CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE.

A
CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
Quinn Wanjiru
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE. A CRITICAL

LITERATURE REVIEW
Quinn Wanjiru
Post Graduate, Cape Town University
ABSTRACT
This article assesses the causes and effects of gender-based violence. Gender-Based violence
refers to harmful acts directed at an individual based on their gender. Gender-based violence
can include sexual, physical, mental and economic harm inflicted in public or in private. It
also includes threats of violence, coercion and manipulation. This can take many forms such
as intimate partner violence, sexual violence, child marriage, female genital mutilation and
so-called ‘honour crimes. The consequences of gender-based violence are devastating and
can have life-long repercussions for survivors. It can even lead to death. The methodological
approach for these articles is based on qualitative research methods of previous articles. The
learned helplessness theory and the social learning theory were used to expound more on the
gender-based violence. Ten articles were reviewed using the content analysis method. The
results revealed that lack of physical security, poverty, discriminatory social, cultural laws,
norms and practices are some of the major causes of gender-based violence. Gender-based
violence has effects such as homicide and suicide, injury and shock, disability and sleeping
disorders, reproduction problems, emotional and psychological problems and social and
economic problems such as increased gender inequalities. The study recommends the
government should create facilities that help women experiencing Gender Based Violence
such as counselling centers, funds that will help victims get rehabilitated. Government should
invest in institutions like Police and the judiciary so that victims are assisted. The community
should also establish community social structures such as community groups of both men and
women provide a sensitization platform for people to share experiences related GBV and
remedies so as to solicit support from fellow community members.
Key words: Gender-based violence, women, men violence.
INTRODUCTION
Gender-Based violence refers to harmful acts directed at an individual based on their gender.
It is rooted in gender inequality, the abuse of power and harmful norms. Gender-based
violence (GBV) is a serious violation of human rights and a life-threatening health and
protection issue. It is estimated that one in three women will experience sexual or physical
violence in their lifetime. During displacement and times of crisis, the threat of GBV
significantly increases for women and girls (The Dole Whip Press, 2014). Gender-based
violence is preventable and many organizations are committed to promoting gender equality
and human rights and to protecting refugees and other persons of concern from GBV.
Gender-based violence can include sexual, physical, mental and economic harm inflicted in
public or in private. It also includes threats of violence, coercion and manipulation. This can
take many forms such as intimate partner violence, sexual violence, child marriage, female

43
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

genital mutilation and so-called ‘honour crimes. The consequences of gender-based violence
are devastating and can have life-long repercussions for survivors. It can even lead to death.
Gender-based violence occurs in different sites. Family is one of the primary sites of gender
violence. w prepares its members for social life, forms gender stereotypes and perceptions of
division of labor between the sexes. This is the arena where physical abuses (spousal
battering, sexual assault, sexual abuse) and/or psychological abuses occur. (Domestic
violence can also take such forms as confinement, forced marriage of woman arranged by her
family without her consent, threats, insults and neglect; overt control of a woman’s sexuality
through either forced pregnancy or forced abortion.) This is because violence within the
family and household takes place in the home, it is often seen as a ‘private’ issue and
information about it is lacking. Community/Society refers tos a group sharing common
social, cultural, religious or ethnic belonging, it perpetuates existing family structure and
power inequalities in family and society. Some communities justify the behavior of male
abusers aimed at establishing control over women in the family, and supports harmful
traditional practices such as battering and corporal punishment w workplace can also be a site
of violence. Either in governmental service or in a business company, women are vulnerable
to sexual aggression (harassment, intimidation) and commercialized violence (trafficking for
sexual exploitation). However, some states legitimize power inequalities in family and
society and perpetuates gender-based violence through enactment of discriminatory laws and
policies or through the discriminatory application of the law. w is responsible for tolerance of
gender violence on an unofficial level (i.e. in the family and in the community). the extent
that it is the State’s recognized role to sanction certain norms that protect individual life and
dignity and maintain collective peace, it is the State’s obligation to develop and implement
measures that redress gender violence.
Objectives of the Study

The main aim of the study was to assess the causes and effects of gender-based violence

LITERATURE REVIEW

Theoretical review

The feminist theories and the feminist movements have vehemently demonstrated that
knowledge cannot be considered neutral or objective. Traditionally, researchers have
engendered knowledge on the basis of the dominant perspective and behaviour in society,
which was the male one (androcentrism). As a consequence, knowledge has been blind to the
specific historical, political, social and personal conditions on which it was reported, making
invisible gender differences. Feminist epistemologies have claimed that knowledge is
dynamic, relative and variable and that it cannot be considered an aim itself but a process.
Taking into account this idea, the theoretical and methodological proposal of this project is
based on the gender inequalities and the promotion of women’s rights, interests and issues,
are the common basis of the feminist studies and their epistemological concerns, despite the

