MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Lesson
1.1 The Mathematics of Our World

Specific Objectives

1. To understand the mathematics of the modern world.

2. To revisit and appreciate the mathematical landscape.
3. To realize the importance of mathematics as a utility.
4. To gain awareness of the role of mathematics as well as our
role in mathematics.

Lesson 1.1 does not only attempt to explain the essence of mathematics, it serves
also as a hindsight of the entire course. The backbone of this lesson draws from
the Stewart’s ideas embodied in his book entitled Nature’s Numbers. The lesson
provides new perspective to understand the irregularity and chaos of our world as
we move through the landscape of regularity and order. It poses some thought-
provoking questions to draw one’s innate mathematical intelligence by making
one curious, not so much to seek answers, but to ask more right questions.

Discussions
The Nature of Mathematics

In the book of Stewart, Nature’s Number, he that mathematics is a formal system

of thought that was gradually developed in the human mind and evolved in the

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

human culture. Thus, in the long course of human history, our ancestors at a
certain point were endowed with insight to realize the existence of “form” in their
surroundings. From their realization, a system of thought further advanced their
knowledge into understanding measures. They were able to gradually develop the
science of measures and gained the ability to count, gauge, assess, quantify, and
size almost everything.

From our ancestor’s realization of measures, they were able to notice and
recognize some rudiment hints about patterns. Thus, the concept of recognizing
shapes made its course towards classifying contour and finally using those designs
to build human culture: an important ingredient for a civilization to flourish. From
then, man realized that the natural world is embedded in a magnanimously
mathematical realm of patterns----and that natural order efficiently utilizes all
mathematical patterns to its advantage. As a result, we made use of mathematics
as a brilliant way to understand the nature by comprehending the structure of its
underlying patterns and regularities.

Mathematics is present in everything we do; it is all around us and it is the

building block of our daily activities. It has been at the forefront of each and every
period of our development, and as our civilized societies advanced, our needs of
mathematics pioneering arose on the frontier of our course as we prepare our
human species to traverse the cosmic shore.

Mathematics is a Tool

Mathematics, as a tool, is immensely useful, practical, and powerful. It is not about

crunching numbers, formulas, and symbols but rather, it is all about forming new
ways to see problems so we can understand them by combining insights with
imagination. It also allows us to perceive realities in different contexts that would
otherwise be intangible to us. It can be likened to our sense of sight and touch.
Mathematics is our sense to decipher patterns, relationships, and logical
connections. It is our whole new way to see and understand the modern world.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Mathematics, being a broad and deep discipline, deals with the logic of shape,
quantity, and arrangement. Once, it was perceived merely a collective thoughts
dealing with counting numbers, but it is now being understood as a universal
language dealing with symbols, arts, equations, geometric shapes and patterns. It
is asserting that mathematics is a powerful tool in decision-making and it is a way
of life.

The nature of mathematics

Figure 1.1

In the Figure 1.1 illustrated by Nocon and Nocon, it portrays the function of
mathematics. As shown, it is stated that mathematics is a set of problem-solving
tools. It provides answers to existing questions and presents solutions to occurring
problems. It has the power to unveil the reasons behind occurrences and it offers
explanations. Moreover, mathematics, as a study of patterns, allows people to

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

observe, hypothesize, experiment, discover, and recreate. On the other hand,

mathematics is an art and a process of thinking. For it involves reasoning, which
can be inductive or deductive, and it applies methods of proof both in fashion
that is conventional and unventional.

Mathematics is Everywhere

We use mathematics in their daily tasks and activities. It is our important tool in
the field of sciences, humanities, literature, medicine, and even in music and arts;
it is in the rhythm of our daily activities, operational in our communities, and a
default system of our culture. There is mathematics wherever we go. It helps us
cook delicious meals by exacting our ability to measure and moderately control of
heat. It also helps us to shop wisely, read maps, use the computer, remodel a
home with constrained budget with utmost economy.

Source: Space Telescope Science/NASA

The Universe
Figure 1.2

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Even the cosmic perspective, the patterns in the firmament are always presented
as a mystery waiting to be uncovered by us-the sentient being. In order to
unearthed this mystery, we are challenged to investigate and deeply examine its
structure and rules to the infinitesimal level. The intertwined governing powers of
cosmic mystery can only be decoded by seriously observing and studying their
regularities, and patiently waiting for the signature of some kind interference. It is
only by observing the abundance of patterns scattered everywhere that this
irregularities will beg to be noticed. Some of them are boldly exposed in a simple
and obvious manner while others are hidden in ways that is impossible to
perceive by easy to discern. While our ancestors were able to discover the
presence of mathematics in everything, it took the descendants, us, a long time to
gradually notice the impact of these patterns in the persistence of our species to
rightfully exist.

