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Visions in Leisure and Business

Volume 18 Number 1 Article 5

1999

A System Model of Sport Tourism with Implications for Research

Kuan-Chou Chen

David L. Groves
Bowling Green State University

Julie Lengfelder
Bowling Green State University

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Chen, Kuan-Chou; Groves, David L.; and Lengfelder, Julie (1999) "A System Model of Sport Tourism with
Implications for Research," Visions in Leisure and Business: Vol. 18 : No. 1 , Article 5.
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 A SYSTEM MODEL OF SPORT TOURISM WITH
IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

BY

DR. KUAN-CHOU CHEN

SYSTEM ENGINEER
EDS (ELECTRONIC DATA SYSTEMS)
LANSING, MICHIGAN 48909

DR. DAVID GROVES, PROFESSOR

AND

DR. JULIE LENGFELDER, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

RECREATION AND TOURISM DIVISION

BOWLING GREEN STATE UNIVERSITY
BOWLING GREEN, omo 43403

ABSTRACT tern. The relationships in the model are de­

signed to be simple and do not necessarily
Problems related to sport tourism planning and represent any particular sport system. It is
development that must be addressed by meant to be a generic sport tourism system
educators today have become increasingly model with emphasis on implications for
complex, ambiguous, and interrelated. In planning and decision making. The qualita­
order to more effectively understand the tive system dynamics methodology is used to
complexity of the real world, system styles that represent the sport tourism system in order
encourage experiential learning should be used. to represent the interrelated nature of sport
A generic sport tourism system model has a tourism management decisions. It allows
subtle role as an instnnnent to support strategic managers to move away from the persistent
thinking, group discussion, and learning in belief that there are elements as unilateral
sport tourism management teams. In this causation, independent and dependent vari­
respect, they are quite similar to qualitative ables.
problem structuring approaches used by
strategy advisers and process consultants. A System models can be depicted as maps that
system model is described in terms of six capture and activate knowledge. They can
sectors that support different cognitive and also be viewed as frameworks that filter and
group processes in management teams. organize knowledge. They are also mi­
croworlds for experimentation, cooperation,
The objective of this paper was to develop and learning (15, 3).
an integrated model of a sport tourism sys-

34
The interrelationships of six primary sectors hances opportunities where there are com­
that are at the foundation of sport tourism monalities and provides increased under­
are presented in this paper. They include [1] standing where there are differences. Re­
tourist, [2] hospitality, [3] infrastructure, [4] sources can then be allocated on a basis of
transportation, [5] sport resource, and [6] priorities that relate to a developmental pol­
sport management. There are interactions icy for effectiveness (9).
within each of these sectors depicted by
feedback loops. Also, the system is bounded The first issue that must be addressed in de­
by an external situation which impacts it, but veloping a tourism system is the under­
which is beyond the direct control of the standing of the relationship between tourism
components within the system. Six of the and travel. Tourism is often mistaken for
many components of the external- impacts are travel. The operational definitions for tour­
noted including: [1] government, [2] envi­ isll} that are used extensively are the Stan­
ronment, [3] technology, [4] the economy, dard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes
[5] climate, and [6] socio/culture. (11). These SIC codes relate more to travel
than to tourism. Business taxes have to be
reported on· a comprehensive basis; there is a
INTRODUCTION demand for accountability. The use of SIC
codes provides a very convenient method of
Tourism is very hard to define. . The theo­ reporting dollar revenues generated by a
retical definitions for tourism provide a ho­ business. The primary problem of these SIC
listic view of the field, but in practice, each codes is that it creates artificial barriers that
of the phases of tourism is a separate entity lead to further fragmentation in the subdisci­
(16, 11, 20). Each of these phases or sub­ plines of tourism. Tourism is often mired in
disciplines has segregated itself and has for­ the domain of travel. There are obvious .re­
mulated its own organizations. This has lationships between travel and tourism as
made it difficult to develop a practical defi­ parent sciences. However, the economic
nition of tourism. New models are needed to impact of tourism is undetermined because
develop a comprehensive framework de­ there is not a convenient way to measure the
scribing the relationships existing among the economic impacts of tourism. The primary
subdisciplines in tourism. Of the models that question raised is how to distinguish between
have been utilized to study tourism, one of pure travel and travel related to tourism.
the best is a systems approach (2, 20). A Obviously, travel is the means by which indi­
good model or framework is one that exam­ viduals arrive at tourist destinations for the
ines the basic questions of relationships expenditure of their time and dollars. Travel,
among the subcomponents of the general in the context of tourism, is perceived as a
system. The primary focus of a systems ap­ means, not an end, and is an important part
proach is on the integration of disciplines to of the infrastructural development of tour­
form a comprehensive approach. The em­ ism.
phasis is on relationship, that is, commonal­
ties and differences. The basic goal is to In addition to the problem of distinguishing
achieve understanding and to develop a travel from tourism, there is no way to inte­
common perception of the general discipline. grate all of the necessary components that
A systems approach does not limit a subdis­ contribute to the existence of tourism. Inte­
cipline but expands the discipline. It en- gration should allow the various subcompo-

