Lesson 2: Rogers: Person-Centered Theory

Introduction

Carl Rogers, known for client-centered therapy, initially wanted to be a farmer but shifted to the
ministry and psychology. Raised in a strict, isolated environment, he developed a scientific approach to
farming. This led to his interest in scientific agriculture, which he pursued through college. His dedication
to the scientific method continued throughout his life. Rogers won the Distinguished Scientific
Contribution Award for his research on conditions for human psychological growth. His humanistic
theory of personality focused on helping individuals grow, rather than analyzing past behaviors like
Freud. Rogers emphasized empirical research to support his theories and therapeutic methods. Despite
formulating a detailed theory of personality, he preferred being a helper over a theorist. His reluctance
towards theory stemmed from a concern that theories could be cold and final. Even as his theories
evolved over time, the original foundation of his client-centered theory remained unchanged.

Biography of Carl Rogers

Carl Ransom Rogers was born in 1902 in Illinois to Walter and Julia Cushing Rogers. Raised in a religious
household, he developed a strong work ethic and an early interest in the Bible. Initially pursuing
farming, he later turned to religion and then psychology and education. Rogers' journey included a
transformative trip to China, where he discovered new perspectives and gained self-confidence. Despite
setbacks like an ulcer, he continued his path, eventually delving into psychotherapy. Rogers' approach,
emphasizing the client-therapist relationship and personal growth, challenged traditional therapy
methods. Throughout his career, he explored new ideas, teaching, and conducting research, earning
recognition for his contributions to psychology. His personal life reflected growth and openness to
experience, with challenges in relationships and a transition to a humanistic philosophy. Rogers
advocated for authenticity and honesty, even sharing his own struggles openly. Recognized with
numerous honors, including leadership roles in psychological associations, Rogers left a lasting legacy in
the field of psychology with his person-centered approach and willingness to evolve his theories.

Keep in Mind

Person-Centered Theory

Rogers' concept of humanity remained consistent from the 1940s until his death in 1987, but his therapy
and theory underwent name changes. Initially called "nondirective," it was later labeled as "client-
centered," "person-centered," "student-centered," "group-centered," and "person to person." "Client-
centered" refers to Rogers' therapy, while "person-centered" encompasses his personality theory.
Rogers' person-centered theory is structured in an if-then framework, where specific conditions lead to
certain processes and outcomes. For instance, in therapy, if the therapist demonstrates congruence,
unconditional positive regard, and accurate empathy, therapeutic change occurs, resulting in increased
self-acceptance and self-trust. These concepts are further explored in the section on Psychotherapy.

Basic Assumptions of Person-Centered Theory

In person-centered theory, Carl Rogers introduced two fundamental assumptions: the formative
tendency and the actualizing tendency. The formative tendency suggests that individuals have an innate
drive towards growth and development, striving to reach their full potential. On the other hand, the
actualizing tendency posits that people naturally move towards self-fulfillment and self-improvement.
These assumptions form the core foundation of person-centered therapy, emphasizing the belief in
individuals' capacity for personal growth and self-directed change.

Formative Tendency

According to Rogers (1978, 1980), there exists a natural inclination for all types of matter, whether living
or non-living, to progress from simpler structures to more intricate ones. This process occurs universally
and is characterized by a creative rather than a destructive force at play. Referred to as the formative
tendency, Rogers illustrated this concept with various examples from the natural world. For instance, he
explained how galaxies composed of numerous stars come together from a less structured mass, how
intricate snowflake crystals take shape from shapeless vapor, how complex organisms develop from
single cells, and how human consciousness advances from a basic unconscious state to a highly
organized awareness.

Actualizing Tendency

The actualizing tendency, as proposed by Rogers, refers to the innate drive in all living beings, including
humans, to fulfill their potentials. This drive encompasses various aspects of a person's being, such as
physiological, intellectual, emotional, and conscious elements. Maintenance needs, like basic survival
requirements and resistance to change, are part of this tendency. Enhancement needs, on the other
hand, involve the desire for personal growth and development. Despite a natural inclination to maintain
the status quo, individuals are also motivated to learn and change. Rogers suggests that people are
willing to face challenges and discomfort in pursuit of fulfilling their intrinsic nature. The actualization
tendency is not unique to humans; animals and plants also exhibit a similar drive to reach their genetic
potential under favorable conditions. For humans, achieving self-actualization requires being in a
relationship with a congruent, empathetic partner who provides unconditional positive regard. Rogers
believed that psychological growth occurs when these conditions are met, leading to becoming a fully
functioning individual with the potential for self-actualization. While all living beings share the
actualizing tendency, only humans possess self-awareness and the capacity for self-actualization.

