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UGANDA MARTYRS’ HIGH SCHOOL-LUBAGA

A-LEVEL NOTES. Mr. Nyanzi Stephen
DIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
 Scientific classification: is the grouping of organisms according to similarities
and differences in their characteristics.
 Taxonomy: The branch of science that deals with naming, defining and
classifying (grouping) of organisms according to similarities and differences in
their characteristics..
Importance of Classifying Organisms
i) Enables easy identification of living organisms. After discovery of new organisms,
they can easy be identified by comparison with already identified organisms.
ii) It eases the studying of living organisms by studying them in groups as opposed
to studying each individually.
iii) Enables scientists to establish evolutionary relationships among living
organisms. Related organisms are usually grouped together and unrelated
organisms are grouped separately.
iv) To assign every species of living organisms a scientific name that differentiates
it from the rest. This prevents confusion that may occur with using common
names.

Types of Classification
There are two forms of classification basing on the principles used.
a) Artificial classification
 Grouping organisms based on one or a few simple easily observable characteristics, or
non-evolutionary features, for simplicity and convenience. Its purpose is for practical,
convenience and quick work.
 Such characteristics may include structural features (like number and structure of
stigmas, styles, stamens), habitat, ways of movement, etc.
 For example organisms in kingdom protoctista are simply placed there due to being
eukaryotic and unicellular, though they have no evolutionary relationship between
them.
 Was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, and is thus also known as
Linnaean system of classification.
b) Natural classification
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 This is where classification is based on similarities and differences in many external

and internal characteristics in order to bring out the natural relationship between
organisms.
 This system of classification uses a lot of information (i.e. many characters) from many
branches of biology in order to establish the phylogenetic relationships between groups
of organisms. Such information includes similarities in embryology, morphology,
anatomy, cell structure, biochemistry, physiology and behaviors.
 A phylogeny is a historical evolutionary relationship among organisms.
 Phylogenetic classification is one based on evolutionary relationships between
organisms (or on the basis of descent from a common ancestor/evolutionary ancestry).
It generates evolutionary trees (the cladograms) that include ancestor species and their
descendant species.
 Natural classification can also be described as an upward classification based on the
grouping of related species that resemble each other and forming a hierarchy of higher
taxa by grouping similar taxa on the lower rank.
 Organisms belonging to the same group are believed to share a common ancestor. It
bases so much on fossil evidence.
 Phonetic classification: this is based only on observable characteristics and all
characters are considered to be of importance. A lot of data is collected and the degree
of similarity between different organisms is usually calculated by computers.
 Classification today is mostly natural and phylogenetic types.
 The main difference is that natural classification is based is based on the important
points of similarities, whereas artificial classification is according to some less
important or unimportant points of likeness/similarities.
 Usually, scientists categorise classification into 3 types, namely Natural, Artificial
and phylogenetic classification.
Exercise 1:
1. In each of the following cases state
i) 2 differences between artificial and natural classification
ii) 2 Advantages and 2 disadvantages of artificial classification
iii) 2 Advantages and 2 disadvantages of natural classification
iv) 3 Difficulties in carrying out natural classification
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LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
 During classification, scientists place living organisms into seven major levels known as
taxa (singular taxon).
 Each taxon contains organisms sharing certain common characteristics which also
indicate ancestry.
 The seven taxa in descending order of size are Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
Genus and Species.
 The kingdom is the largest level of classification containing many organisms with few
general characteristics that are common to all of them.
 A species is the smallest level into which organisms are classified and includes
organisms that are so similar to each other. A species is defined as a group of similar
organisms that can successfully interbreed to produce viable offspring.
 The modern system of classification places all living organisms into five kingdoms.
 Each of these kingdoms is split into several phyla, and each phylum split into several
classes. Each class is then split into orders which are also split into families. Each
family contains many genera and each genus contains one or several species.
 The table below shows classification of three organisms; human, domestic dog and
cassava plant into the seven taxa.
Taxon Human Domestic Maize Meadow
dog mushroom

Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Fungi

Phylum Chordate Chordate Angiospermophyta Basidiomycota
Class Mammalia Mammalia Monocotyledoneae Basidiomcetes
Order Primates Canivora Commelinales Agaricales
Family Hominidae Canidae Poaceae Agaricaceae
Genus Homo Canis Zea Agaricus
Species sapiens familiaris mays campestris
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BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE:

 Binomial nomenclature is the system of giving a scientific name to an organism.
 The word binomial comes from two words bi- meaning two and nomial meaning
name.
 The first accepted classification and nomenclature was introduced by a Swedish
scientist called Carl Linnaeus (1707 - 1778).

Rules of binomial system of nomenclature

 Each organism should be given two Latin or Greek names which includes the
generic (genus) name followed by specific (species) name.
 The generic name should start with a capital letter and a specific name starts
with the small letter
 When written both names should be underlined separately (if it‟s handwritten)
or printed in italics. E.g. the scientific name of a cochroach is Periplaneta americana
or Periplaneta americana.

 Scientific names are used in order to eliminate the confusion that arises due to
use of common names. Common names may differ from one place to another
and from one language to another.

Question: From the table, write the scientific name for each of the organism
in the table.

SPECIMEN IDENTIFICATION AND KEYS:

 A specimen key involves listing observable characteristics of organisms and
matching with those features which are diagnostic in a particular group.
 The characteristics used in keys should be readily observable morphological
characters. They may be qualitative e.g. shape or quantitave e.g. number of
segments.
 The characteristics must be constant for that species and not subject to variations
as a result of environmental influence, colour and size are highly discouraged.
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Dichotomous key
 This is a simple diagnostic key in which pairs of statements called leads, each
dealing with a particular characteristic is numbered e.g. 1, 2, 3, e.t.c.
 The paired statements of each lead should be contrasting and mutually exclusive.
Such that by considering them in order, a large group of organisms are broken down
into progressively smaller groups until the unknown organism is identified.
 Example of a dichotomous key for indentifying leaves is shown below:
Specimen Characteristics
Leaf Venation Leaf margin; Arrangement of Leaflets
U (Cassava leaf) Network venation Smooth margin
V (Commelina leaf) Parallel venation Smooth margin
W (Pawpaw leaf) Network venation Serrated margin
X (Cassia leaf) Network venation Pinnate leaf
Y (Jacaranda leaf) Network venation Bipinnate leaf
A dichotomous key for specimens U, V, W, X and Y:
𝑎 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 …………………………………………………………𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑉
1𝑏 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 …………………………………………………………..𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 2

𝑎 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 ……………………………………………𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 3

2𝑏 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 ……………..…………𝑔𝑜 𝑡𝑜 4

𝑎 𝐸𝑎𝑐 𝑕 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 …………………..𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑌

3𝑏 𝐸𝑎𝑐 𝑕 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑡 ………….….𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑋

𝑎 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 ……………..…….………………….…….…………….𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑊

4𝑏 𝑆𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑕 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 …………………………….….………………………………𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑈

Practical revision work:

Construct dichotomous keys to identify organisms e.g. Arthropods, leaves, fruits,
stems e.t.c.
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THE 5 KINGDOMS OF ORGANISMS:

 Organisms (Living things) are categorized into 5 Kingdoms, namely
i) Monera /Bacteria Kingdom (Prokaryotes)
ii) Protoctista (Protoctists)
iii) Fungi
iv) Plantae
v) Animalia
 Examples and general characteristics of the Kingdoms:
Kingdom Examples Characteristics
i) Monera Bacteria;  Autotrophic or heterotrophic
Cyanobacteria  Motile or non-motile
(Blue-green  Exist as single cells (unicellular) or small groups of cells
bacteria) (colonial).
N.B: Are the smallest unicellular organisms and they are
the most abundant.
As prokaryotes, they have following characteristics:
 They have no nucleus in their cells
 They have circular DNA in their cells and its always naked
(not associated with histones)
 Lack double membrane bound organelles such as
mitochondria, golgi bodies, etc.
 Have smaller 70s ribosomes
 Cells have cell walls, made up of peptidoglycans (Murein)
 Cells divide by binary fission, no spindle
ii) Protoctista -Organisms  Single celled; eukaryotic organisms; Unicellular or
resembling the multicellular;
ancestors of  Algae are autotrophic while protozoa are heterotrophic.
fungi, plants  These 2 groups of organisms have no common ancestral
and animals. origin but share some common characteristics among them.
Are
Algae; Protozoa;
Slime moulds;
Oomycotes
(early fungi).
iii) Fungi Mucor (Common  Cells are eukaryotic and have cell walls made of chitin (but
moulds); not cellulose) and have no plastids
Rhizopus  Body consists of multinucleated hyphae that form a body
(Common bread called mycelium; may have cross-walls (septa; said to be
mould); septate)
Penicillium;  Heterotrophic feeding, saprophytically or parasitically
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Mushroom;  Carbohydrates in the cells are stored in form of glycogen

Toadstools, (but not starch)
Puffballs; Yeast  Reproduction usually occurs by formation of spores.
 Undergo nuclear mitosis i.e. their cytoplasm, nuclear
membrane and cell membrane never divided
 Fungal mitochondria have flattened cristae (whereas plants
have tubular ones)
 They inhabit damp places
iv) Plantae Mosses; Ferns;  They are multicellular eukaryotic autotrophs.
Conifers; Maize;  They have chlorophyll in their cells hence carrying out
Bean photosynthesis
 Cells have cell walls containing cellulose
 Carbohydrates are stored as starch
 Life cycle shows alternation of generations.
 Non-motile;
v) Animalia Sponges;  Heterotrophic; Food is ingested before digestion.
Coelentrates;  Are eukaryotes
Flat worms;  Multicellular
Round worms;  Heterotrophic
Segmented  Reproduce sexually
worms; Molluscs  Cells have cell walls
e.t.c.  Capable of locomotion/Are motile
 Adult animals develop fro embryos

Exercise 2:
1. Up to relatively recent, scientists used to categorize living things into two
kingdoms, plantae and animalia. However, with modern scientific research,
scientists came up with a five kingdom system. Explain why
a. Fungi could neither be categorized under kingdom plantae nor kingdom
animalia.
b. Bacteria were given a separate kingdom
c. Protictists were given a separate kingdom.
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Evolutionary relationships between the 5 kingdoms:

Note:
Viruses are not placed in any of the above kingdoms. This is because they are
considered non living but rather a simple collection of molecules. However,
they posses some characteristics of living organisms and affect living
organisms hence they are of much interest to biologists. I.e. they possess
characteristics for both living and for non-living things.