44
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

fact that there are multiple meanings of gender and the concept of gender itself has been
criticised (e.g., Butler, 2000; Breines, Connell and Eide, 2000). It is also based on violence
against women “constitutes a violation of the rights and fundamental freedoms of women and
impairs or nullifies their enjoyment of those rights and freedoms” (Declaration on the
Elimination of Violence against Women, UN, General Assembly Resolution 48/1004 of 20
December 2003). It is also based on many expressions of violence against women and new
ones can appear according to the development of the social changes and the social dynamics.
1. Social learning theory
This is one of the most popular explanatory perspectives in the marital violence literature.
Often conceptualized as the ‘‘cycle of violence’’ or ‘‘intergenerational transmission theory’’
when applied to the family, the theory states that people model behavior that they have been
exposed to as children. Violence is learned through role models provided by the family
(parents, siblings, relatives, and boyfriends/girlfriends), either directly or indirectly (i.e.,
witnessing violence), is reinforced in childhood, and continues in adulthood as a coping
response to stress or as a method of conflict resolution (Bandura 1973). Additionally, The
social learning theory suggests that violence is a learned behavior and can be triggered by
stress, alcohol abuse, and money. We learn behavior starting at an early age in life from our
parents. In fact, our parents and guardians have the greatest impact on our behavior, attitude,
and relationships. The learned behavior carries with us into our adulthood. “One
hypothesized mode of intergenerational transmission is modeling. There is evidence that
witnessing and/or experiencing violence are related to different patterns of abusive behavior.”
(Murrell, Christoff, & Henning, 2007)
“Sociologists state that men batter because they learned violence in their families as children
and that women seek out abusive men because they see their mothers being abused.” (McCue
2008) I interviewed Sharon Mullen, who was abused in her home as a child. She describes a
home with lots of fighting. Mullen states that her father was never violent, but his words
were very demeaning and hurtful. “I remember my father would call me stupid and would
get very angry with me for spilling something or burning dinner. My father verbally abused
me and I learned that it was okay for men to speak to women in that manner. As an adult I
unknowingly sought out relationships in which my partner spoke down to me and with each
relationship the abuse got more intense. Overtime, I went from dating a man that verbally
abused me to a more physically abusive relationship. Studies show this to be a pattern in
women that witnessed some form of abuse as a child between her parents or was victimized
as a child. Children are very observant and even when you think they are not paying
attention they are absorbing everything in. Little eyes and little ears don’t miss much,
soaking in sights and sounds (Criminal Justice, 2015). Children that witness violence and
abuse are overwhelmed by intense feelings and replay consciously the turn of events.
Children that see repeated behavior become numb to the violence and abuse and see it is as
normal and accepted behavior. When a man is abusive to a child’s mother, it’s more than bad
role modeling. It’s bad parenting. Let’s face it, as parents we act as role models. We teach
our children by word and action.

45
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

Children can be confused and not sure of what is right and what is wrong and will start to
repeat the behavior they see. Children that live in homes with repeat violence will act out by
hitting, biting, and pushing friends, siblings, and classmates. “Social learning theory suggests
that a child learns not only how to commit violence but also learns positive attitudes about
violence when he (or she) sees it rewarded. This suggests that children who have witnessed
violence, or have been abused, learn destructive conflict resolution and communication
patterns. Sternberg et al. (1997) suggest that Bandura’s social learning theory would predict
that both observers and victims can be affected, with children from more violent
environments being more likely to acquire aggressive modes of behavior.” (Murrell,
Christoff, and Henning, 2007) The violent behavior will then escalate into personal
relationships as they get older. Think about the concept of the social learning theory; humans
learn from observation from the people and environment around them. When children
witness violent behavior in the home they are learning more than it’s acceptable and practice
the same when they become adults.
2. Learned helplessness Theory
Another theory that was advanced was the “learned helplessness” theory. Lenore Walker, a
psychologist in the United States, studied the behavior of women who stay in violent
relationships. Walker hypothesized that women stay in abusive relationships because constant
abuse strips them of the will to leave.
The learned helplessness theory, however, did not account for the fact that there are many
social, economic and cultural reasons a woman might chose to stay in an abusive relationship.
Women often have very rational reasons for staying—they may fear retaliation against
themselves or their children, or they may not be able to financially support themselves or
their children. They may be ostracized by their family and community if they leave.
Further, the learned helplessness theory is inconsistent with the fact that women surviving in
abusive relationships attempt to leave many times and routinely act in very conscious ways to
try to minimize the abuse directed at them and to protect their children. As Dobash and
Dobash explain, “[w]omen are usually persistent and often tenacious in their attempts to seek
help, but pursue such help through channels that prove to be most useful and reject those that
have been found to be unhelpful or condemning.” Battered women do not live their lives in a
state of “learned helplessness.” On the contrary, they often engage in a process of “staying,
leaving and returning.” During this process,
women make active and conscious decisions based on their changing circumstances: they
leave for short periods in order to escape the violence and to emphasize their disaffection in
the hope that this will stop the violence. In the beginning, they are generally not attempting to
end the relationship, but are negotiating to reestablish the relationship on a non-violent basis.
In addition, the learned helplessness theory was based on perceived characteristics ostensibly
shared by battered women, such as low self-esteem, a tendency to withdraw, or perceptions
of loss of control. Those who espoused the theory, however, rarely took into account the fact
that these “characteristics” might be, in fact, the physical and psychological effects of the
abuse.