The Development of Self and Self-Actualization

Infants start forming a sense of self by recognizing personal experiences as "I" or "me." They learn
preferences like what tastes good or bad, what feels pleasant or unpleasant, and begin evaluating
experiences as positive or negative based on their actualizing tendency. Infants value basic needs like
food, sleep, fresh air, physical contact, and health for self-actualization. As infants develop a basic self
structure, their self-actualization tendency emerges. Self-actualization is a part of the broader
actualization tendency, focusing on realizing the perceived self. When personal experiences align with
the perceived self, both tendencies are similar, but discrepancies cause inner conflict. For instance, if
someone feels anger towards a loved one contrary to their self-perception, conflict arises. Rogers (1959)
proposed two self subsystems: the self-concept and the ideal self.

The Self-concept

The self-concept encompasses all aspects of oneself perceived by an individual, though not always
accurately. It differs from the organismic self, as certain parts may be beyond awareness. For instance,
the stomach is part of the organismic self but is not typically part of one's self-concept unless it causes
concern. People can also disown aspects of themselves, like dishonest experiences conflicting with their
self-concept. Once formed, the self-concept resists change and new learnings. Inconsistencies are often
denied or distorted. While an established self-concept makes change challenging, it is not impossible.
Change is facilitated in an accepting environment, enabling individuals to reduce anxiety, confront
rejected experiences, and evolve.

The Ideal Self

The ideal self is a crucial component of one's self, representing how an individual envisions themselves
ideally. It encompasses all the positive qualities that a person strives to embody. Discrepancies between
the ideal self and the actual self can signal psychological incongruence and an unhealthy personality.
Psychologically well-adjusted individuals typically have minimal variance between their self-concept and
their desired ideal self. This alignment between self-perception and aspirational qualities is indicative of
a healthy self-image and personal growth.

Awareness

Rogers (1959) emphasized the importance of awareness in the formation of the self-concept and the
ideal self. He defined awareness as the symbolic representation of a part of our experiences, not limited
to verbal symbols. Rogers used awareness interchangeably with consciousness and symbolization,
highlighting its integral role in understanding oneself and shaping one's identity.

Levels of Awareness

According to Rogers (1959), there are three levels of awareness. The first level involves experiences that
are below the threshold of awareness, leading to either ignorance or denial. For instance, a woman
walking down a busy street may ignore many stimuli around her due to the inability to attend to all of
them. On the other hand, a mother who never wanted children may deny her feelings by being overly
solicitous towards them, unaware of her hidden anger and resentment. The second level consists of
experiences that are accurately symbolized and freely admitted into one's self-concept, as long as they
align with the existing self-concept. For example, a confident pianist may easily accept praise for his
playing from a friend. The third level entails experiences perceived in a distorted manner to fit into one's
self-concept. If the same pianist receives praise from a competitor he distrusts, he may distort the
compliment due to feeling threatened, altering its meaning to align with his existing beliefs.

Denial of Positive Experiences

The text discusses how individuals may struggle to accept positive experiences and genuine
compliments, despite deserving them. It uses the example of a gifted pianist to illustrate that it's not just
negative experiences that can be distorted or denied. For instance, a student who receives a superior
grade may still feel inadequate and dismiss it by attributing success to external factors like an easy class
or lack of effort from peers. Compliments, even when sincere, often fail to improve the recipient's self-
concept. This could be due to a lack of trust in the giver or feeling undeserving of praise. Additionally,
receiving a compliment may also provoke feelings of vulnerability as it implies the giver's right to
criticize.

Becoming a Person

In his 1959 work, Rogers discussed the key processes involved in becoming a person. He highlighted the
significance of initial contact with another individual, whether positive or negative, as a fundamental
experience for personal development. This contact, especially from a parent or caregiver, is crucial for
survival during infancy. As individuals grow, they begin to value positive regard and seek acceptance
from others, a concept Rogers termed as positive regard. Positive regard, received from significant
individuals, is essential for developing positive self-regard, which involves valuing oneself. Rogers
emphasized that while positive regard from others is important initially, once positive self-regard is
established, it becomes independent of external validation. This idea aligns with Maslow's hierarchy of
needs, where love and belongingness must be fulfilled before self-esteem needs can be addressed.
Ultimately, positive self-regard stems from the positive regard received from others but evolves into a
self-sustaining internal validation, making the individual their own source of significance.