VIRUSES
These are particles consisting of genetic material surrounded by a layer of proteins
that are capable of invading other cells.
General characteristics of viruses
i) They are much smaller than bacteria or eukaryotes.
ii) They can only survive inside host cells i.e. they are obligate parasites.
iii) They use the host cell machinery for their own metabolism.
iv) Their particle consists of mainly a genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by
a protein coat,
v) They have no definite cell structures and organelles i.e. they are acellular/ have
no cellular structure
vi) They can be crystallized when outside host cells and stored for long periods of
time.
vii) When inside a host cell, they take control over their metabolism.
viii) They only reproduce using the host cell machinery.
ix) They are at the boundary between living and non-living things.
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x) Highly specific to their hosts i.e. each virus recognises and infects a particular
host.
Reasons why viruses are considered non living things
i) They cannot survive outside host cells, except as crystals (Or can be
crystallized).
ii) They lack enzyme systems
iii) They cannot metabolise unless they are inside host cells, using the host cell
machinery
iv) They only reproduce when inside host cells
v) They have no cellular components and organelles/Have no cellular structure
Reasons why viruses are considered to be living things
i) They posses genetic material
ii) They can mutate and hence evolve
iii) They can transmit characteristics to the next generation.
iv) They carry out protein synthesis though in host cells
v) They are capable self replication though when inside host cells
Structure of virus:

omponent Details
Core  This is the inner region in which the genetic material
(DNA or RNA) is found.
 The DNA or RNA may be single stranded or double
stranded
Capsid  This is the protective coat of protein surrounding the
core.
 The Capsid is made up of identical repeating subunits
called capsomeres.
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 Has surface proteins which act as receptors to the

host cell.
Envelope  This is found only in some large viruses e.g. HIV and
influenza viruses.
 It‟s an additional lipoprotein layer around the capsid;
derived from the cell surface membrane of the host
cell.
 Nucleocapsid: the combined structure formed by the core and capsid.
 Viruses are known as akaryotes because they don‟t have cell organelles.
Note:
Type of organism Description
Prokaryotes Have cells that lack true nucleus and membrane bound
organelles
Eukaryotes Have cells possessing a true nucleus and membrane
bound organelles
Akaryotes They don‟t have cell organelles.

Types of Viruses
 Viruses are classified according to the nature of genetic material they have or type
of life cycle.
 They are not classified according to their own characteristics because their
characteristics are related the host organism.
 The common types according to genetic material are;
a) Single stranded RNA viruses
b) Double stranded RNA viruses
c) Single stranded DNA viruses
d) Double stranded DNA viruses

 According to lifecycle, the types are;

i) Lytic virus (life cycle):
 The virus uses host cell to manufacture more viruses; the new viruses then
burst out of the host cell. E.g. Ebola virus
ii) Lysogenic virus (life cycle):
 Involves incorporation of the viral genome (genetic material) into the host cell
genome; infecting it from within; the new virus(es) just bud off from the host
cell, leaving the host cell alive. E.g. influenza virus
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iii) Retrovirus (life cycle):

 Type of RNA virus (use RNA as its genetic material), that uses a special enzyme
reverse transcriptase to translate/change it‟s RNA genetic information/material
to DNA. E.g. HIV.
 During the life cycle, the virus invades a host cell, the virus then inserts a copy
of its RNA genome into the DNA of the host cell, the virus then uses a special
enzyme reverse transcriptase to translate/change it‟s RNA genetic
information/material to DNA. The new DNA formed is then integrated into the
host cell‟s DNA. Once integrated, the virus can use the host cell‟s components
to make additional viral particles.

Exercise 3:
1. State 3 differences and 3 similarities between Lytic and lysogenic viral life
cycles
2. State 2 differences between lysogenic and retroviral life cycles

Note:
 All viruses being obligate endoparasites, cause diseases in the various kingdoms
of organisms by infecting their cells.
i) In animals they cause diseases include
− COVID-19
− AIDS,
− influenza,
− Small pox
− Ebola,
− Yellow fever,
− polio,
− foot and mouth disease,
− Rabies,
− new castle disease. etc.
ii) In plants, viral diseases include:
− tobacco mosaic,
− cassava mosaic,
− Southern bean mosaic disease,
− Tomato bush stunt disease
Exercise 4:
1. (a) Explain why it‟s not easy for scientists to come up with viral vaccines.
(b) How can the spread of viral diseases be prevented.
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Life cycle of a Bacteriophage

 A Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria. It‟s an example of a virus with a
simple lifecycle.
 E. coli is a typical host.
Structure of a Bacteriophage:

Details of the lifecycle:

i) The Bacteriophage approaches the bacteria and attaches to its surface (the cell
wall) using receptors in the tail fibers.
ii) The Bacteriophage then drills through the bacteria‟s cell wall using pins at the
base of the contractile sheath and injects its genetic material.
iii) The virus DNA (phage DNA) is then used to synthesize hydrolytic enzymes that
breakdown the DNA of the bacterium. The virus DNA then takes control of the
bacterium.
iv) The viral DNA codes for the synthesis of virus components such as the surface
proteins, sheath and tail fibers.
v) The virus DNA replicates forming many copies of its self.
vi) The virus components are assembled to form new copies of the Bacteriophage.
vii) Due to breakdown of the bacterial cell wall by enzymes and by increase in
internal osmotic pressure, the cell wall bursts releasing the new Bacteriophage
particles (=new viruses) into the surrounding medium.
viii) The released particles then attack other bacteria.
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Illustration

Structure of the HIV virus:

 The HIV virus is spherical and about 1000nm in diameter. The core region
contains 2 molecules of single stranded RNA and reverse transcriptase enzyme
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surrounded by a cone shaped protein capsid. The capsid is enclosed by an

envelope composed of a lipid and glycoprotein.
 The reverse transcriptase enzyme converts single stranded RNA into double
stranded DNA copies.HIV is referred to as a retrovirus because the enzyme
reverse transcriptase, found in retroviruses, catalyses the conversion of viral RNA
into DNA i.e. reverse transcription.
 The viral DNA made is then inserted into the host‟s DNA where it directs the
production of more viral properties.
 The envelope contains glycoproteins which bind specifically to helper T-cell
receptors, enabling the virus to enter the helper T-lymphocytes.
Life cycle of HIV/any Retroviruses
 The virus invades a host cell, the virus then inserts a copy of its RNA genome into
the DNA of the host cell,

 The virus then uses a special enzyme reverse transcriptase to translate/change

it‟s RNA genetic information/material to DNA.

 The new DNA formed is then integrated into the host cell‟s DNA.

 Once integrated, the virus can use the host cell‟s components to make additional
viral particles.
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Economic importance:
i) Viruses cause diseases to plants such as tobacco bright and tomato mosaic
by (TMV)
ii) Viruses cause diseases to animals as influenza, rabies, polio, HIV and
cancers.
iii) May lead to antibiotic resistance by bacteria.
iv) Used in genetic engineering.
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KINGDOM MONERA/PROKARYOTAE
This is a kingdom of prokaryotic organisms consisting of bacteria and blue-green
algae. These organisms are much smaller than eukaryotes, but much bigger than
viruses.
Characteristics of bacteria
i. They have no nucleus in their cells
ii. They have circular DNA in their cells and its always naked (not associated with
histones)
iii. Lack double membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria, golgi bodies,
etc.
iv. Have smaller 70s ribosomes
v. Cells have cell walls, made up of peptidoglycans
vi. Cells divide by binary fission
vii. They exist as single cells (unicellular) or small groups of cells (colonial).
Drawing of a bacterial cell

The structures that are present in all bacteria are cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, 70s
ribosomes and circular DNA.
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Exercise 5:
1. State the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Domains Of Bacteria
 Bacteria fall into two groups depending on the characteristics of their cells. These
are;
a) Archaea bacteria:
 These are ancient bacteria that inhabit extreme environmental conditions such
as hot springs. Examples:
i) Halophiles: which grow under extremely high salt concentration
ii) Hyperthermophiles: This group contains organisms that grow under
very high temperatures.
 They differ from the true bacteria by not having peptidoglycan (murein) in their
cell walls and having 70s ribosomes with features similar to those of
eukaryotes.
b) Eubacteria:
 These are the true bacteria having all the characteristics of bacteria.
 Eubacteria are considered more advanced than archaea.

 Although all bacteria share the same basic characteristics, they vary widely in
size, shape and mode of nutrition.
TYPES OF BACTERIA
A. According to shape, bacteria are of the following types
a) Round shaped bacteria (cocci)
 These are bacteria with a circular shape usually without flagella. They may
occur singly, in pairs (diplococcic), in clusters (staphylococci) or chains
(streptococci).
 Examples of cocci bacteria Diplococci pneumoniae causing pneumonia,
streptococci pyogens.
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Single diplococcus streptococcus staphylococci

coccus

b) Rod shaped bacteria (bacilli)

These are bacteria with a cylindrical shape. They may occur singly or in chains and
may have one to several flagella. Examples are Bacillus anthracis and Azotobacter.

c) Spiral shaped bacteria (spirilla)

 These are bacteria whose shape is curved like a spring. Examples include
helicobacter pylori and treponema pallidum.