The Essential Roles of Mathematics

Mathematics has countless hidden uses and applications. It is not only something
that delights our mind but it also allows us to learn and understand the natural
order of the world. This discipline was and is often studied as a pure science but it
also finds its place in other areas of perpetuating knowledge. Perhaps, science
would definitely agree that, when it comes to discovering and unveiling the truth
behind the inherent secrets and occurrences of the universe, nothing visual,
verbal, or aural come close to matching the accuracy, economy, power and
elegance of mathematics. Mathematics helps us to take the complex processes
that is naturally occuring in the world around us and it represents them by
utilizing logic to make things more organized and more efficient.

Further, mathematics also facilitate not only to weather, but also to control the
weather ---- be it social, natural, statistical, political, or medical. Applied
mathematics, which once only used for solving problems in physics, and it is also
becoming a useful tool in biological sciences: for instance, the spread of various

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

diseases can now be predicted and controlled. Scientists and researchers use
applied mathematics in doing or performing researches to solve social, scientific,
medical, or even political crises.

It is a common fact that mathematics plays an important role in many sciences. It

is and it provides tools for calculations. We use of calculations in other disciplines
whenever we are underrating some kind of research or experiment. The use of
mathematical calculations is indispensable method in scientifically approaching
most of the problems. In a similar way, mathematics, provides new questions to
think about. Indeed, in learning and doing mathematics, there will always be new
questions to answer, new problems to solve, and new things to think about
(Vistru-Yu PPT presentation).

The Mathematical Landscape

The human mind and culture developed a conceptual landscape for mathematical
thoughts and ideas to flourish and propagate. There is a region in the human mind
that is capable of constructing and discerning the deepest insights being perceived
from the natural world. In this region, the mathematical landscape exists- wherein
concepts of numbers, symbols, equations, operations calculations, abstractions, and
proofs are the inhabitants as well as the constructs of the impenetrable vastness of
its unchartered territories. In this landscape, a number is not simply a mathematical
tree of counting. Also, infinite variables can be encapsulate to finite. Even those
something that is hard to express in decimal form can be expressed in terms of
fractions. Those things that seemed eternal ℤ can further be exploited using
mathematical operations. This landscape claimed complex numbers as the
firmament and even asserted that imaginary numbers also exist. To the low state
negative numbers relentlessly enjoying recognition as existent beings. The wind in
this landscape is unpredictable that the rate of change of the rate of change of
weather is known as calculus. And beneath the surface of this mathematical
landscape are firmly-woven proofs, theorems, definitions, and axioms which are

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

intricately “fertilized” by reasoning, analytical, critical thinking and germicide by

mathematical logic that made them precise, exact and powerful.

With this landscape, the mathematician's instinct and curiosity entice to explore
further the vast tranquil lakes of functions and impassable crevasse of the
unchartered territories of abstract algebra. For to claim ownership is to
understand the ebb and flow of prime numbers. To predict the behavior of its
Fibonacci weather, to be amazed with awe and wonder the patternless chaos of
fractal clouds, and to rediscover that after all, the numbers in mathematics is not
a "thing" but a process. Conventionally, we are just simply made ourselves
comfortable on the “thingification” of those processes and we forgot that 1+1 is
not a noun but a verb.

How Mathematics is Done

Math is a way of thinking, and it is undeniably important to see how that thinking is
going to be developed rather than just merely see face value of the results. For some
people, few math theorems can bring up as much remembered pain and anxiety. For
others, this discipline is so complex and they have to understand the confusing
symbols, the difficult procedures, and the dreaded graphs and charts. For most,
mathematics is just nothing but something to survive, rather than to learn.

To the untrained eye, doing mathematics is quite difficult and challenging. It is

ambiguous, for it follows a set of patterns, formulas, and sequences that make it
more demanding to do and to learn. It is abstract and complex ---- and for these
reasons, a lot of people adopt the belief that they are not math people.

Mathematics builds upon itself. More complex concepts are built upon simpler
concepts, and if you do not have a strong grasp of the fundamental principles, then a
more complex problem is more likely going to stump you. If you come across a
mathematical problem that you cannot solve, the first thing to do is to identify the

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

components or the operations that it wants you to carry out, and everything
follows. Doing and performing mathematics is not that simple. It is done with
curiosity, with a penchant for seeking patterns and generalities, with a desire to
know the truth, with trial and error, and without fear of facing more questions
and problems to solve. (Vistru-Yu)

Mathematics is for Everyone

The relationship of the mathematical landscape in the human mind with the natural
world is so strange that in the long run, the good math provides utilization and
usefulness in the order of things. Perhaps, for most people, they simply need to
know the basics of the mathematical operations in order to survive daily tasks; but
for the human society to survive and for the human species to persistently exist,
humanity needs, beyond rudiment of mathematics. To safeguard our existence, we
already have delegated the functions of mathematics across all disciplines. There is
mathematics we call pure and applied, as there are scientists we call social and
natural. There is mathematics for engineers to build, mathematics for commerce and
finance, mathematics for weather forecasting, mathematics that is related to health,
and mathematics to harness energy for utilization. To simply put it, everyone uses
mathematics in different degrees and levels. Everyone uses mathematics, whoever
they are, wherever they are, and whenever they need to. From mathematicians to
scientists, from professionals to ordinary people, they all use mathematics. For
mathematics puts order amidst disorder. It helps us become better persons and
helps make the world a better place to live in. (Vistru-Yu).