35
nents or sectors to express themselves politi­ Sport itself is often segmented by the activity
cally (2). None of the subcomponents or and the industry developed around that par­
subdisciplines in tourism should have a supe­ ticular activity. Relationships among various
rior position. However, because of territori­ sports are a forgotten perspective and a little
ality, dominance of one subdiscipline is understood phenomenon. It is important to
achieved and sustained at the dysfunctional­ understand sport tourism as a whole, the im­
ity of other subdisciplines. Integration of pact that each sport has, and the relation­
subdisciplines into a comprehensive plan is ships among the sports. A sponsor often has
needed to achieve productivity effectiveness to choose from a myriad of sports in order to
of tourism destination or a tourism product allocate dollars to obtain maximum market­
(2, 13, 15). ing and promotion exposure. The sponsor is
constantly analyzing the comparative and
profitable nature of the sport and where they
SPORT TOURISM can obtain the "biggest bang for their buck".
This type of comparative approach must be
One of the emerging subdisciplines in an in­ used to understand sport tourism because it
tegrated model of tourism is sport tourism is the integration of the products from a sub­
(21). It is important that as this subdiscipline disciplinary perspective that may have the
emerges that a system perspective be used to greatest impact for development. The previ­
analyze the relationship between this subdis­ ous approach used, one of isolationism, had
cipline and the other subdisciplines within the been utilized to develop sport tourism prod­
tourism. Sport tourism is an independent ucts but not as profitably. Different sports
subdiscipline and is unique. Sport tourism progress through various cycles of popularity
flourishes in isolation based upon the geo­ and "de-popularity''. Sport as a tourism
graphical popularity of sport. It is important product has been very susceptible to cycles
to cooperatively build on the structure of of popularity, which are not necessarily eco­
other subdisciplines, and to complement nomic cycles. The primary influence of eco­
these subdisciplines in such a way that sport nomic cycles has been much less than the
tourism becomes an integral part of tourism popularity cycles based on demand for the
(6). sport. Therefore, it is important to under­
stand these cycles, the multiplicity of sport,
Sport activities occupy a large portion of and the tourism product. The sport tourism
Americans' leisure time, in terms of specta­ product may be developed a bundle or series
torship and participation. (26). Sport is of sport and when one sport is popular, the
visualized in terms of mega events, such as other is not. The core sport may change, but
Super Bowls, World Cup Soccer, etc. The the sport tourism product overall can be
numbers in terms of television ratings and maintained through bundling.
spectators are shared; these numbers are
used to justify the expenditures of additional The primary problem is how to treat the
revenue to obtain more spectators. Mega system for the long term. Too often the
events generate interest of children as well as packaged product centers on a single sport,
adult participation. Sport must be analyzed and the product has provided feast or famine
from the micro as well as the macro level in based upon the cyclic nature of the sport.
order to obtain a very clear understanding of One community that excelled in sport prod­
the impact of sport in relation to tourism (6). uct development is Indianapolis. Once a