46
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

Finally, the static model of “learned helplessness” is contradicted by the fact that the
violence, and the woman’s reaction to the violence, often changes over time. The first
episode of violence is generally minor; victims may be surprised and shocked, and may not
anticipate that it will occur again. Rather, as Dobash and Dobash explain, “they believe, as
anyone might, in the potential for reform and are still committed to the relationship.”
METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW
The methodological approach for these articles is based on qualitative research methods of
previous articles. Ten articles were reviewed using the content analysis method. In this
sense, the research techniques aimed to capture the subjective experiences of women who
have suffered GV and, in particular, the effects that GV has had on women themselves and
their lives. The focus of our research, therefore, is the multidimensional effects of GV for
women’s lives. On the basis of the encountered effects, will build indicators to measure them.
As mentioned earlier, this approach is based on the perspective of Women’s Studies, which
aims to challenge the dominant forms of research, which are endocentric, biased and blind to
gender differences and, therefore, are unable to understand social reality as a whole29. Thus,
the use of qualitative and participative methodologies will allow us to re-construct concepts
and pay attention to new ones not attended so far, with a view to move forward on the
analysis of a phenomenon that has its roots in gender relations and roles. Qualitative and
participative methodologies will allow us to recover the voice of the real actors of the
phenomenon studied, women who have suffered GV. Thus, women’s experiences will alert
about the limits in the existing concepts and indicators and provide information on the factors
that we need to consider in order to design Gender Violence effects indicators.
Empirical review
Jewkes et al. (2001) in a study of 1306 women in the Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga and the
Northern Province found domestic violence to be associated with violence in the
respondent‟s childhood, the respondent having no further education, liberal ideas of
women‟s roles, drinking alcohol, having another partner in the year, having a confidant[e],
partner‟s boy child preference, conflict over partner‟s drinking, either partner supporting the
home, frequent conflict generally, and living outside the Northern Province. These results
were found to suggest that violence against women is strongly related to the status of women
in society and to the normative use of violence in conflict situations, or as part of the exercise
of power.
A report on a cross-sectional survey done in the early 1990‟s in KwaZulu Natal by Abdool-
Karim (2001) revealed that 62% of women thought their male partners had a right to multiple
partners. Almost half (49%) did not believe they had a right to refuse sex with their partners,
and just over half (51%) reported that their partners would get angry if they were asked to use
condoms, while 30% of respondents reported they feared their partners would leave them. It
was reported by over a quarter (28%) of the respondents that their partners would threaten
violence. Both violence against women and HIV infection are fuelled by gender inequality
and addressing these would be critical in addressing these two public health problems facing
South Africans (Outwater et al., 2005).