The Importance of Knowing and Learning Mathematics

Why do we want to observe and describe patterns and regularities? Why do we

want to understand the physical phenomena governing our world? Why do we
want to dig out rules and structures that lie behind patterns of the natural order?
It is because those rules and structures explain what is going on. It is because they

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are beneficial in generating conclusions and in predicting events. It is because
they provide clues. The clues that make us realize that interference in the motion
of heavenly bodies can predict lunar eclipse, solar eclipse as well as comets’
appearances. That the position of the sun and the moon relative to the earth can
predict high tide and low tide events affecting human activities. And that human
activities need clues for the human culture to meaningfully work.

Mathematical training is vital to decipher the clues provided by nature. But the role
of mathematics goes clues and it goes beyond prediction. Once we understand how
the system works, our goal is to control it to make it do what we want. We want to
understand the mathematical pattern of a storm to avoid or prevent catastrophes.
We want to know the mathematical concept behind the contagion of the virus to
control its spread. We want to understand the unpredictability of cancer cells to
combat it before it even exists. Finally, we want to understand the butterfly effect as
much as we are so curious to know why the “die” of the physical world play god.

“Whatever the reasons, mathematics is a useful way to think about nature.

What does it want to tell us about the patterns we observe? There are many
answers. We want to understand how they happen; to understand why they
happen, which is different; to organize the underlying patterns and
regularities in the most satisfying way; to predict how nature will behave; to
control nature for our own ends; to make practical use of what we have
learned about our world. Mathematics helps us to do all these things, and
often, it is indispensable.“ [Stewart]
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Lesson
1.2 The Mathematics in Our World

Specific Objective

: 1. To develop one’s understanding about patterns;

2. To identify different patterns in nature;
3. To recognize different symmetries in nature; and
4. To explain the presence of Fibonacci numbers in nature

The mathematics in our world is rooted in patterns. Patterns are all around us.
Finding and understanding patterns give us great power to play like god. With
patterns, we can discover and understand new things; we learn to predict and
ultimately control the future for our own advantage.

A pattern is a structure, form, or design that is regular, consistent, or recurring.

Patterns can be found in nature, in human-made designs, or in abstract ideas.
They occur in different contexts and various forms. Because patterns are
repetitive and duplicative, their underlying structure regularities can be modelled
mathematically. In general sense, any regularity that can be explained
mathematically is a pattern. Thus, an investigation of nature’s patterns is an
investigation of nature’s numbers. This means that the relationships can be
observed, that logical connections can be established, that generalizations can be
inferred, that future events can be predicted, and that control can possibly be
possible.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Discussions

Different Kinds of Pattern

As we look at the world around us, we can sense the orchestrating great regularity
and diversity of living and non-living things. The symphonies vary from tiny to
gigantic, from simple to complex, and from dull to the bright. The kaleidoscope of
patterns is everywhere and they make the nature look only fascinating but also
intriguing. Paradoxically, it seemed that everything in the world follows a pattern of
their own and tamed by the same time pattern of their own.

Patterns of Visuals. Visual patterns are often unpredictable, never quite

repeatable, and often contain fractals. These patterns are can be seen from the
seeds and pinecones to the branches and leaves. They are also visible in self-
similar replication of trees, ferns, and plants throughout nature.

Patterns of Flow. The flow of liquids provides an inexhaustible supply of nature’s

patterns. Patterns of flow are usually found in the water, stone, and even in the
growth of trees. There is also a flow pattern present in meandering rivers with the
repetition of undulating lines.

Patterns of Movement. In the human walk, the feet strike the ground in a regular
rhythm: the left-right-left-right-left rhythm. When a horse, a four-legged creature
walks, there is more of a complex but equally rhythmic pattern. This prevalence of
pattern in locomotion extends to the scuttling of insects, the flights of birds, the
pulsations of jellyfish, and also the wave-like movements of fish, worms, and
snakes.

Patterns of Rhythm. Rhythm is conceivably the most basic pattern in nature. Our
hearts and lungs follow a regular repeated pattern of sounds or movement whose
timing is adapted to our body’s needs. Many of nature’s rhythms are most likely

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similar to a heartbeat, while others are like breathing. The beating of the heart, as
well as breathing, have a default pattern.

Patterns of Texture. A texture is a quality of a certain object that we sense

through touch. It exists as a literal surface that we can feel, see, and imagine.
Textures are of many kinds. It can be bristly, and rough, but it can also be smooth,
cold, and hard.

Geometric Patterns. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern which consists of a

series of shapes that are typically repeated. These are regularities in the natural
world that are repeated in a predictable manner. Geometrical patterns are usually
visible on cacti and succulents.