36
 one-dimensional community with the Indian­ THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
apolis race, it has diversified to a multiplexity
of sports, both amateur and professional, and The objectives of the study were to I) build
has developed a very diverse base of sport a framework for a sport tourism system,
tourism packages. These packages have been 2) provide a model to structure and organize
. bundled to overcome the cycles and reces­ the sectors and subsectors of sport tourism,
sionary trends of the economy. The ele­ 3) identify the relationships between and
ments in packaging that must be considered among sectors and subsectors, and 4) serve
are impacts, policy implications, infrastruc­ as the reference for policy implications for a
ture, etc. The package decision maker is sport tourism system. Weaved throughout
constantly seeking new frameworks on each of these objectives is the development
which to build revenue bases for the commu­ of a consistent, long-term framework to
nity. Most sought after, obviously, are the analyze and understand sport tourism, to de­
professional sports at the macro level that velop opportunities and the ability to market
bring in great dollars in terms of stadium and sport.
television revenues. There is also a certain
prestige or pride associated with the city that
has professional sports. On a secondary or SYSTEMS APPROACH
an intermediate level, there are participatory
sports, like the Women's Bowling Congress, The traditional systems approach has yielded
that provide good economic revenues for effective results, especially at the macro level
communities. Obviously, tournaments are a (2, 9, 18). A good example where the sys­
large source of revenue because they include tems approach has been adopted is the Na­
travel, meals, hotel, etc. These types of tional Aeronautical Space Administration
tournaments may generate more dollars than (NASA). At NASA the technical aspects of
the macro. professional sports. At the micro the engineer, as well as the public relations
level, there are community sport events that specialist, were brought together to develop
generate dollars from children through local an effective project to put a "person on the
adult amateur sports. A decision maker moon". The improvements that have been
needs a framework in order to develop a made in systems theory in recent years have
comprehensive plan of sport tourism (3). been the recognition that the macro, as well
This plan includes all of these levels and as was the micro level, must be systematized
takes advantage of all these levels to gener­ to develop vertical integration. In the origi­
ate dollars and revenues for the community nal systems approach, horizontal integration
as well as associated businesses. A system was the primary emphasis. This does not
model can be used as a skeleton framework suggest that in the original approach that
from which to develop a comprehensive vertical and horizontal integration were not ·a
business plan for sport tourism products and part of the original systems theory; however,
events. A systems model serves as a theo­ on an operational basis, most of the emphasis
retical as well as an operational foundation was given to horizontal integration. The im­
to identify and exploit opportunities of mar­ portance of the vertical integration and un­
keting sport as tourism products and events derstanding the micro dynamics has been the
(18). primary emphases of recent research and de­
velopment. In the beginning, the micro and
horizontal integration was the primary em-

37
phasis, then the pendulum shifted to focusing the economic emphasis of tourism to also
on the micro level analysis and vertical inte­ include the behavioral as well as the cultural
gration. The systems approach process has and ecological aspects of tourism. This cre­
evolved and has been brought back into bal­ ates a tourism economy which represents
ance. There should be a balance of micro as more of a shift from the horizontal to the
well as macro information, and the vertical as vertical systems of planning. Increased un­
well as the horizontal relationships must be derstanding of the political, social, behav­
recognized. There must be homeostasis ioral, and ecological areas are necessary pa­
between the micro and the macro and the rameters on which to build a sound eco­
vertical as well as the horizontal elements. nomic basis to allow long-term, rather than
short-term, planning (3).
Once a systems approach is applied to a par­
ticular discipline, it is important to develop
an operational framework (9, 18). Two dif­ THE SPORT PHENOMENON
ferent approaches have been traditionally
used. In one approach the process gives rise Sport has become a staple in the American
to the content. In the other approach, a diet in terms of participation as well as tele­
framework is developed based upon content, vision viewing. It is one of the social con­
then the system is studied and the coritent is structs that is central to the popular culture
modified based upon the process of applying of American society.
the framework to the content. Both ap­
proaches have been used successfully. The Sport has become a point of identification
approach adopted for this paper was the for both fans and the general public. Many
content first and the process of the systems fans live vicariously through sport. It pro­
approach second. In context a framework is vides a means by which to measure success
developed, then the content is changed after or failure in their personal lives. Sport is
applying the framework. There are two im­ used to develop energy or enthusiasm for
portant thematic or content thrusts. One is living. For many individuals, it is an obses­
in the area of tourism and the other is in the sion or a religion around which they priori­
area of sport. Traditionally, the primary em­ tize their lives. Sport, at one time in Ameri­
phasis in tourism has been at the macro level can history, was ancillary. Now, however, in
with the economic development on the na­ many households it has become the driving
tional and state level (5, 22). There has been force. This phenomenon can be analyzed at
little focus at the community level in terms of the micro level, with children participating in
the necessary dollars to gain a micro under­ soccer and baseball, and at the macro level of
standing. An obvious thrust with the macro involvement with professional sports. To
approach has been the development of infra­ understand sport and its applications is to
structure, especially those services that are explain motivational influences on the par­
added through the travel and hospitality ticipants, clients, and spectators. The de­
sectors of the tourism component. mand curve on most sports indicates an ex­
ponential rate of growth (14, 21, 26). The
Economic approaches have far exceeded the primary importance is how to do business on
behavioral science approaches to understand the sport without changing its essence to
the benefits of tourism as well as the needs maintain or increase demand. In order to
of the tourist. There has been a shift from sustain demand one must understand the ba-