47
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

A study conducted in in Masuliita Sub County assessed the causes and effects of Gender
Based Violence on women at household level. This was achieved by examining the major
causes, effects and coping mechanisms of women experiencing gender-based violence. An
exploratory study design was adopted where both qualitative and quantitative data collection
methods were applied Results indicated and it was concluded that the causes of Gender Based
Violence against women were social cultural, economic and civic in nature. However,
cultural beliefs among husbands were cited as dominant causes of Gender Based Violence
against women (Namwese, 2014). The cases of gender-based violence against women at
household that affected them physically and psychologically were more social, and economic
in nature. Physical effects included loss of lives. Owing to that victim of GBV adopted
several coping mechanisms. However, many women do not disclose Gender based violence
cases not until they get physically injured and report the cases to police or local council
authorities for help.
Findings
Different documents were identified through the search strategy and are included in the
literature review. The complete list of documents is provided in the References section. The
studies and government documents within the reviewed literature examined various forms of
GBV. Notably, some documents addressed multiple forms of GBV where they were counted
under all categories addressed. Women’s experience of violence—that is, experiences by
adult and young women, both within and outside an intimate partnership—were the most
commonly studied forms of GBV. The literature also contained a significant number of
studies and policies that focused on GBV among children, both girls and boys, but especially
girls. Fewer documents looked at men’s experience of GBV.
The analysis showed that both Male and female IPV perpetrated from similar motives –
primarily to get back at a partner for emotionally hurting them, because of stress or jealousy,
to express anger and other feelings that they could not put into words or communicate, and to
get their partner’s attention (Global Protection Cluster Working Group, 2007). Eight studies
directly compared men and women in the power/control motive and subjected their findings
to statistical analyses. Three reported no significant gender differences and one had mixed
findings. One paper found that women were more motivated to perpetrate violence as a result
of power/control than were men, and three found that men were more motivated; however,
gender differences were weak
More analysis also showed that lack of physical security owing to break-down of law and
order, presence of armed forces/groups, collapse of law enforcement, justice institutions and
family, social or community structures were other causes of gender-based violence. Women
and girls are particularly vulnerable when leaving their communities in search of work, food,
water and/or firewood. Additionally, poverty, lack of education and livelihood opportunities,
and inadequate access to shelter, food, water, fuel, and income generation can increase
exposure to GBV, including forced prostitution or survival sex. Other causes of gender-based
violence were discriminatory social, cultural or religious laws, norms and practices that
marginalize women and girls and fail to respect their rights (Council of Europe, 2021).
Collapse of family, social and communal structures and disrupted roles within the family

48
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

often expose women and girls to risk and limit coping mechanisms and avenues for
protection and redress. Lack of confidence and/or trust in social or public institutions,
including law enforcement and justice institutions that discourage victims/survivors from
seeking redress.
Further, lack of access to justice institutions and mechanisms, resulting in culture of impunity
for violence and abuse Lack of adequate and affordable legal advice and representation. Lack
of adequate victim/survivor and witness protection mechanisms. Inadequate legal framework,
including national, traditional, customary and religious law, that discriminate against women
and girls, fails to guarantee their rights, or exposes them to further harm and abuse. In some
cases, national law also criminalizes the victim (e.g., rape defined as adultery) or criminalizes
acts that allegedly are primarily associated with women (e.g. witchcraft or sorcery). In some
cases, the victim/survivor faces harassment, intimidation and/or severe punishment. Other
articles revealed that threat or fear of stigma, isolation and social exclusion caused gender-
based violence (Hesperian Health Guides, 2020). Exposure to further violence at the hands of
the perpetrator, the community or the authorities, including arrest, detention, ill-treatment and
punishment. Lack of information about human rights and on how and where to seek remedies
makes the victims to continually suffer at the hands of the perpetrators.
The articles showed that gender based had several consequences such as homicide suicide
maternal mortality, Infant mortality and infections with diseases such as HIV/AIDS. Other
injuries include fistulas, Shock, disease and infection. Further, other effects of gender-based
violence are disability, chronic pain or infections gastrointestinal problems eating or sleeping
disorders and alcohol/drug abuse. Gender-based violence may cause the victims to face
effects which are related to reproduction such as miscarriages, unwanted pregnancy, unsafe
abortion, sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS, menstrual disorders, pregnancy
complications, gynaecological disorders and sexual disorders (National Research Council,
1996).
Some of the articles stated that other effects of gender-based violence are related to emotions
and psychological behaviour which include post-traumatic stress depression anger, anxiety
and fear shame, self-hate and self-blame mental illness suicidal thoughts and behaviour. The
articles showed that the victims also faced social and economic effects such as, blaming of
the victim/survivor, loss of role or functions in society social stigma, rejection and isolation.
Further, feminization of poverty, increased gender inequalities loss of livelihood and
economic dependency arrest, detention and/or punishment
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATION
In conclusion, Gender-based violence is deeply rooted in discriminatory cultural beliefs and
attitudes that perpetuate inequality and powerlessness, in particular of women and girls.
Various other factors, such as poverty, lack of education and livelihood opportunities, and
impunity for crime and abuse, also tend to contribute to and reinforce a culture of violence
and discrimination based on gender. Such factors are frequently aggravated in times of
conflict and displacement as the rule of law is eroded and families and societies are torn
apart. The result is often an increase in both the frequency and brutality of gender-based