 Some spirochetes are shaped like a comma and these are known as vibrios. E.g vibrio
cholerae

B. According to mode of nutrition, bacteria are of the following types

a) Autotrophic bacteria
These are bacteria that are capable of manufacturing their own food from simple
inorganic compounds and elements. These are also subdivided into;
i. Photoautotrophic bacteria: these use sunlight energy trapped by bacterial
chlorophyll to manufacture organic compounds. Examples are cyano bacteria and
purple sulphur bacteria.
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ii. Chemoautotrophic bacteria: these are bacteria that use energy from oxidation of
chemicals to synthesize their own food. Examples include nitrobacter,
nitrosomonas.
b) Heterotrophic bacteria
These are bacteria which depend on already manufactured food compound by other
organisms. They are subdivided into;
i. Free living saprotrophic bacteria which obtain energy by breaking down dead
decaying matter. In so doing they speed up the decomposition process hence
recycling nutrients.

ii. Parasitic bacteria which depend on other living organisms causing harm to them.
All disease causing bacteria are parasitic bacteria. Examples of bacteria diseases in
plants and animals are; plague anthrax, pneumonia, cholera, food poisoning,
typhoid, gonorrhea, meningitis, tuberculosis, etc.

iii. Mutualistic bacteria: These live with other living organisms with both organisms
benefiting. These include Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules; Cellulose digesting
bacteria (Cellulase producing bacteria) in guts of ruminants and non ruminants..
Summary of the 4 nutritional categories of bacteria:
Carbon source
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
Source of carbon is inorganic Source of carbon is organic
(CO2).
Energy Phototrophic Photoautotrophic Photoheterotrophic
source (Photosynthetic) e.g. blue-green bacteria e.g. purple non-sulphur
light energy used bacteria
Chemotrophic Chemoautotrophic Chemoheterotrophic
(Chemosynthetic) e.g. Nitrosomonas and Most bacteria-all the
chemical energy Nitrobacter, nitrifying saprotrophs, parasites and
used bacteria involved in the mutualists (symbionts)
nitrogen cycle.
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C. According to nature/structure of their cell wall: How they react to Gram’s

stain
 There are 2 types, namely Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
i) Gram positive bacteria
 These stain with Gram‟s stain e.g. Bacillus, Lactobacillus and Staphylococcus,.
 The murein net in their cell wall is filled with other components, mainly
polysaccharides and proteins, to form a relatively thick wall.
ii) Gram negative bacteria
 These don‟t stain with Gram‟s stain, e.g. Azotobacter, Salmonella and E. coli.
 The cell walls are thinner, but more complex. Their murein layer is coated on
the outside with a smooth, thin, membrane-like layer of lipids and
polysaccharides.
 This coating protects them from lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme found in
tears, saliva and other body fluids, and egg white.
 Lysozyme digests the polysaccharide backbone of murein. The wall is thus
punctured and lysis (osmotic swelling and bursting) of the cell can occur.
 This same outer layer/coating also gives resistance to penicillin, which
attacks Gram positive bacteria by interfering with the cross-linking in the
murein of growing bacterial cells; which weakens the walls, thus making
them more likely to burst when water enters by osmosis.
 Thus, Gram positive bacteria are more susceptible to antibiotics and lysozyme
enzyme than Gram negative ones.
Exercise 6:
1. (a) State 3 differences between Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria.
(b) State 2 advantages of Gram negative bacteria over the Gram positive bacteria.
(c) Explain the difference in the wall structure of the Gram positive and Gram
negative bacteria.
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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

Due to their nature and mode of nutrition, bacteria are of great economic
importance:
i) They facilitate the making of foods like yoghurt, cheese and vinegar
ii) They cause decomposition of dead organic matter, hence enabling their
disposal. This is applied in sewage treatment.
iii) They are used for making antibiotics e.g. streptomycin.
iv) In humans, vitamin K and B complex are produced by the symbiotic bacteria
(E. Coli) while in animals it is used to break down cellulose.
v) They take part in nutrient recycling e.g. the nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle and
the phosphorous cycle.
vi) On the other hand, bacteria cause food to get spoilt
vii) Bacteria like Thiobacillus and Disulphovibrio produces sulphuric acid which
destroys underground metal pipes.
viii) They are cultured for research purposes

FACTORS THAT AFFECT BACTERIAL GROWTH

Bacteria can easily be cultured/ grown in the laboratory by placing a small amount
of them into a medium with nutrients and conditions essential for their growth. The
following factors affect the rate at which the bacterial population would grow by
affecting the rate of bacterial cell division.
i) Availability of nutrients: bacteria require nutrients such as glucose and mineral
ions for them to grow. Large quantities of such nutrients favor rapid bacterial
growth.
ii) Availability of oxygen: aerobic bacteria require oxygen for respiration hence its
presence favors rapid population growth of such bacteria.
iii) Temperature: increase in temperature increases the rate of bacterial population
growth rate up to about 40oC beyond which the rate of growth reduces. This is
because temperature influences/affects the activity of bacterial enzymes.
iv) Availability of moisture: bacteria easily thrive and reproduce in an environment
that contains relatively high levels of moisture.
v) Accumulation of toxic waste products: these include carbon dioxide, lactic acid.
They reduce the rate of bacterial growth when their concentration increases.
Accumulation of carbon dioxide lowers PH with affects enzymes.
 Page 22 of 67

Graph showing growth of a population of bacteria in a culture

Name of phase Description of Trend Explanation (Reason) for the Trend

of graph
Lag phase (A).  Gradual increase in  The bacteria are still adapting to their new
the number of environment
bacterial cells  There are still few reproducing individuals
(Bacterial population)  Some bacteria haven‟t reached full
with time reproductive age.
Log phase (B).  Rapid increase in the  The bacteria have adapted to the
number of bacterial environment.
cells, with time  Abundance of resources namely nutrients
and space.
Decelerating  Gradual increase in  As the population is approaching the full
phase (C) the number of carrying capacity of the environment,
bacterial cells resources like food are beginning to limit.
(Bacterial population)
with time
Stationary The bacterial  The birth rate equals to the death rate of the
phase (D) population remains bacterial cells, and thus there‟s no net
constant with time increase in bacterial population.
 This is because the population has reached
the full carrying capacity of the environment.
 At this point, the resources are just enough
to support current population size. E.g. the
food available cannot support any higher
 Page 23 of 67

population.
i. Stiff competition for decreasing food

ii. Depletion of oxygen (reduction of oxygen)

iii. Accumulation of toxic wastes from
metabolism
Phase of The bacterial  The death rate exceeds the birth rate; due to
decline (E) population declines exhaustion of oxygen and exhaustion of
slowly, with time nutrients that leads to very steep completion;
and the accumulation of toxic wastes that
kills the bacteria;
N.B: If the horizontal axis for time was marked/calibrated, then in the trend description,
the time interval has to be quoted.

Exercise 7:
1. State differences between
a) Bacteria and viruses
b) Viruses and eukaryotic cells

KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA
 This kingdom was formerly known as Protista. It includes all single celled eukaryotic
organisms such as algae and protozoa.
 Algae are autotrophic while protozoa are heterotrophic.
 These organisms have no common ancestral origin but share some common
characteristics among them. ( single celled eukaryotic organisms)
Characteristics of protists
1. They are unicellular or colonial organisms

2. They have a true nucleus and other double membrane bound organelles

3. They reproduce asexually by mitosis.

4. They have a cellular level of organization

5. They only stay in aquatic habitats or habitats containing water

Kingdom protoctista is divided into many phyla since the organisms show a great diversity.
The common phyla are shown in the table below.
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Some of the main groups of Protoctista and some examples of the phyla and genera they
contain:
Kingdom Protoctista
Group Algae: Protozoa: Phylum Oomycota: Slime moulds:
 Plant-like;  Animal-like; Unicellular  Fungus-like.
photosynthetic & mainly aquatic  Cell walls contain
& mainly cellulose; Hyphae
aquatic. are aseptate.
Phyla Chlorophyta: Rhizopoda: Phylum Oomycota
(Green algae) (Rhizopods) Examples:
E.g. Chlorella e.g. Amoeba *Phytophthora Are Motile
 Move & feed by means infestans; Obligate like animals;
of pseudopodia parasite, causes produce
potato blight. spores like
fungi
Phaeophyta: Ciliophora: Pythium:
(Brown algae) (Ciliates) facultative
E.g. Fucus; e.g. Parameccium parasite; causes
Laminaria Move using cilia; Has disease of the
meganucleus and cabbage family &
micronucleus; asexual others
reproduction by
transverse binary fision.
Rhodophyta: Zoomastigina: Peronospora:
(Red algae) e.g. Trypanosoma Obligate parasite
Move using flagella; causes a disease of
Asexual reproduction by the cabbage family
longitudinal binary
fission
Bacillariophyta: Apixomplexa:
(Diatoms) e.g. Plasmodium: the
parasite which causes
malaria
Phylum Euglenophyta:
The only member is
euglena which lives in an
aquatic environment.
Characteristics
 Are mostly unicellular
 Reproduce asexually
 Move by flagella
 Able to photosynthesize
 Page 25 of 67

Classification and characteristics of the two main phyla of Algae:

Group Algae
General characteristics:
i) Almost all are specialized for aquatic life
ii) Great range of size and form, namely unicellular, filamentous, colonial and
thalloid forms.
 A thallus: A flat, photosynthetic and eukaryotic body, which is not differentiated
into true roots, stems and leaves, and lacks true vascular system (xylem and
phloem).
Phyla Phylum Chlorophyta (‘Green algae’) Phylum Phaeophyta (‘Brown algae’)
 Main photosynthetic pigment is  Main photosynthetic pigment is brown
chlorophyll (thus green in appearance) and called fucoxanthin.
 Chlorophylls a and c also present (as  Chlorophyll a and c also present.
in plants)
 Store carbohydrate as starch (insoluble) Store carbohydrate as soluble laminarin
X-tics and mannitol; and also fat.
 Mostly fresh water  Mainly marine (only 3 genera are fresh
water)
 Large range of types e.g. unicellular,  Filamentous or thalloid, often large
colonial, filamentous and thalloid.
E.g.  Chlorella-A unicellular, non-motile alga  Fucus-A thalloid, marine alga
 Chlamydomonas-A unicellular, motile alga  Laminaria-A large thalloid, marine alga
 Spirogyra-A filamentous alga
 Ulva-A thalloid, marine alga