Patterns Found in Nature

Common patterns appear in nature, just like what we see when we look closely at
plants, flowers, animals, and even at our bodies. These common patterns are all
incorporated in many natural things.

Waves and Dunes

A wave is any form of disturbance that carries energy as it moves. Waves are of
different kinds: mechanical waves which propagate through a medium ---- air or
water, making it oscillate as waves pass by. Wind waves, on the other hand, are

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surface waves that create the chaotic patterns of the sea. Similarly, water waves
are created by energy passing through water causing it to move in a circular
motion. Likewise, ripple patterns and dunes are formed by sand wind as they pass
over the sand.

Spots and Stripes

We can see patterns like spots on the skin of a giraffe. On the other hand, stripes
are visible on the skin of a zebra. Patterns like spots and stripes that are
commonly present in different organisms are results of a reaction-diffusion
system (Turing, 1952). The size and the shape of the pattern depend on how fast
the chemicals diffuse and how strongly they interact.

Spirals

Jean Beaufort has released this “Spiral

Galaxy” image under Public Domain license

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

The spiral patterns exist on the scale of the cosmos to the minuscule forms of
microscopic animals on earth. The Milky Way that contains our Solar System is a
barred spiral galaxy with a band of bright stars emerging from the center running
across the middle of it. Spiral patterns are also common and noticeable among
plants and some animals. Spirals appear in many plants such as pinecones,
pineapples, and sunflowers. On the other hand, animals like ram and kudu also
have spiral patterns on their horns.

Symmetries

In mathematics, if a figure can be folded or divided into two with two halves
which are the same, such figure is called a symmetric figure. Symmetry has a vital
role in pattern formation. It is used to classify and organize information about
patterns by classifying the motion or deformation of both pattern structures and
processes. There are many kinds of symmetry, and the most important ones are
reflections, rotations, and translations. These kinds of symmetries are less
formally called flips, turns, and slides.

Reflection symmetry, sometimes called line symmetry or mirror symmetry,

captures symmetries when the left half of a pattern is the same as the right half.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Rotations, also known as rotational symmetry, captures symmetries when it still

looks the same after some rotation (of less than one full turn). The degree of
rotational symmetry of an object is recognized by the number of distinct
orientations in which it looks the same for each rotation.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Translations. This is another type of symmetry. Translational symmetry exists in

patterns that we see in nature and in man-made objects. Translations acquire

symmetries when units are repeated and turn out having identical figures, like the
bees’ honeycomb with hexagonal tiles.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Symmetries in Nature

From the structure of subatomic particles to that of the entire universe, symmetry
is present. The presence of symmetries in nature does not only attract our visual
sense, but also plays an integral and prominent role in the way our life works.

Human Body Animal Movement

The human body is one of the pieces The symmetry of motion is present in
of evidence that there is symmetry animal movements. When animals
in nature. Our body exhibits move, we can see that their movements
bilateral symmetry. It can be divided also exhibit symmetry.
into two identical halves.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Sunflower Snowflakes
One of the most interesting things Snowflakes have six-fold radial
about a sunflower is that it contains symmetry. The ice crystals that
both radial and bilateral symmetry. make-up the snowflakes are
What appears to be "petals" in the symmetrical or patterned. The
outer ring are actually small flowers intricate shape of a single arm of a
also known as ray florets. These small snowflake is very much similar to
flowers are bilaterally symmetrical. On the other arms. This only proves
the other hand, the dark inner ring of that symmetry is present in a
the sunflower is a cluster of radially snowflake.
symmetrical disk florets.

Honeycombs/Beehive
Honeycombs or beehives are examples
of wallpaper symmetry. This kind of
symmetry is created when a pattern is
repeated until it covers a plane.
Beehives are made of walls with each
side having the same size enclosed with
small hexagonal cells. Inside these cells,
honey and pollen are stored and bees
are raised.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Starfish
Starfish have a radial fivefold symmetry. Each arm portion of the starfish is
identical to each of the other regions.

Fibonacci in Nature

By learning about nature, it becomes gradually evident that the nature is

essentially mathematical, and this is one of the reasons why explaining nature is
dependent on mathematics. Mathematics has the power to unveil the inherent
beauty of the natural world.

In describing the amazing variety of phenomena in nature we stumble to discover

the existence of Fibonacci numbers. It turns out that the Fibonacci numbers
appear from the smallest up to the biggest objects in the natural world. This
presence of Fibonacci numbers in nature, which was once existed realm
mathematician’s curiously, is considered as one of the biggest mysteries why the
some patterns in nature is Fibonacci. But one thing is definitely made certain, and
that what seemed solely mathematical is also natural.

For instance, many flowers display figures adorned with numbers of petals that are
in the Fibonacci sequence. The classic five-petal flowers are said to be the most

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common among them. These include the buttercup, columbine, and hibiscus.
Aside from those flowers with five petals, eight-petal flowers like clematis and
delphinium also have the Fibonacci numbers, while ragwort and marigold have
thirteen. These numbers are all Fibonacci numbers.

