Easy to Use: Simple and intuitive.
3. All-in-One: Combines screen and input.

Disadvantages:

1. Fingerprints: Shows marks from touch.

2. Less Precision: Not as precise as a mouse or keyboard.
3. Damage: Can get scratched or damaged easily.

When a user presses on a resistive screen, pressure makes two

layers touch and connect. Resistive screens are durable but harder to
read due to light reflection and can only recognize one touch at a time,
making them unsuitable for multi-touch applications.

A capacitive screen has a conductive layer under the glass. When you
touch it, the screen detects the change in electrical charge caused by
your finger. This allows the screen to pinpoint the touch location
accurately. Capacitive screens are commonly used in smartphones.
A Biometric Scanner measures unique physical traits to identify
individuals.

Function: It compares a person's physical characteristics to stored data

to verify their identity.

Advantages:

1. Convenient: Biometric data cannot be forgotten.

2. Secure: Harder to trick or confuse than some other methods.
3. Fast: Speeds up transactions.
4. Language-Free: Works regardless of language barriers.

Disadvantages:

1. Privacy Concerns: Detailed personal info is stored electronically.

2. Potentially Misleading: Can sometimes be tricked or confused.
3. Costly: Expensive to produce and purchase.
4. Discomfort: Some people may feel uneasy using them.

Four examples of Biometric Scanners:

 Fingerprint Recognition: Scans unique fingerprint patterns for
identification. Fingerprints can be obscured or changed.
 Facial Recognition: Identifies individuals by analyzing their facial
structure.
 Voice Recognition: Uses a microphone to capture and compare
voice patterns with a stored sample.
 Iris Recognition: Scans the unique pattern in the iris, offering
much higher accuracy than fingerprints.

Card Readers are devices that read information from a card to

unlock doors, make payments, or track items.
  Magnetic strip: Data can be easily stolen if swiped without the
owner's knowledge.
 Programmable chip: Data is accessible only with the correct PIN,
reducing fraud.

 i)RFID(Radio Frequency Identification): A wireless system that

reads and tracks data from tags without contact. Example:
Contactless payment cards.

ii)NFC (Near Field Communication): A technology for close-range

data exchange between devices. Example: Smartphone tap-to-pay.

Function: They retrieve and process information from a card to perform

actions such as unlocking doors or tracking items.

Advantages:

1. Convenient Access: Easily unlocks doors or access secure areas.

2. Efficient Payments: Facilitates quick and secure transactions.
3. Wide Application: Useful for tracking people, parcels, or pets.

Disadvantages:

1. Data Theft Risk: Data on cards can be stolen if not properly

protected.
2. Costly Equipment: Some systems and readers can be expensive.
3. Card Loss Risks: Lost or stolen cards can pose security risks.

Sensors are input peripherals that measure physical conditions and

send data to a computer.

Example: A sensor in a smart thermostat that measures temperature.

Function: They automatically collect information about things like

temperature or motion and send it to a computer.
Advantages:

1. Can Be Used Anywhere: Works in places that are hard to reach.

2. Constant Data Collection: Keeps gathering information all the
time.
3. Reduces Mistakes: Cuts down on human errors in data collection.

Disadvantages:

1. May Be Inaccurate: Can give wrong data if conditions change.

2. Can Be Expensive: Some sensors cost a lot.
3. Privacy Issues: Continuous monitoring can affect privacy.

Benefits of Sensors:
 Remote Placement: Can be used in hard-to-reach or hazardous
areas.
 Continuous Monitoring: Provides ongoing data collection.
 Eliminates Errors: Reduces human mistakes.
 Detects Subtle Changes: Senses minor changes like pressure or
gas levels.
 Easy Data Conversion: Automatically converts data to digital
form.

Types of Sensors:
 Light
 Moisture and Humidity
 Temperature
 Proximity and Distance
 Motion (e.g., PIR-Passive Infrared sensors)
 Pressure
Specialist phones have unique features to meet specific needs. For
example, some have an emergency button that calls a list of contacts
one by one until someone answers.