Diagrams of the various Algae:

Spirogyra
 Page 26 of 67

Chlamydomonas

Diagrams of the various protozoa:

Amoeba

Paramecium
 Page 27 of 67

Euglena (Phylum Euglenophyta)

 Page 28 of 67

Lifecycle of plasmodium parasite

 The plasmodium species is a group of four species of parasitic protozoans that
cause malaria fever in humans, leading to many deaths worldwide. It uses humans
and female anopheles mosquitoes as hosts.
The lifecycle is as follows:
i) An infected mosquito bites a non affected person injecting plasmodium sporozoites
into the blood.

ii) The injected sporozoites travel through blood and migrate to the liver where they
mature to schizonts.

iii) The schizonts divide by schizogony to produce many haploid merozoites. The
merozoites are released from the liver and enter blood.

iv) Merozoites in blood enter red blood cells where they undergo multiple divisions by
mitosis to produce more merozoites, and this causes rapture of the red blood cell
releasing the merozoites into blood plasma. The released merozoites attack more
red blood cells and the process repeats it‟s self.

v) Some of the merozoites divide and differentiate into gametocytes which stay in
blood.

vi) When an infected person is bitten by a mosquito, the mosquito sucks blood
containing the gametocytes.

vii) Male and female gametocytes fuse to form zygotes that mature to ookinetes.

viii) The ookinetes mature into Oocysts in the mosquito gut.

ix) Oocysts rapture releasing sporozoites which migrate to and stay in the mosquito‟s
salivary glands. The cycle then repeats it‟s self when the infected mosquito bites a
non affected person.

Note:
 Rapture of red blood cells when infected by merozoites leads to development of
malaria fever. In worse cases the person may become anaemic when the number
of red blood cells reduces significantly.
 The human immune system cannot easily eliminate malaria pathogens from the
body because the parasites spend most of their time inside liver cells or red blood
cells.
 Page 29 of 67

 There are four species of plasmodium i.e. Plasmodium vivax, P. malarie, P. ovale, P.
falcipurum. The most severe malaria causing most deaths is caused by
Plasmodium falcipurum..

PHYLUM OOMYCOTA:
 Oomycotes are closely simillar to Fungi in structure (but now regarded as an ancient
group).
 Their cell walls contain cellulose, as the strengthening material, not chitin as in fungi;
 Have hyphaewhich is aseptate.
 It‟s a phylum of a number of pathogenic organisms, including downy mildews (which is a
common problem for crops/Agriculture).
Details of some of the common and most economically important pathogens:
a) Phytophthora infestans
 Parasitises potato crops, causing a devastating disease called potato blight.
 It‟s an obligate parasite (does not grow independently of its host).
 Attack leaves.
 Page 30 of 67

 A mycelium of branched, aseptate hyphae spreads through the intercellular

spaces of the leaves; giving off branched haustoria; which push into the
mesophyll cells; and absorbs nutrients from them.
 Haustoria are typical of obligate parasites. They are specialized penetration and
absorption devices.
 Each haustorium is a modified hyphal outgrowth with a large surface area which
pushes into the cells without breaking their cell surface membranes and without
killing them.
Diagram showing Phytophthora infestans growing in a diseased potato leaf,
with sporangiophores emerging from the underside of the leaf:

 In warm, humid conditions, the mycelium produces long, slender structures

called sporangiophores; which emerge from the lower surface of the leaf through
the stomata or wounds. These branch and give rise to sporangia.
 In warm conditions, the sporangia may behave as spores, being blown away or
splashed by rain drops on to other plants; where further infection takes place.
 A hypha emerges from the sporangium and penetrates the plant through the
stoma, lenticels or wound.
 In cool conditions, the sporangium contents may divide to form swimming spores
(a primitive feature) which, when released, swim in surface films of moisture.
 Page 31 of 67

 These spores may encyst until conditions are suitable, for hyphal growth, then
they produce new infection.

The knowledge about the life cycle of potato blight has led to methods of it’s
control, which include:
i) Take care not to plant infected tubers.
ii) All diseased parts of infected plants should be destroyed before lifting the
tubers, e.g. burning them or spraying with a corrosive solution like
sulphuric acid.
iii) New plantings must not be made in soil known to have carried the disease
in the previous year, since the pathogen organism can survive in the soil up
to one year. Crop rotation therefore works well.
iv) Care must be taken to ensure that all tubers are lifted in an infected field.
v) Breeding genetically modified potato plants resistant to potato blight.
 Page 32 of 67

vi) The pathogen organisms can be attacked/sprayed with copper-containing

fungicides e.g. Bordeaux mixture. Spraying must be carried out at the
correct time to prevent an attack, since infected plants cannot be saved.
Tubers to be used as seed potatoes can be sterilized externally by immersion
in a dilute mercury (II) chloride solution.
b) Pythium
 Unlike Phytophthora infestans, Pythium is a relatively unspecialized parasite,
attacking a great variety of plants and causing soft rot. It causes „damping off‟ in
seedlings.
 It needs damp conditions, since it produces swimming spores during asexual
reproduction.
 It can grow on the living plant or on its dead remains, thus it‟s a facultative
parasite. It can also live saprophytically in wet soil.
 It produces extracellular enzymes which help it attack and kill its host rapidly.
 The first enzymes produced are pectinases which diffuse ahead of the growing
fungus and digest the pectin in the middle lamellae, which hold the cells together.
As a result, the plant tissue dissolves into a mush (soft rot). The plant collapses.
 Later other enzymes are produced which digest the contents of the plant cells, but
it does not produce haustoria, unlike Phytophthora.
 The products of digestion are absorbed by the hyphae which grow between the
cells.
 Damping-off of seedlings is due to destruction of the first shoot as it appears
above the soil.
 This parasite affects horticulture, forestry and agriculture. Members of the
cabbage family are much susceptible.
 Page 33 of 67

Exercise 8:
1. The diagram below shows an interaction between a plant leaf and a parasitic
fungus. Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow:

a) Name the labeled parts. (05 Marks)

A. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
B. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
C. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
D. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
E. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b) Give the name of the fungus. (½ Marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Name the disease caused by the fungus. (½ Marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
d) Give two adaptations of this fungus for it‟s survival. (02 Marks)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

e) Mention any two effects of Wuchereria bancrofti to it‟s host (02 Marks)
i. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Page 34 of 67

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ii. …………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTISTS

i) They cause diseases to plant and animals by living as parasites. They cause
diseases like Dysentery (by amoeba), malaria (by plasmodia), trypanasomiasis (by
trypanosomes), etc.
ii) Algal blooms cause pollution in water bodies
iii) Some algae are cultivated for animal consumption as a protein source
iv) Some decompose organic matter in the ecosystem
v) Some carryout photosynthesis which produces food and oxygen in the
ecosystem.
vi) Some have industrial uses.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE

i) They can be used as fertilisers in farms
ii) The carry out photosynthesis in oceans which:
 Provide food for other organisms
 Reduce carbon dioxide which would cause acidity in water
 Release oxygen used for cellular respiration by aquatic organisms
iii) Some of their products are useful in various industrial processes
iii) Algae blooms result in severe pollution of water bodies.
iv) Chlorella can be cultivated to provide Single Cell Protein (SCP) for humans and
animal consumption
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
 The kingdoms Monera and Protoctista consist of unicellular organisms. Such
organisms have cellular level of organization with cells existing independently e.g.
paramecium. In some cases, the cells loosely interact to form colonies (colonial level
of organization) e.g. staphylococci bacteria.
 However, the kingdoms fungi, Plantae and Animalia consist of multicellular
organisms where cells are organized into specialized tissues (tissue level
organization), organs (organ level of organization) and organ systems (system level
organization).
 Page 35 of 67

Advantages and disadvantages of multicellular level of organisation

Advantages of being multicellular
i) The multicellular state allows organisms to increase in size as they grow. This is
because growth of an individual cell is limited by the nucleus and therefore in
multicellular organisms, cells divide as they grow allowing an increase in size of
the whole organism.

ii) It allows tissue specialization which increases efficiency in performing body

functions

iii) Worn out cells are easily replaced by cell division

iv) Enables larger complex support system that cannot be carried out by a single
cell. This occurs as a result of the cumulative effect of the cells functioning. E.g.
capturing and feeding on large prey, fast locomotion like in escaping from
predators.

v) Allows the organisms to exploit various habitats which cannot be exploited by

unicellular organisms due to development of complex physiological processes
enabling the maintenance of a relative constant internal environment E.g. control
of water loss, temperature regulation.

vi) They have an efficient sensory systems due to tissue specialisation which enables
animals to escape from predators quickly.
Disadvantages
i) They require large quantities of food to sustain their high metabolic/energy
needs.
ii) They produce a large quantity of waste products (due to high metabolic rates)
hence a necessity for development of complex excretory systems.
iii) They require specialised locomotory structures to enable motion.
iv)They have a small surface area to volume ratio that requires development of
transport systems since simple diffusion cannot supply enough nutrients to the
animal.
 Page 36 of 67

Challenges faced by multicellular organisms

i) Challenge of support due to the increased mass of the body, which may also
involve carrying the organism from one place to another.
ii) Finding large amounts of food to provide nutrients to each cell, since all the body
cells require nourishment.
iii) Difficulty in the internal transportation of materials over long distances in the
body of the organism. Materials such as food nutrients have to be transported to
all body cells and wastes have to be removed from each cell and processes such
as diffusion, osmosis and active transport are no longer efficient.
iv) Cells lose their independence as they have to depend on other cells for various
functions such as provision of nutrients and removing wastes. This limits their
functioning by slowing down the rate of their activities.
v) Difficulty in acquisition of resources such as food and oxygen due to reduction in
surface area to volume ratio that accompanies the increase in size. When the
surface area to volume ratio is small, resources cannot be absorbed over the body
surface.
vi) Difficulty in control and coordination of the various cell processes in the
multicellular state since cell activities are dependent.
vii) Difficulty in loss of heat from the body as the organisms become larger and
increase in size. This is because the rate of heat loss is directly proportional to
the surface are to volume ratio.
Exercise 9:
1. Explain how multicellular organisms have been able to solve the above
challenges