Apart from the counts of flower petals, the Fibonacci also occurs in nautilus shells
with a logarithmic spiral growth. Multiple Fibonacci spirals are also present in
pineapples and red cabbages. The patterns are all consistent and natural.
 Lesson
1.3 The Fibonacci Sequence

Specific Objectives

1. To define sequence and its types

2. To differentiate Fibonacci sequence from other types of sequence
3. To discover golden ratio and golden rectangle; and
4. To learn how to compute for the nth term in the Fibonacci Sequence

As we have discussed in the preceding lesson, human mind is capable of

identifying and organizing patterns. We were also to realized that there are
structures and patterns in nature that we don’t usually draw attention to.
Likewise, we arrived at a position that in nature, some things follow
mathematical sequences and one of them follow the Fibonacci sequence. We
noticed that these sequences is observable in some flower petals, on the
spirals of some shells and even on sunflower seeds. It is amazing to think that
the Fibonacci sequence is dramatically present in nature and it opens the door
to understand seriously the nature of sequence.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Discussion

Sequence

Sequence refers to an ordered list of numbers called terms, that may have
repeated values. The arrangement of these terms is set by a definite rule.
th
(Mathematics in the Modern World, 14 Edition, Aufmann, RN. et al.).
Cosider the given below example:

1, 3, 5, 7, …
(1stterm) (2nd term) (3rd term) (4th term)

As shown above, the elements in the sequence are called terms. It is called
sequence because the list is ordered and it follows a certain kind of pattern
that must be recognized in order to see the expanse. The three dots at the
end of the visible patterns means that the sequence is infinite.

There are different types of sequence and the most common are the
arithmetic sequence, geometric sequence, harmonic sequence, and
Fibonacci sequence.

Arithmetic sequence. It is a sequence of numbers that follows a definite

pattern. To determine if the series of numbers follow an arithmetic
sequence, check the difference between two consecutive terms. If common
difference is observed, then definitely arithmetic sequence governed the
pattern. To clearly illustrate the arrangement, consider the example below:

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 …

2 2 2 2 2 30
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Notice in the given example above, the common difference between two
consecutive terms in the sequence is two. The common difference is the
clue that must be figure out in a pattern in order to recognize it as an
arithmetic sequence.

Geometric sequence. If in the arithmetic sequence we need to check for the

common difference, in geometric sequence we need to look for the common
ratio. The illustrated in the example below, geometric sequence is not as
obvious as the arithmetic sequence. All possibilities must be explored until
some patterns of uniformity can intelligently be struck. At first it may
seemed like pattern less but only by digging a little bit deeper that we can
finally delve the constancy. That is 2
,
8
,
32
, … generate 4, 4, 4,…

8 32 128,

2, 8, 32, 128, …

4 4 4
Harmonic Sequence. In the sequence, the reciprocal of the terms behaved in
a manner like arithmetic sequence. Consider the example below and notice
an interesting pattern in the series. With this pattern, the reciprocal appears
like arithmetic sequence. Only in recognizing the appearance that we can
finally decode the sequencing the govern the series.
12, 14, 16, 18, 101, …

Fibonacci Sequence. This specific sequence was named after an Italian

mathematician Leonardo Pisano Bigollo (1170 - 1250). He discovered the
sequence while he was studying rabbits. The Fibonacci sequence is a series
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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

of numbers governed by some unusual arithmetic rule. The sequence is

organized in a way a number can be obtained by adding the two previous
numbers.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …

0+1=1 0,1,1
1+1=2 0,1,1,2
1+2=3 0,1,1,2,3
2+3=5 0,1,1,2,3,5

th
Notice that the number 2 is actually the sum of 1 and 1. Also the 5 term
which is number 5 is based on addition of the two previous terms 2, and 3.
That is the kind of pattern being generated by the Fibonacci sequence. It is
infinite in expanse and it was once purely maintained claim as a
mathematical and mental exercise but later on the it was observed that the
ownership of this pattern was also being claimed by some species of
flowers, petals, pineapple, pine cone, cabbages and some shells.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …

To explore a little bit more about the Fibonacci sequence, the location of
the term was conventionally tagged as Fib( ). This means that Fib(1)=1,
Fib(2)=1, Fib(3)=2 and Fib(4)=3. In this method, the Fib( ) is actually
referring to the the th term of the sequence. It is also possible to make
some sort of addition in this sequence. For instance:

Fib (2) + Fib (6) = _?__

nd
Fib(2) refers to the 2 term in the sequence which is “1”. And Fib(6) refers
th
to the 6 term which is “8”. So, the answer to that equation is simply “9”

Formula for computing for the nth term in the Fibonacci Sequence
n n
xn = φ − (1−φ)
√5

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Where:
Xn stands for the Fibonacci number we’re looking for
N stands for the position of the number in the Fibonacci sequence
Φ stands for the value of the golden ratio
th
Let us try for example: What is the 5 Fibonacci number? By using the formula
we’ll get:
5 5
X5 = (1.618) − (1−1.618)
√5