38
sic nature of the sport -why it has become The tourist sector is the first sector under the
an element or a construct in society. Under­ sport tourism system. Its primary role is to
standing its influence in terms of visibility to set the tone for relationships, especially
popularize or change lifestyles is imperative. among the hospitality, the infrastructure, and
the transportation sectors (20). Eventually
Because the parent content area of sport the relationships will change significantly.
tourism is sport, it takes the dominant posi­ The tourist sector is in a superior position
tion. Tourism is a secondary vehicle for the because it is the component that integrates
development of sport tourism. When tour­ the product. The tourist sector has a direct
ism and sport is what are the unique dimen-. and feedback relationship to the hospitality
sions that are compared that make this a dis­ sector, the infrastructure sector, and the
cipline? This is the central question de­ sports resource sector. The tourist sector
manding examination. A framework must be includes the management and marketing
established to answer this question in terms skills necessary to bring the product to the
of the relationship sectors (6). consumer.

The hospitality sector provides a way to in­

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK fuse service into a tourism destination. All
OR MODEL tourism and. recreation facilities, sport facili­
ties, lodging and food service are included.
There are two important elements to the de­ It may not be necessary to form a tourism
velopment of a conceptual framework or destination, but it enhances the attractiveness
model. One is the components or sectors to tourists. Infrastructure is a necessary
that make up the system, and the other is the component to the sport tourism destination
external factors that influence the system. It and includes the water and power supply,
is important to examine the relationships communication channel and transportation
between each of the sectors and determine mode. The hospitality and the infrastructure
how the external factors influence the system sectors are auxiliary. The hospitality sector
sectors. The system components that make and the infrastructure sector have feedback
up this model are the tourist sector, hospital­ loops to the tourist sector related to the ac­
ity sector, infrastructure sector, sports re­ cessibility, mobility and level of service.
source sector, transportation sector, and Hospitality and infrastructure provide the
sport management sector. The diagrammatic amenities and the increase of quality of the
display of the relationship between these tourist experience. It is these sectors where
sectors is found in Figure 1. The systems the perspective and nature of the experience
model is an instrument that can be used as a are developed (10).
map that captures and activates knowledge.
It can also be viewed as a framework that The hospitality sector has a direct relation­
filters and organizes knowledge. Integrated ship to the sport resource sector, and the
models are micro worlds for experimenta­ sport resource sector has a direct relation­
tion, cooperation, and learning. Relationships ship to the infrastructure sector. These are
in models are designed to be simple and do filtering components or auxiliary in that they
not necessarily represent any particular sport. are supportive vehicles to achieve the objec­
The purpose of a sport tourism system model tives of the sport tourism experience. The
is for planning and decision making. hospitality and infrastructure sectors are the