Advantages and disadvantages of unicellular level of organisation

Advantages
v) Their small size enables living in a variety of habitats
vi)There is less food intake
vii) There is no need for the development of complex excretory organs since they
take in less food.
viii) No necessity for development of complex circulatory and gaseous exchange
structures since simple diffusion combines with their large surface area to volume
ratio
ix) There‟s no need for development of complex support systems like cartilage,
bones, xylem e.t.c.
Disadvantages
x) Predators
xi) Easily and greatly affected by environmental changes in pH.
xii) Easily dessicated.
 Page 37 of 67

KINGDOM FUNGI
 This is a kingdom of unicellular and multi-cellular eukaryotic heterotrophic
organisms that have chitin in their cell walls.
 Lichens, which are associations between fungi and algae are placed under this
kingdom, due to the fungus present.
Characteristics that distinguish them from plants
 Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen but not as starch
 Their cell walls contain chitin but not cellulose
 They have no chlorophyll hence they don‟t carry out photosynthesis
 They reproduce by spores that lack flagella
 They carry out heterotrophic nutrition as parasites and saprophytes.
 Their bodies are usually made up of a mycelium of thread like multi-nucleate
hyphae without cross walls (aseptate) or they may have cross walls (septate)
 They undergo nuclear mitosis i.e. their cytoplasm, nuclear membrane and cell
membrane never divided
 Fungal mitochondria have flattened cristae (whereas plants have tubular ones)
Exercise 10:
1. Explain how the fungi are similar to animals.
Classification of fungi:
Phylum Zygomycota Phylum Ascomycota Phylum Basidiomycota
Asexual reproduction by Asexual reproduction by Asexual reproduction by
conidia or sporangia conidia; No sporangia formation of spores;
containing spores Sporangia not common.
Non-septate hyphae and Septate hyphae Septate hyphae
large well developed
branching mycerium.
Examples: Examples: Examples:
 Rhizopus stolonifer,  Penicillium and Aspergillus:  Agaricus campestris, field
common bread mould, a Saprophytic moulds; mushroom: Saprophyte
saprotroph  Saccharomyces (Yeast):
 Mucor, common moulds, Unicellular saprotrophs
saprotroph  Erysiphe: Obligate parasites
 Page 38 of 67

causing powdery mildews, e.g.

of barley
Diagrams of fungi:
Penicillin (Phylum Ascomycota) Yeast (Phylum Ascomycota)

Drawing of a bread mould (rhizopus Mucor (Phylum Zygomycota)

stolonifer) (Phylum Zygomycota)
 Page 39 of 67

Mushroom (Phylum Basidiomycota)

Drawing of yeast cell: (Phylum Ascomycota)

 Page 40 of 67

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

i) Some are eaten as food e.g. mushrooms
ii) They cause decomposition of sewage and organic material in soil
iii) Penicillium and Aspergillus are used to form antibiotics (during aerobic
respiration)
iv) Yeast forms alcohol during anaerobic respiration
v) Yeast is used in bread production (aenarobic respiration produces carbondioxide
that raises the dough)
vi) Fermentation of Aspergillus forms citric acid used in lemonade formation
vii) Some fungi cause plant diseases e.g. powdery mildew caused by Erysphie
graminae
viii) Used for experimental purposes especially in genetic investigations
ix) Fungi causes decomposition of stored food and deterioration of natural materials
like leather
x) Some are poisonous to man
xi) They cause skin irritations e.g. ringworms

KINGDOM PLANTAE (The Plant Kingdom):

General Characteristics of organisms in kingdom plantae
 They are multicellular eukaryotic autotrophs.

 They have chlorophyll in their cells hence carrying out photosynthesis

 Cells have cell walls containing cellulose

 Carbohydrates are stored as starch

 Life cycle shows alternation of generations.

The different phyla, characteristics and examples are as follows:

Phylum & Phylum Characteristics Diagrams
Examples
Bryophyta  No xylem & phloem (Not vascularised)
E.g. Mosses &  No „true‟ leaves, roots or stems (Are
liverworts. anchored by root-like structures called
rhizoids)
 Reproduce by releasing spores from
sporangia.
 Page 41 of 67

The Moss
Filicinophyta  Have xylem & phloem
(Pteridophyta)  Have roots, leaves & stems (Leaves are
E.g. True ferns; pinnate-Consisting of large fronds
Club mosses divided into leaflets)
& Horsetails  Reproduce by releasing spores from
clusters called sori, on the underside of
the leaves

The Fern
Coniferophyta  Have xylem & phloem
(Gymnospermae)  Have roots, stems & leaves (Stems are
(The conifers) E.g. woody and leaves are waxy and needle-
pine, cypress, cedar like)
and fir (trees).  Reproduce by seeds (non-motile
gametes), which are found in cones.
 Naked seeds (No ovary wall around
ovule)
Angiospermophyta  Are vascularised
(Angiospermae)  Have roots, stems and leaves.
E.g. Bean, Maize &  Reproduce by seeds produced in ovules
Grasses within flowers (Flowers may develop
into fruits)
More Diagrams:
 Page 42 of 67

Gymnosperms/Conifers: Parts of the pine

Plant

Phyla Recognition Features:

Structures Vascularisation Reproduction Other Examples
features
Bryophyta No „true‟ None Spores; (Are Anchored Mosses
roots, Non-flowering) by rhizoids
stems and
leaves
Filicinophyta Have roots, Present Spores; (Are Leaves are Ferns
(Pteridophyta) stems & Non-flowering) pinnate
leaves
Coniferophyta Have …. Present Seeds (In Woody Conifers
(Gymnospermae) cones; Naked); stems
(Are non-
Flowering; No
fruit)
Angiospermophyta Have …. Present Seeds (In Have Flowering
(Angiospermae) fruits; flowers & plants
Enclosed by fruits
Ovary wall);
(Are Flowering)
 Page 43 of 67

Phylum Angiospermae (Flowering plants)

Class Class Monocotyledoneae Class Dicotyledoneae
Feature (Monocotyledons). (Dicotyledons).
Number of cotyledons  Seeds have one cotyledon  Seeds have two cotyledons
in seeds
Root system  fibrous root  Tap roots
Structure of leaves  Leaves have parallel  Leaves have net-work
venation and leaf sheaths venation and some with
petioles
Structure of flowers  Flowers parts in multiples of  Flower parts in multiples
3. of 4 to 5.
Arrangement of  Stem contains scattered  Stem contains ring of
vascular bundles vascular bundles vascular bundles
Secondary Growth No secondary growth Secondary growth occurs

Examples Maize, Lilies, palms, grasses Bean, Hibiscus, cotton

More terms used to describe the classification of plants:

 The plant kingdom is a much difficult group to classify! Different scientists and
books/authors tend to treat it differently. The above described approach has been
used to simplify this classification to the learners.
 However, the following are some of the other terms and taxa (classification groups)
used (but much advised to stick to the above approach to minimize confusion).
Term Description
i) Division  In botany, the equivalent of a phylum is called a division.
 The plant kingdom is divided into 14 phyla; but at our
level, there are 4 main divisions/phyla considered.
ii) Pteridophyta  It‟s the division/phylum for ferns, horse tails and club-
mosses. It‟s the filicinophyta division.
 They are the vascular plants that reproduce by spores.
They do not reproduce by flowers and seeds.
 Page 44 of 67

 They are also known as tracheophytes, because because

they consists of xylem and phloem.
iii) Tracheophytes  Refers to vascular plants, i.e. plants that have xylem and
(Tracheophyta) phloem.
 Includes Phylum filicinophyta and spermatophytes
(Phylum Angiospermae and Phylum Gymnospermae)
 Usually taken to be a division/phylum; but it‟s bigger than
a division/phylum.
iv) Spermatophyta  Refers to seed plants.
(Spermatophytes)  They are the vascular plants that reproduce by seeds and
flowers.
 It (sub-divided into) comprises of divisions Angiospermae
and Gymnospermae (Gymnospermatophyta)
 It‟s thus higher than a division.

Alternation of generations
 The occurrence/existence of two distinct phases (generations) of life namely the
sexual haploid gametophyte phase and the asexual diploid sporophyte phase in the
life cycle of an organism/plant.
 This kind of life cycle occurs in plants, with the haploid gametophyte producing
gametes (“Gameto”=Gamete; “Phyte”=Plant) by mitosis while the diploid sporophyte
(“Sporo”=Spore; “Phyte”=Plant) generation producing spores (haploid) by
meiosis/asexually.
 The 2 phases/generations are morphologically and chromosomally different.
Illustration of alternation of generations
 Page 45 of 67

SIGNIFICANCE OF ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

i) Enables plants to produce large numbers of offspring in two different
generations which increases chances of survival of the species (Reduces
chances of extinction)
ii) Spores cause rapid multiplication of species
iii) Different habitats of the ecosystem are exploited by the different generations
iv) It enables plants to cope with adverse environmental conditions
v) Gametes are formed by meiosis which brings about genetic variations

N.B: Division Bryophyta

It includes mosses and liverworts. They are considered the least developed
organisms in the plant kingdom.
A drawing of mosses:

Alternation Of Generations in Mosses

 Mosses show alternation of generations with the gametophyte generation being
the dominant stage in the lifecycle.
 The haploid gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis. The male gamete is
produced from the antheridium and the female gamete from the archegonium.
 The antheridium raptures, releasing male gametes (sperms) which swim through
water using flagella to the archegonium. The neck of the archegonium opens and
sperms enter the archegonium where they fuse with the egg to from a diploid
zygote.
 The zygote undergoes division by mitosis to form a sporophyte that remains
attached to the gametophyte and depends on it.
 In the capsule of the sporophyte, spores are formed by meiosis
 In dry weather, the capsule operculum opens and spores fall out and are
dispersed by wind.
 Page 46 of 67

 When spores fall in a moist environment they germinate to from a protonema.