X5= 5

The amazing grandeur of Fibonacci sequence was also discovered in the

structure of Golden rectangle. The golden rectangle is made up of
squares whose sizes, surprisingly is also behaving similar to the Fibonacci
sequence. Take a serious look at the figure:

The Golden Ratio

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
As we can see in the figure, there is no complexity in forming a spiral with
the use of the golden rectangle starting from one of the sides of the first
Fibonacci square going to the edges of each of the next squares. This
golden rectangle shows that the Fibonacci sequence is not only about
sequence of numbers of some sort but it is also a geometric sequence
observing a rectangle ratio. The spiral line generated by the ratio is
generously scattered around from infinite to infinitesimal.

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 Lesson Characteristics and Conventions in the
2.1 Mathematical Language

Specific Objective

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Understand what mathematical language is.

2. Name different characteristics of mathematics.
3. Compare and differentiate natural language into a
mathematical language and expressions into sentences.
4. Familiarize and name common symbols use in mathematical
expressions and sentences.
5. Translate a sentence into a mathematical symbol.

Introduction:

Have you read about one of the story in the bible known as “The Tower of Babel?” This story is
about constructing a tower in able to reach its top to heaven; the Kingdom of God.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

At first, the construction of a tower is smoothly being done since all of the workers have only
one and only one language. But God disrupted the work of the people by making their language
different from each other. There were a language barrier and the people were confused what the
other people are talking about resulting the tower was never finished and the people were spread
in all over and different places of the earth.

Based on the story, what was the most important thing that people should have in order to
accomplish a certain task? Yes, a “language”. Language is one of the most important thing
among the people because it has an important role in communication. But the question is, what is
language? Why is it so important? In this module, we will be discussing about mathematical
relative on what you have learned in your English subject.

Discussion:

For sure you may be asked what the real meaning of a language is. Perhaps you could say that
language is the one we use in able to communicate with each other or this is one of your lessons
in English or in your Filipino subject. According to Cambridge English Dictionary, a language is
a system of communication consisting of sounds, words and grammar, or the system of
communication used by people in a particular country or type of work.

Did you know that mathematics is a language in itself? Since it is a language also, mathematics
is very essential in communicating important ideas. But most mathematical language is in a form
of symbols. When we say that “Five added by three is eight”, we could translate this in symbol
as “5 + 3 = 8.” Here, the first statement is in a form of group of words while the translation is in
a form of symbol which has the same meaning and if your will be reading this, for sure all of you
have a common understanding with this. But let us take a look at this mathematical symbols:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
∀𝜀 > 0, ∃ 𝛿 > 0 → |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿, |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀, 𝑥𝜖R
Did you understand what these symbols are? This mathematical sentence is a complex idea;
yet, it is contained and tamed into a concise statement. It may sound or look Greek to some
because without any knowledge of the language in which the ideas are expressed, the privilege
to understand and appreciate its grandeur can never be attained. Mathematics, being a language
in itself, may appear complex and difficult to understand simply because it uses a different
kind of alphabet and grammar structure. It uses a kind of language that has been historically
proven effective in communicating and transmitting mathematical realities. The language of
mathematics, like any other languages, can be learned; once learned, it allows us to see
fascinating things and provides us an advantage to comprehend and exploit the beauty of
beneath and beyond. Hence, in able to understand better different topics in mathematics, it is

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

very important that you must learn first on how to read and understand different symbols in
mathematics which used in mathematical language.

A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians
like to express.

It is:

1. precise (able to make very fine distinction)

2. concise (able to say things briefly); and
3. powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative cases).

B. Vocabulary vs. Sentences

Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining these words into
complete thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. As a first step in discussing the
mathematical language, we will make a very broad classification between the „nouns‟ of
mathematics (used to name mathematical objects of interest) and the „sentences‟ of mathematics
(which state complete mathematical thoughts)‟

You must study the Mathematics Vocabulary!

• Student must learn on how to use correctly the language of Mathematics, when and
where to use and figuring out the incorrect uses.
• Students must show the relationship or connections the mathematics language with the
natural language.
• Students must look backward or study the history of Mathematics in order to understand
more deeply why Mathematics is important in their daily lives.

Importance of Mathematical Language

• Major contributor to overall comprehension

• Vital for the development of Mathematics proficiency
• Enables both the teacher and the students to communicate mathematical knowledge with
precision

C. Comparison of Natural Language into Mathematical Language

The table below is an illustration on the comparison of a natural language (expression or

sentence) to a mathematical language.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

English Mathematics
Expressions
Name given to an Noun such as person, 2
object of interest. place and things and
pronouns 3–2
3x
Example:
a) Ernesto
b) Batangas City 3x + 2
c) Book
d) He ax + by + c

Sentence
It has a complete Group of words that
thought express a statement, 3+2=5
question or command.
a+b=c
Example:
a) Ernesto is a boy. ax + by + c = 0
b) He lives in Batangas City.
c) Allan loves to read book.
2 2 2
d) Run! (x + y) = x + 2xy + y
e) Do you love me?