Single-board computers (SBCs) are low-cost computers used for

education and various projects, like embedded and physical computing.
The Raspberry Pi Zero is an example, using a cheap microSD card for
storage.

Embedded computing: Fixed hardware that performs a specific task.

Physical computing: Interactive systems that sense and respond to

their environment.

The Alto 2 is a talking phone for the visually impaired that reads
contacts and messages aloud. Other phones have bigger buttons and
support hearing aids.

Smartphones are like small computers with Wi-Fi, phone calls, and
internet access. They include features like cameras and apps for
entertainment or business. Most have touch screens and virtual
keyboards. They use more power, so need charging more often than
regular phones. They offer different functions and are multifunctional
devices.

Tablets are larger than smartphones but have similar features like
touch screens, apps, and Wi-Fi. Some tablets also have SIM card slots
for mobile internet access.

Digital cameras and camcorders use light sensors to capture

images. Cameras were for photos, camcorders for videos, but now both
can do both.
Image quality depends on:
Lens: Lets light through clearly and adjusts light.

Processor: Enhances images in low light.

Sensor: Higher resolution captures more detail. Some cameras use

multiple sensors for different colors.

Televisions show images using pixels, and their quality depends on

screen resolution. Higher resolutions mean better image quality. HD
TVs have more pixels than standard ones. Resolution is often given as
horizontal × vertical pixels (e.g., 1280 × 720 is 720p, and 1920 × 1080 is
1080p). Ultra High Definition (UHD) TVs, also called 4K or 8K, have
very high resolutions (around 4,000 or 8,000 horizontal pixels), making
individual pixels hard to see even up close.

Most TVs have built-in speakers, but they’re often small and low-
quality. For better sound, you can connect an external sound system.
Smart TVs can use apps to stream and download content from the
internet.

Bluetooth is wireless technology for connecting devices over short

distances.

Sound systems produce high-quality, loud sound using good speakers

and amplifiers. They can play music from CDs, local storage, or personal
devices via USB or Bluetooth. They can connect to a local network via
Wi-Fi to play music from connected devices or the internet.

A personal video recorder (PVR) records TV content to watch later.

Some devices combine a set-top box (STB) and a PVR.
Blu-ray and DVD players connect to TVs to play movies. Blu-ray
players can handle DVDs, but not vice versa. Blu-ray discs offer HD
quality, and 4K players can play 4K movies on 4K TVs.

Games consoles play video games on a screen and may also run apps,
connect to networks, and play movies and music. Modern consoles can
have disk drives for DVDs and Blu-rays. Handheld consoles offer
portable gaming with built-in screens but have less storage, leading to
lower image and sound quality, simpler games, and shorter storylines.

Media players store and play digital music, videos, and photos on
TVs. They can stream content from the internet or access files from
local or networked storage, connect via wired or wireless networks, and
are controlled by a remote or smartphone app. Some offer 4K output.
Personal media players are small, portable devices with local
storage for media files. They’re ideal for travel or exercise due to their
size, long battery life, and durable flash memory.

Navigation aids like Sat-Nav calculate and update routes using GPS
satellites. They provide visual and audio prompts for drivers and have
rugged versions for walkers and cyclists. GPS works without internet,
but updating map data requires it. Smartphones now often replace in-
car navigation aids with various navigation apps.

Emerging smart home technology connects devices to control

functions like temperature and lighting, all managed through
smartphone apps or the internet.

When devices like smartphones adopt features from other types of

devices, it's called convergence. Convergence blurs device
differences. Smartphones and tablets are similar, with phones getting
larger (phablets) and tablets gaining mobile network connectivity.
Digital cameras now often have Wi-Fi and mobile features too.
Processor: Handles software instructions using one or more CPUs.

RAM: Memory for running software.

Virtual Memory: Extra storage used when RAM is full.

A high-performance device works quickly, determined by how fast it
can process software instructions. A faster processor improves
performance, and faster RAM helps load instructions quicker. More
RAM allows more programs to run simultaneously. Faster storage
speeds up loading instructions into RAM and virtual memory. Efficient
software also boosts performance, while inefficient software can slow
down the system.