The Protonema then develops buds which grow into new a gametophyte, and the
cycle repeats itself.

Note:
 Antheridium (Plural-Antheridia): A haploid structure or female organ of the
gametophyte (gametophytic plant) producing and containing male gametes (called
antherozoids or sperms) in non-flowering plants like bryophytes, ferns
(pteridophytes), and in some algae and some fungi (ascomycete fungi). Most
gymnosperms and all angiosperms have lost the antheridium, and it‟s role is
fulfilled by the pollen grain.
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 Archegonium (Plural-Archegonia): A multicellular haploid structure or female

reproductive/sex organ of the gametophyte phase, producing and containing
female gamete (the egg/ovum) in non-flowering plants like some bryophytes,
pteridophytes and gymnosperms. It‟s counterpart in flowering plants is the
gynoecium.
 Protonema (Plural-Protonemata): The primary filamentous thalloid stage of the
gametophyte in mosses and liverworts. It‟s a thread-like chain of cells that forms
the earliest stage (of the haploid phase) of the life cycle of mosses. Moss spore
germinate to form an algae-like filamentous structure called the protonema. It
represents the young gametophyte.

Division Pteridophyta/ Filicinophyta

This phylum consists of ferns, and fern allies such as club mosses and horse tails.
 Page 48 of 67

Alternation Of Generations in A Fern

 The sporophyte is the dominant stage in the lifecycle and the gametophyte is
reduced to a structure called a prothallus.
 The haploid gametophyte (prothallus) produces gametes by mitosis. The male
gametes (sperms) are produced from the antheridium, and are flagellated.
Female gametes (eggs) are produced from the archegonium.
 The flagellated male gametes swim from the antheridium to the archegonium
where they fuse with the egg cell to from a diploid zygote.
 The zygote grows into the sporophyte by mitosis. The sporophyte remains
attached to the gametophyte for a short time and later separates from it.
 The sporophyte continues to grow and increases in size, forming a rhizome with
adventitious roots and fronds.
 Spores form in sporangia on the underside of the fronds by meiosis, and the
sporangia occur in clusters called sori.
 The sori rapture releasing spores. The spores are dispersed by wind and when
they land in a moist environment they germinate into heart-shaped
gametophytes and the cycle repeats it‟s self.
Exercise 11:
1. Compare
a. The characteristics of moss and fern
b. Alternation of generations in a moss and fern

Note: Plants’ Transition from aquatic to terrestrial environment:

 Plants are believed to have evolved from green algae by becoming multicellular and
getting adaptations to survive on land. (One of the main evolutionary trends in
plants is their gradually increasing independence from water/ aquatic
environment)
 The main problems associated with the transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial
(land) environment are as follows:
i) Desiccation:
 Air is a drying medium, while water is essential for many life processes/
functions. On land, there‟s need to obtain and conserve water.
ii) Gaseous exchange:
 For the processes of photosynthesis and respiration, the exchange of
carbondioxide and oxygen between the plant tissue and the environment,
needs the surrounding environment to be watery/moist, while on land the
environment is dry atmosphere/air.
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iii) Reproduction:
 Delicate sex cells (gametes) must be protected in a watery environment; and
motile male gametes (the sperms) require water to swim to the female
gametes.
iv) Support:
 Unlike water, air offers no support to the plant body. Water provides
buoyancy (upthrust/lift force), air medium on land doesn‟t, thus plants need
to develop structural support.
v) Nutrition:
 In aquatic environment, mineral nutrients are dissolved in water, while on
land they are locked up in rocks/soil, and the water is in the ground. Thus
part of the plant needs to grow below the ground in the darkness; also it‟s
roots need to develop adaptations for extracting the nutrients and water from
the soil.
 Plants also need light and carbondioxide, thus part of the plantneed to grow
upright above the ground.
vi) Environmental variables:
 Large water bodies like lakes and oceans, provides a very constant
environment. A terrestrial environment, is much more subject to changes in
important factors like temperature, light intensity, pH and ionic
concentrations.

Mosses and liverworts:

 Mosses are well adapted to a terrestrial environment in their mode of dispersal,
which depends on the drying out of the capsule. Also, the spores are small and
light, which enables dispersal by wind (moving air).
 However, despite all the above, the 2 still show much reliance on water, due to
the following reasons:
i. Their reproduction depends on water, since sperms must swim to the
archegonia. They are adapted to release the sperms only in presence of water-
the antheridia bursts only in presence of water.
*However, they are partly adapted to land, since the gametes develop in
protective structures, namely antheridia and archegonia.
ii. There are no special supportive structures (structures for mechanical
support), so the plants are restricted in upward growth.
iii. They depend on water and mineral salts at or near the soil surface, because
they lack roots to deeply penetrate the substrate.
*However, they have rhizoids for anchorage, which is an adaptation to a solid
substratum (terrestrial environment).
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Ferns are more adapted to terrestrial environments than mosses. This is due
to;
 Possession of a waxy cuticle on the fronds which prevents water loss
 Having specialized vascular tissues to transport water and mineral salts
 Having lignin in the vascular tissues which enables support of a large body mass
 Possession of true roots for absorption of water and mineral salts
 Possession of a stem in form of a rhizome which can survive in dry conditions.
 However, ferns are less adapted to terrestrial environments compared to conifers
and angiosperms. This is because the gametophyte lacks the adaptations
possessed by the sporophyte and depends on water for the movement of
flagellated sperms hence it‟s entirely confined to damp conditions.
Exercise 11:
1. Explain the adaptations that have enabled plants to overcome the challenges
of living in the terrestrial environment.
2. Liverworts and mosses have sometimes been described as the amphibians of
the plant world. Explain why.
3. With reasons, explain which plants are more adapted to plant life, between
ferns, and, mosses and liverworts.
4. How are mosses, liverworts and ferns poorly adapted to terrestrial
environment.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA:
Main features used in describing and classifying animals:
A. BODY SYMMETRY:
 Symmetry: The body of the organism having similar parts/proportions. The
various types of symmetry are:
i. Bilateral symmetry: The body having 2 equal halves, e.g. humans
ii. Radial symmetry: Having many equal proportions around a central point.
 Asymmetry: Not having equal proportions/lack of equality between body
parts/lack of symmetry. E.g. in sponges.
Body plan: Symmetry and cephalization:
 Bilaterally symmetrical animals tend to be more active, and move forward towards
an anterior end.
 This eventually led to concentration of sensory organs on the anterior end, which
is the head. This is known as cephalization.
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B. COMPLEXITY OF BODY CAVITIES:

 Body cavity: It‟s any space or compartment or potential space in the animal body.
Cavities accommodate organs and other structures. Cavities as potential spaces
contain fluid. (Or simply space between alimentary canal and skin)
 Thus a body cavity is a hollow fluid-filled cavity found in many animals that
suspends the digestive tract and other internal organs in the mesoderm,
acting as a cushion for the internal organs.
 Body cavities allow an animal‟s internal organs to grow freely, move freely and to
function independently of the outer layer of the body wall (Allows development and
functioning of the more complex organ systems).
 Advantages of having coelom:
i. allow an animal‟s internal organs to grow freely
ii. allows independent movement of body wall and organ systems (allows
internal organs to move freely) e.g. movements of the heart and lungs during
their functioning.
iii. allow an animal‟s internal organs to function independently of the outer
layer of the body wall.
iv. If the body cavity is filled with a fluid: the fluid function as a transporting
medium, improving the exchange of metabolites and excretory products
between the internal organs and the body wall.
v. Provides storage area for sperms and eggs.
vi. Provides more flexibility of the organism
 Most body cavities also provide padding and protection for organs.
 Why is coelom important?
 Because they allow for the separation and compartmentalization of different
biological functions in the body. Animals lacking coelom have to rely on
diffusion to transport important nutrients throughout the body (Inside the
coelom is afluid called coelomic fluid)
 There are 3 body cavities found in animals, namely
i. Acoelomate
 There‟s no body cavity. The organs are packed in a solid layer of mesoderm-
derived tissue.
 Animals are called Acoelomates e.g. In Flat worms and sponges (Phylum
Porifera).
 N.B: Sponges have no internal organs and no nervous system. Their body
cavity is a large space, open to the outside, enabling the sponge to consume
food.
ii. Pseudocoelomate
 False body cavity (coelom). Most organs lie in the fluid-filled cavity between
mesoderm-derived wall layers and the gut.
 Page 52 of 67

 Their body cavity is not lined by mesoderm. The mesoderm is scattered

between ectoderm and endoderm./Coelom in form of scattered pouches.
 Animals are called Pseudocoelomates e.g. In Round worms

iii. Coelomate
 The coelom is lined with mesoderm-lined tissues, which also cover many of
the organs and the gut.
 Animals with a true coelom are called Eucoelomates/Coelomates e.g.
Annelida, Human beings. Most bilateral animals, including all the
vertebrates, are coelomates. Namely Annelids, Molluscs, Arthropods,
Echinoderms, and chordates.
 Structure of coelom in humans:
− Have the true coelom (body cavity)
− Lying inner to the mesodermal wall, is the coelom surrounding the
internal organs, with a complete lining (peritoneum) derived from the
mesoderm.
− The coelom surrounding the lungs is called pleural cavity, around the
heart called pericardial sac and the one surrounding digestive organs
is called a peritoneal cavity.
 Structure of coelom in earthworms:
− It‟s coelom consists of a fluid. It forms hydrostatic skeleton for
locomotion and is also used as a storage area for gametes.
− Surrounding this coelom is are two sets of antagonistic muscles,
namely longitudinal and circular muscles, responsible for
locomotion.
 Development of coelom:
 A true body cavity (is called coelom) arises from the mesoderm germ
layer; and is lined by an epithelial membrane. Formed during the gastrula
stage of embryonic development.
 This membrane also lines the organs within the coelom, connecting them
in position while allowing them some free motion.
 A pseudocoelum is a body cavity derived from mesoderm and endoderm.
 Triploblastic animals that possess a pseudocoelum are called
pseudocoelomates.
 Triploblastic animasl that lack a body cavity are called acoelomates.
 Page 53 of 67