D. Expressions versus Sentences

Ideas regarding sentences:

Ideas regarding sentences are explored. Just as English sentences have verbs, so do mathematical
sentences. In the mathematical sentence;

3+4=7

the verb is =. If you read the sentence as „three plus four is equal to seven, then it‟s easy to hear
the verb. Indeed, the equal sign = is one of the most popular mathematical verb.

Example:

1. The capital of Philippines is Manila.

2. Rizal park is in Cebu.
3. 5+3=8
4. 5+3=9

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Connectives

A question commonly encountered, when presenting the sentence example 1 + 2 = 3 is

that;
If = is the verb, then what is + ?

The answer is the symbol + is what we called a connective which is used to connect objects of a
given type to get a „compound‟ object of the same type. Here, the numbers 1 and 2 are connected
to give the new number 1 + 2.

In English, this is the connector “and”. Cat is a noun, dog is a noun, cat and dog is a „compound‟
noun.

Mathematical Sentence

Mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct arrangement of

mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. It makes sense to as about the TRUTH of a
sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true/sometimes false?

Example:

1. The capital of Philippines is Manila.

2. Rizal park is in Cebu.
3. 5+3=8
4. 5+3=9

Truth of Sentences

Sentences can be true or false. The notion of “truth” (i.e., the property of being true or false) is a
fundamental importance in the mathematical language; this will become apparent as you read the
book.

Conventions in Languages

Languages have conventions. In English, for example, it is conventional to capitalize name (like
Israel and Manila). This convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish between a common
noun (carol means Christmas song) and proper noun (Carol i.e. name of a person). Mathematics
also has its convention, which help readers distinguish between different types of mathematical
expression.

Expression

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct arrangement of

mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest.

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not make sense to ask if
an expression is true or false.

E. Conventions in mathematics, some commonly used symbols, its meaning and an

example

a) Sets and Logic

SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE

 Union Union of set A and set AB

B

 Intersection Intersection of set A AB

and set B

 Element x is an element of A xA

 Not an element of x is not an element of xA

set A
{ } A set of.. A set of an element {a, b, c}

 Subset A is a subset of B AB

 Not a subset of A is not a subset of B AB

… Ellipses There are still other a, b, c, …
items to follow

a + b + c + ….

 Conjunction A and B AB

 Disjunction A or B AB

 Negation Not A A

→ Implies (If-then statement) If A, then B A→B

 If and only if A if and only if B AB

 For all For all x x

 There exist There exist an x 

 Therefore Therefore C C

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

| Such that x such that y x|y

■ End of proof

 Congruence / equivalent A is equivalent to B A B

a is congruent to b a  b mod n
modulo n
a, b, c, …, z Variables
*First part of English Alphabet
uses as fixed variable*
(lower case)
*Middle part of English alphabet p 6
use as subscript and superscript (axo) (5x2)
variable*
*Last part of an English alphabet
uses as unknown variable*

b) Basic Operations and Relational Symbols

SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE

+ Addition; Plus sign a plus b
a added by b 3+2
a increased by b
Subtraction; minus sign a subtracted by
b
a minus b
- 3-2
a diminished by
b

• Multiplication sign a multiply by b 4•3

() *we do not use x as a symbol for a times b (4)(3)
multiplication in our discussion
since its use as a variable*

 or | Division sign; divides ab 10  5

b|a 5|10

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

 Composition of function f of g of x f  g(x)

= Equal sign a=a 5=5
a+b=b+a 3+2=2+3

 Not equal to a  b 3 4

 Greater than a b 10  5

 Less than b a 5  10

 Greater than or equal to a b 10  5

 Less than or equal to b a 5  10

 Binary operation a b a * b = a + 17b

c) Set of Numbers

SYMBOL NAME MEANING EXAMPLE

natural numbers / whole
ℕ0 0 = {0,1,2,3,4,...} 0∈ 0
numbers set (with zero)
natural numbers / whole
ℕ1 numbers set (without 1 = {1,2,3,4,5,...} 6∈ 1
zero)
ℤ integer numbers set = {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...} -6 ∈
ℚ rational numbers set = {x | x=a/b, a,b∈ and b≠0} 2/6 ∈
ℝ real numbers set = {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434 ∈
ℂ complex numbers set = {z | z=a+bi,-∞<a<∞,-∞<b<∞} 6+2i ∈

F. Translating words into symbol

• Practical problems seldom, if ever, come in equation form. The job of the problem solver
is to translate the problem from phrases and statements into mathematical expressions
and equations, and then to solve the equations.

• As problem solvers, our job is made simpler if we are able to translate verbal phrases to
mathematical expressions and if we follow step in solving applied problems. To help us
translate from words to symbols, we can use the Mathematics Dictionary.

47
Examples:
Let x be a number. Translate each phrase or sentence into a mathematical expression or equation.

1.Twelve more than a number.