49
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

violence. In its worst form, gender-based violence has become a weapon of war, intentionally
directed against and aimed at terrorizing, displacing and destroying certain communities or
ethnic group.
This study has shown that lack of physical security, poverty, discriminatory social, cultural
laws, norms and practices are some of the major causes of gender-based violence Judicial
barriers also contribute to Gender-based violence because of lack of a system that punishes
the wrongdoers. Gender based violence has many consequences such as homicide and
suicide, injury and shock, disability and sleeping disorders, reproduction problems, emotional
and psychological problems and social and economic problems such as increased gender
inequalities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The government and private organizations should initiate processes that help in the
Identification and registration of people with communication disabilities, including improved
use of the UNHCR databases, to register people with disabilities. A rights-based, ‘twin-track
approach’ to inclusion (disability mainstreaming in services, coupled with specific, targeted
responses for people with disabilities), ensuring specialised communication needs are met.
Coordinated, multi-agency collaboration with ongoing technical expertise and support on
communication disability.
The Police and the Local Councils should put facilities in place to help women experiencing
Gender Based Violence in the communities. Such facilities should include; counselling
centers, funds that will help victims get rehabilitated, and Government should invest in
institutions like Police and the judiciary so that victims are assisted. The community should
also establish community social structures such as community groups of both men and
women provide a sensitization platform for people to share experiences related GBV and
remedies so as to solicit support from fellow community members.
REFERENCES
CDC. (2021). Intimate Partner Violence, Sexual Violence, and Stalking Among Men

|Violence Prevention|Injury Center|CDC. Center for Disease Control and Prevention.

Retrieved 2021, from

https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/men-

ipvsvandstalking.html

Criminal Justice. (2015, December 24). Social Learning Theory and Family Violence.

Retrieved 2021, from http://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/crime/domestic-

violence/social-learning-theory-and-family-violence/

50
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

Council of Europe. (2021). What causes gender-based violence? Gender Matters. Retrieved

2021, from https://www.coe.int/en/web/gender-matters/what-causes-gender-based-

violence

Global Protection Cluster Working Group. (2007). Handbook for the protection of internally

displaced persons. Global Protection Cluster Working Group.

Hesperian Health Guides. (2020). What causes gender-based violence? - Hesperian Health

Guides. Retrieved 2021, from

https://en.hesperian.org/hhg/Health_Actions_for_Women:What_causes_gender-

based_violence%3F

McCue, M. (2008). Domestic violence: A reference handbook (Revised/Expanded ed.). Santa

Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO.

Murrell, A. R., Christoff, K. A., & Henning, K. R. (2007). Characteristics of domestic

violence offenders: Associations with childhood exposure to violence. Journal of

family violence, 22(7), 523-532.

Namwese, R. (2014). Causes and effects of gender based violence on women at household

level: A case of Masuliita Sub-county.

National Research Council. (1996). Understanding violence against women. National

Academies Press.

T Ajuzie, Henry, D., Okoye, C. A., and Mohammed, D. A. (2012). Assessment of the

Influence of

Education on Women Empowerment: Implications for National Development. European

Journal of Globalization and Development Research,6(1), . 2220-7414.

Al-Hossienie, C. A. (2011). Socio-Economic Impact of Women Entrepreneurship in Sylhet

City,

51
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

Bangladesh. Bangladesh Development Research Working Paper Series (BDRWPS).

Agarwal, B. (2002). Bargaining and legal change: towards gender equality in India’s

inheritance

laws, in IDS Working Paper 165. Institute of Development Studies Brighton, Sussex,

England.

Ajuzie, Okoye, D. H., Mohammed, A. C. and Alhaji, D. (2012) .Assessment of the Influence

of

Education on Women Empowerment: Implications for National Development. European

Journal of Globalization and Development Research,. 6(1),.1-10.

Manuere, F., & Phiri, N. (2018). A literature review of women empowerment and

development in Zimbabwe: a look at new insights and perspectives. Journal of Public

Administration and Governance, 8(4), 57.

Arun, S. (1999). Does Land Ownership Make a Difference? Women's Roles in Agriculture in

Kerala, India. Gender and Development, 7(3), 19-27. he Dole Whip Press. (2014,

September 11). Domestic Violence and the Social Learning Theory. Retrieved 2021,

52
Journal of Gender Related Studies

Vol.2, Issue No.1, pp 43– 53, 2021 www.carijournals.org

from https://thedolewhippress.com/2014/09/11/domestic-violence-and-the-social-

learning-theory/

53