Barriers to Psychological Health

Not everyone achieves psychological health. Many individuals encounter barriers such as conditions of
worth, incongruence, defensiveness, and disorganization. These obstacles can hinder a person's journey
towards mental well-being. Conditions of worth refer to individuals basing their self-worth on others'
approval or validation, leading to a lack of authenticity and self-acceptance. Incongruence occurs when
there is a mismatch between one's ideal self and their actual self, causing inner conflict and distress.
Defensiveness involves individuals protecting themselves from perceived threats, preventing genuine
emotional connections and growth. Disorganization can manifest as a lack of clarity or structure in one's
thoughts and behaviors, making it challenging to navigate life effectively. Addressing these barriers is
crucial in fostering psychological health and overall well-being.
Conditions of Worth

Most individuals do not receive unconditional positive regard but instead face conditions of worth,
where they think their loved ones will only accept them if they meet certain expectations. These
conditions create a sense of worthiness based on external approval rather than internal self-valuation.
Over time, people internalize these external attitudes, leading to self-evaluation based on others'
opinions. If acceptance is perceived as contingent on behavior, individuals may start believing their
worth is conditional. This dependency on external validation can lead to a disconnect from one's true
self, as individuals prioritize others' values over their own. External evaluations from others, whether
positive or negative, hinder psychological well-being by limiting openness to personal experiences. This
reliance on external validation can cause individuals to reject enjoyable experiences based on perceived
disapproval from others, perpetuating a cycle of incongruence between their true self-evaluation and
adopted external values.

Incongruence between Organismic Experience and Self-Concept

The concept of incongruence highlights the discrepancy between the organism and the self, where
actualization and self-actualization may not always align. Psychological disequilibrium arises when
organismic experiences are not accurately integrated into our self-concept, often due to early childhood
conditions of worth shaping a distorted self-concept. This incongruence can lead to psychological
disorders as behaviors may not reflect our true tendencies but rather conform to external expectations.

Vulnerability and Awareness of Incongruence

The level of vulnerability increases with the extent of incongruence between our perceived self and our
actual experiences. Vulnerable individuals may behave in ways that are puzzling not just to others but
also to themselves, particularly when unaware of the mismatch between their true self and their
experiences.

Anxiety and Threat in Acknowledging Incongruence

As awareness of the incongruence grows, individuals may experience anxiety and threat. Anxiety
emerges when the mismatch between organismic experiences and self-perception becomes apparent.
This discomfort can evolve into a sense of threat, indicating a realization that the self is no longer
unified. While anxiety and threat can signal progress towards psychological well-being by highlighting
the inconsistency between self-concept and experiences, they are generally unpleasant emotions to
navigate.

Defensiveness

Defensiveness is a psychological mechanism that aims to protect our self-concept from anxiety and
threat by denying or distorting experiences that do not align with it. Our self-concept is made up of
various self-descriptive statements, making it a complex entity. When an experience contradicts a part
of our self-concept, we tend to react defensively to maintain the current structure of our self-concept.
The primary defenses used are distortion and denial. Distortion involves misinterpreting an experience
to make it fit into our self-concept, while denial involves refusing to acknowledge an experience or
preventing it from being fully understood. Denial is less common than distortion because most
experiences can be manipulated to match our self-concept. Both distortion and denial serve the same
purpose of keeping our perception of experiences in line with our self-concept, enabling us to avoid
unpleasant feelings of anxiety or threat.

Disorganization

Defensive behavior is common, but when it fails, behavior can become disorganized or even psychotic.
This failure occurs when there is a significant gap between a person's perceived self and their actual
experience. Normal defenses like denial and distortion help maintain this gap, but if the incongruence
becomes too obvious or sudden, disorganization can occur. This can happen suddenly or gradually, with
vulnerability increasing during therapy. Disorganized behavior can manifest as aligning with one's true
experience or reflecting a shattered self-concept. Examples include sudden explicit language use by a
reserved individual or erratic behavior due to a fragmented self-concept. Despite initial hesitance in
1959, Rogers maintained his theory on disorganized behavior, avoiding diagnostic labels and
emphasizing a continuum of maladjustment from minor discrepancies to severe incongruences.

Application

Client-Centered Therapy

Client-centered therapy emphasizes the importance of therapist qualities like congruence, unconditional
positive regard, and empathic listening for psychological growth in clients. These qualities are
challenging for counselors to embody but are essential for effective therapy.

Conditions for Therapeutic Growth

According to Rogers, conditions necessary for therapeutic growth include a congruent therapist with
empathy and unconditional positive regard, perceived by the client, in a lasting client-therapist
relationship.