Files and programs are stored in storage. More available storage allows
users to store more files and programs. Storage speed also affects
performance.

Users give commands to a device through the user interface. There

are several different types of user interface:

A User Interface (UI) is a system that allows a user to interact with

the device. A user gives command through the User Interface.
Several types of User Interface:

i) Command Line Interface (CLI): It uses text commands for input

and output. It’s found on older systems and devices with limited
storage. Commands must be typed accurately, and a help menu lists
acceptable commands.

ii) Menu-Driven Interface (MDI): A menu-driven interface shows a

list of options. Selecting an option triggers a command or opens
another menu. It’s easier to use than a command line interface but can
be slower since you navigate through menus rather than typing
commands. It’s used in devices like ATMs, TVs, and older mobile
phones.

iii) Graphical User Interface (GUI): A Graphical User Interface (GUI)

is controlled by a pointer on the screen and uses a screen made up of
windows and icons.

WIMP Windows Icons Menus Pointer

Windows: Separate areas for apps or tasks.

Icon: Small images that open applications.

Menus: Options for tasks related to the system or apps.

GUIs are the easiest to use but require more memory and storage than
command line or menu-driven interfaces.

iv) Voice Interface: A voice interface lets users give spoken

commands with online voice recognition. It needs internet access, may
misinterpret commands, but improves with user feedback. It allows
hands-free operation, enhancing road safety in vehicles.

v) Gesture Interface: A gesture interface lets users control a device

by swiping or pinching on a screen. This type of interface is commonly
found on devices with touch screens.

A back up is a copy of information stored on a computer to protect

against loss or damage.

Media are items like memory cards and CDs that store information.
Devices can read from and write to various media types, such as SD
cards and DVDs. If a device lacks native media slots, adapters can be
used to connect external media.
Digital devices need electricity. Lower energy use extends battery life
and reduces costs. Manufacturers are making devices more energy-
efficient to save money and lessen environmental impact.

Digital devices need security features to protect private and valuable

data.

Software security ensures only authorized users access a device. This

includes using passwords, PINs, screen locks, and limiting access after
failed attempts. More complex passwords and pattern PINs enhance
security. Some devices also use biometric scanners, like Apple® Touch
ID®, for user access.

PIN Personal Identification Numbers

PIN Password
PINs are usually short Passwords are longer

PINs are numeric Passwords can include letters,

numbers, and symbols

PINs are used for quick access Passwords are for more secure
logins

Physical security prevents theft by using locks to attach devices to

furniture. Some devices use security slots or special screws to secure
these locks.
Output:
Output peripherals connect to a computer to display or produce
results, such as:

- Electronic displays, - Printed text, - Video, - Audio, - Tactile (touch)

forms

Monitors: allow users to see the output from the computer on an

electronic display. Features of monitors include:

- Screen size (measured diagonally)

- Resolution (measured in pixels)

- Energy-saving modes (low-power standby)

Some monitors also have touch screen technology.

Advantages:

1. High Resolution, 2. Large Screen, 3.Energy Efficiency

Disadvantages:

1. Space Usage, 2. Cost, 3. Eye Strain

Printer: There are three types of standard printer: dot matrix, inkjet
and laser.

Advantages:

1. Wide Use, 2. Convenience, 3. Variety of Outputs, 4. Quick

Results
Disadvantages:

1. Maintenance, 2. Consumables, 3. Space, 4. Print Quality, 5.

Noise

i) Dot Matrix Printers: These "impact" printers create prints by

striking paper through an ink ribbon, which makes them noisy. They
often have carbon copy layers to produce multiple copies at once.

Carbon Copy: A duplicate of a document made using carbon paper,

which transfers ink to create a copy.

ii) Inkjet Printers: Use cartridges with black ink and three colors
(cyan, magenta, yellow). Tiny dots of ink are sprayed onto paper to
create images or text.

iii) Laser Printers: Use a rotating drum charged by a laser to create an

image. Toner sticks to the drum and is then transferred and heated
onto paper.