C. THE THREE PRIMARY GERM TISSUE LAYERS (EMBRYONIC LAYERS)

IN METAZOANS:
 Metozoans are animals whose embryo, consists of a three-layered structural
stage of development called gastrula (the cup-like embryonic stage). E.g.
humans. The three layers are endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm.
 What each germ layer develops into:
a. The ectoderm differentiates to form the nervous system (spine,
peripheral nerves and brain), the tooth enamel and the epidermis/skin
(outer part of integument).
b. During development the mesoderm (mesodermal tissue) forms the
bones, muscles, the heart, circulatory system, internal sex organs
blood, digestive tract and other organs (kidneys, endocrine glands..).
c. The endoderm turns into the inner lining of some systems and some
organs like liver and pancreas.
 Pseudocoelomates derive their body cavity partly from endoderm tissue and
partly from mesoderm. E.g. Round worms (and not annelids; these have a
coelom).
 Gastrulation is a phase early in the embryonic development of most
animals, during which the single-layered blastula is reorganized into a
multilayered structure called gastrula, (and the layers germ layers organized
into their proper location.)
 Gastrula is an early multicellular embryo; composed of 2 or 3 germinal
layers of cells, from which the different organs/organ systems later derive
(differentiate).
 Blastula is an early embryonic stage, which is a single-layered ball of cells
which develops from repeated cell division or cleavage of the zygote
(fertilized egg).
 Blastula develops from morula, in a process called blastulation.
 The zygote undergoes mitotic cleavage to form morula (which is a 16 celled
stage). The morula further divides mitotically to form blastula 9which is a
128 celled stage). The Blastula differentiates into gastrula which cup-
shaped and has three-germ layer cells. The gastrula (the 3 germ layer cells)
 Page 54 of 67

further form an embryo, and undergo organogenesis. The 3 layer

differentiate into different organs/organ systems.
i) Triploblastic animals:
 Animals having a body, derived/developing from 3 embryonic cell layers
(germinal layers), namely endoderm, mesoderm in between and ectoderm.
 Examples: Platyhelminthes to chordates. (All multicellular animals except 2
phyla)
 Exception: Sponges and coelenterates (Sea anemones; Jelly fish; Corals)
ii. Diploblastic Animals:
 Animals whose body is derived from 2 embryonic layers, an external
ectoderm and an internal endoderm (or whose cells are arranged into 2
embryonic layers, ectoderm and endoderm). So their body consists of 2
layers of cells/tissue.
E.g. coelenterates (Also includes Cnidarias): An undifferentiated/ non-
cellular mesoglea is located between the endoderm and the ectoderm;

D. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION:
 Though all animals are multicellular, their cells are arranged at different levels, as
follows:
Level Description Phyla
Cellular  Cells are specialized so that different cells Porifera
perform specific functions, but similar cells are
not organized (joined) into tissues and their
bodies are basically loose aggregations/
collections of different kinds of cells.
 No true tissues; no organs, or organ systems.
 So sponges are among the simplest animals.
Tissue  Cells performing the same function are Coelentrates
arranged/aggregated into a single unit called
tissue(s), which perform a specific function.
Organ Involve a group of different tissues joined together Platyhelminthes
into one unit called organ, performing a particular
 Page 55 of 67

function e.g. the heart for pumping blood.

Organ  Involves a group of organs working together to Nematodes
system perform a specific function. E.g. Digestive (Systems formation
system consisting of various organs namely begins here)
stomach, ileum e.t.c. Annelids;
Arthropods;
Molluscs;
Chordates

Phyla and their level of organization:

Level of Body cavity Number of Symmetry Phylum Examples
organization primary
germ layers
Cellular No coelom No tissues Asymmetrical Porifera Sponges
Tissue No coelom Diploblastic Radial Coelentrata/ Sea anemones;
(Acoelomate) Cnidaria Jelly fish; Corals;
Hydra
Organ Triploblastic Bilateral Platyhelminthes Tape worm;
(Flat worms) Flukes (Liver
fluke; Blood
fluke)
Organ system Pseudocoelom Triploblastic Bilateral Nematoda Eel worm;
(False body (Round worms)/ Guinea worm;
cavity) Aschhelminthes Wucheria
bancrofti
Organ system Coelomate Triploblastic Bilateral Annelida Earth worms
(Segmented (Lumbricus);
worms) Lug worm;
Rag worm; Leech
Organ system Coelomate Triploblastic Bilateral Arthropoda House fly;
Grasshopper;
Organ system Coelomate Triploblastic Bilateral Echinodermata Sea stars; Sea
urchins; Sea
cucumbers; Sea
lilies
Organ system Coelomate Triploblastic Bilateral Mollusca Snails; Slugs;
Oysters; Squids
Organ system Coelomate Triploblastic Bilateral Chordata Sea squirts; Fish;
Amphibians;
Reptiles; Birds;
Mammals
 Page 56 of 67

Note:
a) Explain why:
 Sponges are neither diploblastic nor triploblastic:
Sponges (phylum porifera) have cellular level of organization. They have 3 layers, but
neither of them is a tissue. Diploblastic and triploblastic apply to animals that have
tissues
 Sponges have no coelom (body cavity):
 Have no true coelom.
 True coelom is formed from mesoderm primary germ layer of tissue. But sponges
have no true tissues, they are only a collection of cells (i.e. only have cellular level
of organization).
 More so, they have no internal organs or a nervous system.
 More so, the „body cavity‟ of sponges is large, and it‟s open to the outside world,
and it enables the sponge to consume food.
Note: Sponges do not have a digestive system but obtain nutrients through
diffusion through canals and pores. Sponges use canals and pores, through
diffusion, to perform life functions.
 Coelentrates are considered acoelomate: It‟s believed that coelenterates have a
coelom. However, they only have 2 layers, ectoderm and endoderm, no mesoderm,
thus can‟t form a true/genuine coelom/body cavity. Thus it‟s considered acoelomate.

b) Symmetry
 Most animals (99%) and animal phyla have bilateral symmetry, also called plane
symmetry.
 Only sponges (Phylum porifera) have asymmetrical body plans. Some animals
start life with one type of body symmetry, but develop a different type as adults,
e.g. sea stars are classified as bilateral symmetrical, though some adult forms are
radially symmetrical.
c) Level of organization in the Nematodes:
 In this phylum, organs systems begin to form. Examples of systems digestive,
reproductive, nervous and excretory systems, lack circulatory and respiratory
systems. They have a complete digestive system with a mouth and anus, unlike in
flat worms.

E. NOTOCHORD:
 Notocord-a long supporting rod that runs through the body below the nerve
cord.
 Animals possessing them are called chordates.
 Page 57 of 67

Exercise 12:
1. Explain how the following organisms are more advance than others
i) Hydra than sponges
ii) Tape worm than Jelly fish
2. With reasons, state which of the organisms is more advanced, the tape worm
and round worm.
3. (a) State the level of organization for each of the following organisms.
i) Sponges
ii) Corals
iii) Blood flukes
(b) (i) Explain what is meant by the term specialization.
(ii) Explain how this occurs in sponges.
General characteristics of Kingdom Animalia:
i) Are eukaryotes
ii) Multicellular
iii) Heterotrophic
iv) Reproduce sexually
v) Cells have cell walls
vi) Capable of locomotion
vii) Adult animals develop fro embryos

Major characteristics considered in animal classification

a) Symmetry: Asymmetrical organisms are those which cannot be divided into two
equal parts while symmetrical ones are those which can be divided into two equal
parts. The important types of symmetry are bilateral symmetry and radial
symmetry. Symmetrical organisms easily balance during locomotion or easily detect
food and threats from any side.

b) Segmentation: this is the repetition of body sections along the body. This
repetition is specifically called metameric segmentation. Segmentation allows
specialization of body structures to different functions hence increasing efficiency.
In classification, segmented organisms are considered more advanced than non
segmented ones.

c) Appendages: these are protruding parts on the body that carry out various
functions. The most important appendages are legs, mouth parts, tentacles,
antennae, etc. the presence and nature of appendages shows the degree of
adaptability to the environment.

d) Skeleton: the nature of the skeleton is very important in animal classification

since the skeleton has various functions. The types of skeletons are exoskeleton,
endoskeleton and hydrostatic skeleton.
 Page 58 of 67

e) Sex: this relates to whether a species of organisms has separate sexes or are
hermaphrodites. More advanced organisms usually have separate sexes (dioecious).

f) Embryonic development: this involves consideration of the mode of egg

cleavage, and further changes that occur to the embryo.