Counselor Congruence

Congruence is a fundamental quality for therapists, involving genuine expression of feelings and
experiences without masking or distortion, contributing to psychological growth in clients.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Therapists must offer unconditional positive regard, valuing and accepting clients without judgment,
allowing them autonomy and independence in decision-making.
Empathic Listening

Empathic listening, where therapists accurately perceive and reflect clients' feelings without evaluation,
is crucial for clients to explore their emotions and facilitate personal growth.

Stages of Therapeutic Change

Therapeutic change progresses through stages from defensiveness to self-actualization, with clients
moving towards greater congruence, self-awareness, and personal responsibility.

Theoretical Explanation for Change

Therapeutic change occurs as clients experience unconditional acceptance and empathy, enabling them
to value themselves, understand their feelings, and align their perceived self with their true experiences.

Outcomes of Therapy

Successful client-centered therapy results in clients being more congruent, realistic, and self-directed,
with improved problem-solving skills, reduced anxiety, and healthier relationships with others.

The Person of Tomorrow

Rogers' theory of therapeutic change outlines the necessary conditions for personal growth, including
congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. He believed that individuals, when exposed to
these conditions, would exhibit traits such as becoming more congruent, less defensive, and open to
experiences. Rogers also discussed the concept of the fully functioning person, emphasizing
characteristics like adaptability, openness to experiences, trust in oneself, living in the moment,
authentic relationships, integration of conscious and unconscious processes, basic trust in human
nature, and a richer experience of life. These "persons of tomorrow" would embrace personal growth,
authenticity, and a deep connection to their experiences and emotions.

This summary provides an overview of the client-centered therapy approach, detailing the essential
therapist qualities, conditions for growth, stages of change, and expected outcomes in clients
undergoing therapy.

Related Research
Research comparing Maslow's theory to Rogers' ideas on unconditional positive regard has shown that
Rogers' concepts have sparked significant empirical research. His emphasis on the congruence between
real and ideal self, motivation to pursue goals, and self-discrepancy theory have been influential in
positive psychology. E. Tory Higgins further developed Rogers' theory into self-discrepancy theory,
highlighting the different emotional outcomes of real-ideal and real-ought discrepancies. Recent studies
have explored how self-discrepancies predict emotional experiences, particularly in highly self-aware
individuals.

Motivation and Pursuing Goals

Rogers' theory also applies to goal pursuit, emphasizing the importance of setting meaningful goals
aligned with one's true self. Ken Sheldon's research on the organismic valuing process (OVP) supports
Rogers' idea that pursuing fulfilling goals leads to positive growth. Studies on cancer survivors further
validate the OVP, showing a transition to valuing deeper goals during treatment. Grit, the perseverance
to pursue goals despite setbacks, predicts positive outcomes and happiness, especially when aligned
with one's authentic self.

Authenticity and Well-being

Research by Vainio and Daukantaitė in Sweden explored the relationship between grit, authenticity,
sense of coherence, and well-being. They found that grit is positively related to well-being and life
satisfaction, with authenticity and coherence playing crucial roles. Grit alone is not enough for
satisfaction; goals must be meaningful and connected to one's core self for true fulfillment. The study
suggests that grit is most effective when aligned with one's inner values, leading to hope, meaning, and
lasting happiness. Carl Rogers' insights continue to resonate in modern research, highlighting the
importance of pursuing engaging and rewarding experiences in line with one's ideal self.

Critique of Rogers

Rogers' theory is evaluated based on six criteria. It has been moderately productive in generating
research in psychotherapy and classroom learning but lacks productivity in other areas of personality
research. The theory's falsifiability is rated high due to its clear framework that allows for confirmation
or disconfirmation through research. Person-centered theory can be extended to various aspects of
human personality beyond interpersonal relations. It serves as a guide for practical problems,
emphasizing the importance of therapist qualities like congruence and empathy. The theory is praised
for its internal consistency and operational definitions. While the language used in the theory can be
vague, it is overall considered parsimonious and clear.

Concept of Humanity
Rogers believed in human capacity for self-direction and free choice, contrasting with Skinner's view of
control. He recognized the potential for both good and destructive behavior in individuals but remained
optimistic about human growth towards self-actualization. Humans are seen as trustworthy and
forward-moving, with the ability to make free choices and strive for personal growth. Rogers
emphasized individual uniqueness and the role of nurturant environments in fostering self-actualization.
The theory highlights the importance of conscious choices and the impact of social influences on
psychological growth. Overall, Rogers believed in human potential for growth and self-awareness under
favorable conditions.