39
primary and secondary support services that hospitality, infrastructure, .and transportation,
are necessary to provide the foundation for have to be developed in relation to the con­
the tourist. A third ancillary sector, trans­ tent. Each of these sectors has an innate un­
portation, has direct and feedback relation­ derstanding of the content and its relation­
ships in the infrastructural structure, and a ship to the client. The peculiarities of the fan
direct relationship to the sport resource sec­ have to be taken into consideration in the
tor. Transportation is a tertiary support development of all services. Management is
service. It has the same purpose as the hos­ key in the effective presentation of the con­
pitality and infrastructural sectors, to support tent. The mixing and matching of the sectors
and develop the experience and provide the must be done in such a way as to develop a
necessary ambiance and quality to enrich the seamless experience for the client. The sport
expenence. The transportation sector is management sector includes all administra­
equated to the travel component of tourism. tive processes. Moreover, it is invisible, and
The primary difference between the concept yet presents the best product of the sport
of travel and transportation is that travel is content. Management in this context is not ·
associated with a neutral experience where conventional. It is content-specific and
the primary end is efficiency, while the trans­ identifies those particular techniques that
portation adds to the experiential base of the work which are unique to the particular sport
tourist while providing an effective mode of sector. One of the critical aspects of the
transportation. The hospitality, infrastruc­ sport management sector is the vertical inte­
ture, and transportation sectors are neglected gration of the micro to macro levels, and the
because the primary experience is the focus horizontal integration with other sports with
of most tourism development. The sectors similarities and differences.
provide the depth and enrich quality of the
tourist experience.
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES
The final two elements of the system are the
sport resource and the sport management External factors are those elements that are
sectors. The sport resource sector is the outside the system that are not under the di­
core of the sport tourism model because it is rect control of sport tourism managers. In­
directly linked to all of the other sectors with dividuals influence external factors through
a feedback loop to the tourist, infrastructure, indirect methods. There are six external
and sport management sectors. The sport factors that are important in sport tourism:
management sector is the end product. It government, the environment, technology,
has both a direct and a feedback loop to the the economy, the climate, and the so­
sport resource sector. The sport resource cio/culture.
and sport management sectors are associated
with content development, presentation or Government is an important entity in sport.
administration. The sport resource sector is Some sports have special exemptions from
the content. It is central because, without it, governmental regulations and are created
there is no sport tourism product. The in­ monopolies because of their unique relation­
digenous nature of the sport and its relation­ ship with the public. Baseball is an example.
ship to its fan and culture are extremely im­ Other sports do not have such government
portant. It is here that the content acquires sanctions. Recognition by government is
meaning. All of the other sectors--the tourist, enough to give sport such as baseball a spe-

40
 ci� position, especially as it relates to the The fifth condition, the climate, refers to the
public trusts. Although the federal govern­ emotional conditions of the fan and general
ment has rarely interfered with the govern- population toward sport tourism. Sociology
. ance of sport, there is always th� possibility and psychology have implication for devel­
of regulation. The capital investment by state opment. Emotional conditions change. For
and local government in sport gives it a spe­ example as· the sport celebrity's salary in­
cial relationship. The public's general inter­ creases and owners' profits increase, fan loy­
est in sport as a community identifying factor alty may decrease.
is recognized by many state and local gov­
ernments. The presence of sport gives a The last component is the socio/culture. The
community prestige. social and cultural implications of the sport
must be understood. The climate represents
The second element is the environment, a a molecular or micro approach; the so­
highly variable factor. The environment is cio/cultural represents a macro approach to
defined as the phys�cal conditions affecting the external factors. As sport gains in
the delivery of the sport product. Only a popularity, it is institutionalized in culture
contingency type crisis management style of and holds a different type of position based
management is effective in dealing with envi­ upon traditions that have been established in
ronment factors. It is difficult to anticipate society. It is these traditions that provide
unpredictable environmental conditions. stability in the external environment.
Therefore, having a staff that can handle cri­
ses is one way of treating these environ­
mental factors. IMPLICATIONS

A third important factor is technology. The sport tourism system model is the basis
Technology in the twenty-first century is for the development of strategic planning
changing very rapidly. Organiz.ations must within sport tourism. It is necessary to apply
respond to changing techn9logy and stay on the systems model to different institutions to
the cutting edge. These are the organiz.a­ determine its effectiveness. If a systems
tions that will be successful. Technology has model is established, it can be quantified in a
had a tremendous impact on increasing the gaming and simulation model for educational
effectiveness and sophistication of tourism purposes and used in training as well as re­
services and products. search (2). A systems approach has the po­
tential to revolutionize sport tourism. A
The fourth element, the economy, is an un­ systems approach allows integration among
predictable factor, like the environment. The sport tourism of components integrating in
sport tourism professional must be prepared the delivery of the product. Sport tourism
to use different management strategies for has the maximum potential to change the cli­
different economies, ranging from recession ent--it has the motivational ability to inte­
to prosperity. The sport tourist professional grate it vicariously into their lifestyle.
must be in a position to tailor their style to
changing economic conditions.

41
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43
 FIGURE 1

SPORT TOURISM SYSTEM

Climate Social/Culture

Hospitality

r
Sector

;
�
�

� a

Transportation
�
Sector

Technology Environment