3D Printer: Create physical objects from digital models by adding

layers of heated material from bottom to top. They can produce
complex items like airplane parts, artificial limbs, prototypes, and even
food. 3D printing can take a long time.

Plotter: It can create detailed images from CAD software on large

paper sheets using a pen that moves and rolls the paper.

Advantages:

1. High-Quality Output, 2. Large Format Printing, 3. Precision

Disadvantages:

1. Expensive, 2. Large Size, 3. Slow Speed

Data Projectors: are used for home entertainment and

presentations. Key features include:

- Light Bulbs: Vary in brightness (lumens) and can be costly to replace.

- Resolution: Offers different screen qualities.

- Zoom Functionality: Allows image enlargement via optical or digital

zoom.

- Portability: Some models are small and light, making them easier to
move.

Advantages:

1. Large Display, 2. Portability, 3. Multiple Inputs

Disadvantages:

1. High Maintenance, 2. Bulb Replacement Cost, 3. Low Brightness in

Daylight
Speakers: They produce sound from a computer. They often come in
pairs for stereo sound and need an amplifier for surround sound
setups.

Advantages:

1. Stereo Sound, 2. Surround Sound, 3. Enhanced Audio Quality

Disadvantages:

1. Space Required, 2. Additional Equipment, 3. Expensive

Stereo Sound: Sound from two sides (left and right).

Surround Sound: Sound from four or more sides, simulating real-life

audio.

A single speaker typically provides low-quality audio, often found in

alarms and buzzers.

Control Devices (or actuators) are components that make physical

changes happen. Examples include:

- Valves, - Pistons, - Heaters, - Coolers, - Motors

Secondary Storage, often referred to as 'storage', is different from

primary storage (RAM or ROM) and is non-volatile, meaning it keeps
data even when the power is off. It's used for:

- Saving documents for later, - Storing applications for loading into

RAM, - Holding virtual memory

Memory (RAM) is for temporary data

Storage keeps data permanently.

Storage Devices are used to save data or software in a computer
system.

- Internal Drives: Connect directly to the motherboard.

- External Devices: Connect through ports or adapters.

Types of Storage Devices:

- Hard Disk Drives (HDD): Use hard disk media and connect via wired or
wireless adapters.

- Solid State Drives (SSD): Use flash memory and function like HDDs.

- Optical Disk Drives: Read optical media like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays,
often with backwards compatibility.

A storage device holds and accesses data, while storage media is the
actual material that stores the data. For example:

1. Flash Memory is the media, and a USB Drive is the device that
contains and reads it.

2. DVD is the media, and a DVD Drive reads the data on the DVD.

Media:
i) Hard disks are made of many concentric platters. They have
spinning platters that store data. A read/write head moves across these
platters to access or record data. The speed of data access depends on
the spin rate (typically 5400 or 7200 rpm) and seek time (4–15
milliseconds).
ii) Optical Media
Types of Optical Media:

- CDs: Store up to 700 MB. Data is written using a laser to a plastic layer
beneath aluminum and acrylic.

- DVDs: Store up to 4.7 GB (single-layer) or 18 GB (dual-layer). They use

a red laser with a shorter wavelength than CDs.

-Blu-ray Discs: Store up to 25 GB (single-layer) or 50 GB (dual-layer).

They use violet laser light and have scratch protection.

They can be recordable (CD-R, DVD-R, BD-R) or rewritable (CD-RW,

DVD-RW, BD-RE).

iii) Flash Media: More energy-efficient and durable than hard disks
due to no moving parts, making them ideal for portable devices.

iv) Magnetic Tape: Originally for sound recording, now also used
for data storage.
Storage Media store data in binary form (0s and 1s) using different
methods:

- Hard Disks: Magnetic charges on a platter.

- Optical Media: Tiny bumps on the disk.

- Flash Media: Electrical charges in cells.

- Magnetic Tape: Magnetic charges on the tape.