 Kingdom animalia is divided into 9 phyla. These are;

i) Porifera
ii) Coelenterata
iii) Platyhelminthes
iv) Nematoda
v) Annelida
vi) Mollusca
vii) Echinodermata
viii) Arthropoda
ix) Chordata
A Table Showing the Details Of The Animal Phyla:
Phylum Characteristics Drawing
Porifera -
sponges  Have a body cavity called a
spongocoel connected to outside
by pores
 Have a spicule skeleton made up
of calcareous, siliceous or horny
plates
 They are sessile
 Have one layer of body cells
 Have no nervous system/ no
coordination between cells
 They are marine dwellers
Cnidaria Cross-section of Hydra
(Coelenterata)  Have sac like body with a cavity
e.g. hydra, sea called the enteron
anemone, sea  Have one body opening
corals, obelia,  They are diploblastic (2 cell
jelly fish layers)
 Show radial symmetry
 Have nematoblasts that can
produce poison in their
tentacles
 Exist in two forms; polyp and
medusa
 Page 59 of 67

 They are marine dwellers

Platyhelminthes
– flat worms  Body dorsal-ventrally flattened
e.g. liver flukes,  Have one body opening (mouth)
planaria, tape  Are hermaphrodites
worms, blood  Have flame cells for excretion
fluke  They are triploblastic
(schistosoma)

Nematoda –
round worms  Hale a long body pointed at both
e.g. ascaris, ends
hook worm, pin  The body is cylindrical
worms, whip  Have two body openings
worms  The body is un segmented
 Page 60 of 67

Annelida –  Have an elongated worm like

segmented body
worms  The body is segmented
e.g. lug worms,  Have two body openings
earth worms,  They are triploblastic
leeches  Have a closed circulatory system
 Have a well developed nervous
system
 Use nephridia for excretion
 Show bilateral symmetry
 They have a coelom (they are
coelomates)

Mollusca  Have a soft muscular foot on

e.g. snails, ventral side
slugs, octopus,  Have a visceral hump
squids  Have a rasping tongue-like
radula
 Use gills for respiration
 Are always moist, protected by a
shell
 Have a coelom

Echinodermata
e.g. star fish,  Have an endoskeleton of
brittle star, sea calcareous plates
cucumber, sea  Have spins on the body
urchin  Show pentamerous symmetry
 They are marine dwellers

Arthropoda  Have an exoskeleton

e.g. flies,  Have a segmented body
millipedes, ants  Have jointed appendages

Arthropods have advanced features

like coelom and triploblastic
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organization,bilateral symmetry,
internal fertilization and thus they
are the most advanced among the
invertebrates
Chordata  Have an endoskeleton of bone or
e.g. amphioxus, cartilage
sharks, cats  Have a post anal tail
 Have pharyngeal gill slits
 Have a notochord that may
develop into the vertebral column
 Have a nerve chord that develops
into the central nervous system

Chordates are the most advanced

among the animal kingdom. They
posses other features such a
coelom, troploblastic organization,
closed circulation, internal
fertilization, bilateral symmetry,
which adapts them to the
environment.

More diagrams:
Animal/ Diagram
Phylum
Planarian/
Phylum Platyhelminthes
 Page 62 of 67

Tape worm/
Phylum Platyhelminthes

Earth worm/Phylum
annelida

ADAPTATIONS OF PLATYHELMITHES TO A PARASITIC MODE OF LIFE

i. They have a special way of gaining entry into the body of the host but locomotory
structures are generally reduced or absent.
ii. They have structures which anchor them onto their host. Liver flukes have
suckers; tapeworms have both hooks and suckers.
iii. They protect themselves against the internal environment. Flatworms produce
inhibitory substances to prevent their being digested by host enzymes.
iv. They have complex lifecycles. Fasciola and Taenia have a secondary host which
transfers one parasite from the primary host to another.
v. They have a very high reproductive output. Adults devote much of their energy and
body space to sexual reproduction.
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PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
This is the largest and most successful phylum in the animal kingdom containing
more than 70% of all animal species. It is divided into 5 classes;
 Class Crustacea
 Class Chilopoda
 Class Diplopoda
 Class Arachnida
 Class Insecta
A Table Showing Details of The Arthropod Classes:
Class and examples Characteristics
Crustacea  Have 2 pairs of antennae
e.g. woodlice, lobsters, Daphnia,  Have two main body parts i.e.
cray fish, crabs, barnacles, shrimps cepalothorax and abdomen
 Have compound eyes on movable
stalks
 They inhabit damp or aquatic
environments
Diplopoda  Have one pair of antennae
e.g. millipedes, wire worms  Have 2 pairs of legs on each body
segment
 Body is cylindrical and elongated
 They are herbivorous and
terrestrial
 They have simple eyes
Chilopoda  Have one pair of antennae
e.g. centipedes  Have one pair of legs per body
segment
 Body is dorso-ventrally falettened
 They are carnivorous and
terrestrial
Arachnida  Have 2 main body parts i.e.
e.g. scorpion, spiders, mites, ticks cephalothorax and abdomen
 Have 4 pairs of legs
 They have no antennae
 Use booklungs for gaseous
exchange
 Usually carnivorous with sharp
appendages for capturing prey
Insecta  Have 3 main body parts
e.g. cockroaches, silverfish  Have three pairs of legs
 Have three thoracic segments
In addition to the above features,
insects also have one pair of
antennae and have compound eyes
 Page 64 of 67

CLASS INSECTA
 This is the largest and most successful class of arthropods. It‟s divided into several
orders. The most important ones are shown in the table below.
Order and examples Characteristics
1 Diptera One pair of wings, one pair of haltares, have a
e.g. houseflies, proboscis
mosquitoes
2 Dictyoptera Two pairs of wings, dorso-ventrally flattened,
e.g. cockroaches chewing mouth parts (mandibles, labium, labrum)
3 Orthoptera Chewing mouth parts, 2 pairs of wings, female
e.g. grasshoppers, with long ovipositor
locusts, crickets
4 Coleoptera 2 pairs of wings with very hard outer wings
e.g. beetles, (elytra), chewing mouth parts
ladybirds
5 Siphonaptera Piercing and sucking mouth parts, no wings, no
e.g. fleas, jiggers eyes
6 Hymenoptera 2 pairs of wings which can interlock using hooks,
e.g. wasps, bees chewing mouthparts and proboscis, social
7 Isoptera Mostly no wings, social insects
e.g. ants, termites
8 Hemiptera Piercing and sucking mouth parts,
e.g. bedbugs
9 Lepidoptera 2 pairs of wings, scales on the wings, proboscis
e.g. butterflies, present
moths
10 Odonata 2 pairs of wings that cannot be folded, chewing
e.g. dragon flies mouth parts

Exercise 13:
Give reasons why arthropods are very successful organisms.

PHYLUM CHORDATA
 This is the most advanced phylum of animals having the most adapted organisms.
 It is divided into 5 classes, namely Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia
Class Examples Characteristics
Pisces - Sharks,  Have jaws on the body
fish skates, rays.  Have scales on the body
Nile perch,  Have paired fins
cod, cat fish  Use gills for gaseous exchange
 They are aquatic dwellers
 Have homodont teeth
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 Have a 2 chambered heart

 Fertilization is external
Amphibia toads, frogs,
and newts  Have a moist skin
 Live both on land and in water
 Use gills, skin and lungs for gaseous exchange
 Have a three chambered heart
 Show metamorphosis
Reptilia lizards,  Have a dry scaly skin
snakes,  Use lungs for gaseous exchange
crocodiles,  Have a four chambered heart
and tortoise  Lay an amniotic egg (cleidoic egg)
 Fertilization internal

Aves- ostrich,  Have feathers on the body

Birds fowl, doves  Use lungs for gaseous exchange
 Have a 4 chambered heart
 Lay amniotic eggs
 Are homoeothermic
 Fore limbs modified to wings
 Mouth modified to horny beak
 Sternum extended (expanded) forming a keel
 No teeth
Mammalia rats,  Have glands in skin such as mammary glands
porcupines,  Are homeothermic
kangaroos,  Have hair on the skin
baboon  Have a diaphragm
 Heart is four chambered
 Have heterodont teeth (Differentiated teeth)

Diagrams:
Toad (Class Amphibia) Bird (Class Aves)
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Additional Notes:
Class pisces
 It‟s is a class of fish.
 It‟s divided into two sub classes, namely
i) Chondrichthyes: Those which have a cartilaginous skeleton. Modern
cartilaginous fish are known as elasmobranches. E.g. rays. Sharks and
skates,.
ii) Osteichthyes: Those which that have a bony skeleton. Modern bony fish are
called teleosts e.g. nile perch, tilapia, cod and cat fish
 Among the animal and plant groups, some organisms are aquatic while some are
terrestrial. More advanced organisms are usually terrestrial.

Challenges faced by organisms living on land (terrestrial organisms)

i. Difficulty in support and locomotion
ii. Desiccation due to dry air
iii. Reproduction without water
iv. Varying environmental temperature

Adaptations of animals to overcome challenges on land

i. Some have skeletal systems made up of strong materials such as bone which
provides a framework for support
ii. Some have muscle cells specialized for producing a strong force for movement
and locomotion
iii. Possession of internal gaseous exchange surfaces which reduces the amount of
water that evaporates
iv. Having a skin covered with scales preventing evaporation of water
v. Having a keratinized skin which is impermeable to water hence reducing
evaporation
vi. Having internal fertilization which protects the gametes and zygote from
desiccation
vii. Laying of a cleidoic egg which is covered by a hard shell that prevents water loss
and mechanical damage
viii. Having a high metabolic rate and being endothermic which minimizes
temperature changes in the body
ix. Excreting urea and uric acid which require little water to be removed
x. Possession of specialized locomotory structures such as wings and legs which
aid rapid locomotion
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Achieving of large surface area to volume ratio in large organisms

 As a result of the multicellular state and increase in size, large organisms have a
small surface area to volume ratio, and hence would not be able to exchange
materials with the environment efficiently, by simple diffusion. Therefore, large
organisms have evolved in various ways in order to increase their surface are to
volume ratio (enabling fast movement of materials in their bodies). This has been
achieved as follows;
i. Having a flattened body as in flat worms which exposes most of the cells on the
body surface

ii. Having respiratory surfaces that are highly folded or branched/divided which
increases the surface are for exchange of gases

iii. Having highly divided/folded absorptive surfaces of the digestive system such
as the ileum which increases the surface area

iv. Having body extremities that are flattened and large, such as ears of elephants
which increases the surface area available for heat loss

v. Having flattened body organs such as leaves of plants which presents a large
surface area

vi. Having highly branched organs and tissues such as roots or blood capillaries
that increases the surface area for exchange of materials.

Revision questions:
1. (a) Explain the challenges faced by organisms living on land (terrestrial
organisms)
(b) How have the animals become adapted to overcome the challenges on land
2. (a) Explain the problem associated with the multicellular state or organisms
(b) Explain how animals have solved the above problems.
3. (a) Explain the significance of surface area to volume ratio in organisms.
(c) Explain how animals have become adapted to achieve a large surface area
to volume ratio in large organisms
4. Explain the key features of animal evolution to life on land.

END