Ans.: 12+x

2.Eight minus a number.

Ans.: 8−x

3.An unknown quantity less fourteen.

Ans.: x−14

4.Six times a number is fifty-four.

Ans.: 6x=54

5. Two ninths of a number is eleven.

Ans.: 2/9x=11

6. Three more than seven times a number is nine more than five times the

number. Ans.: 3+7x=9+5x

7. Twice a number less eight is equal to one more than three times the

number. Ans.: 2x−8=3x+1 or 2x−8=1+3x

 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Lesson
2.2 Four Basic Concepts

Specific Objective

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Define what a set and its basic terminologies.
2. Differentiate two ways in describing sets.
3. Perform basic operations on set.
4. Define what a relation and a function is.
5. Translate relation and function into a diagram.
6. Name and apply the different properties of a relation
and function.
7. Identify the domain and range in a relation
and function.
8. Evaluate a function.
9. Define and perform a binary operation.

Introduction

In this module, it will be discussed the four basic concepts in mathematics such as sets and its
basic operation, the functions, relations and the binary operations.

Discussion:

I. SETS AND SUBSETS

A. The Language of Sets

Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term was introduced in 1879 by Georg
Cantor. For most mathematical purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did,
simply as a collection of elements.

So, by definition:

A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Illustration:

A set of counting numbers from 1 to 10.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

A set of an English alphabet from a to e.

A set of even numbers
A set of an integers

Note: A set is denoted with braces or curly brackets { } and label or name the set by a
capital letter such as A, B, C,…etc.

a. A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5.

A={1,2,3,4,5}

b. A set of English alphabet from a to d.

B = { a, b, c, d }

c. A set of all even positive integers.

C={2,4,6,8,…}

d. A set of an integers.
D = { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

Now, if S is a set, the notation x  S means that x is an element of S. The notation

x  S means that x is not an element of S.

So, what is an element of a set?

Element of a set
Each member of the set is called an element and the  notation means that an item
belongs to a set.

Illustration:

Say A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
1  A; 3  A; 5  A
Is 6 is an element of set A? Since in a given set A above, we could not see six as an
element of set A, thus we could say that;

6 is not an element of set A or

6A

Note: Each element is a set should be separated by comma.

Terminologies of Sets

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

1. Unit Set

Unit set is a set that contains only one element.

Illustration:
A = { 1 }; B = { c }; C = { banana }

2. Empty set or Null set; 

Empty or null set is a set that has no element.

Illustration:
A={ }
A set of seven yellow carabaos

3. Finite set

A finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is countable.

Illustration:
A={1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = { a, b, c, d }

4. Infinite set

An infinite set is a set that elements in a given set has no end or not
countable.
Illustration:

A set of counting numbers

A={…-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,…}

5. Cardinal Number; n

Cardinal number are numbers that used to measure the number of elements in a given
set. It is just similar in counting the total number of element in a set.

Illustration:
A={2,4,6,8} n=4
B = { a, c, e } n=3

6. Equal set

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only if they have equal
number of cardinality and the element/s are identical. There is a 1 -1 correspondence.

Illustration:
A={1,2,3,4,5} B={3,5,2,4,1}

7. Equivalent set

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent if and only if they have the exact
number of element. There is a 1 – 1 correspondence.

Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = { a, b, c, d, e }

8. Universal set

The universal set U is the set of all elements under discussion.

Illustration:

A set of an English alphabet

U = {a, b, c, d, …, z}

9. Joint Sets

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets if and only if they have common
element/s.

A={1,2,3}B={2,4,6}

Here, sets A and B are joint set since they have common element such as 2.

10. Disjoint Sets

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if and only if they are mutually exclusive or if
they don’t have common element/s.

A={1,2,3}B={4,6,8}

B. Two ways of Describing a Set

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

1. Roster or Tabular Method

It is done by listing or tabulating the elements of the set.

2. Rule or Set-builder Method

It is done by stating or describing the common characteristics of the elements of the set.
We use the notation A = { x / x … }

Illustration:

a. A={1,2,3,4,5}
A = {x | x is a counting number from 1 to 5}
A = { x | x N, x < 6}

b. B = { a, b, c, d, …, z }
B = {x | x English alphabet}
B = { x | x is an English alphabet}

C. Subsets

A subset, A  B, means that every element of A is also an element

of B.

If x  A, then x  B.
In particular, every set is a subset of itself, A  A.

A subset is called a proper subset, A is a proper subset of B, if A 

B and there is at least one element of B that is not in A:

If x  A, then x  B and there is an element b such that b  B and b  A.

NOTE1: The empty set. or {} has no elements and is a subset of every set for
every set A, A  A.
n
The number of subsets of a given set is given by 2 , where n is the number of
elements of the given set.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Illustration:
How many subsets are there in a set
n 3
A = {1, 2, 3 }? List down all the subsets of set A. Number of subsets = 2 = 2 = 8
subsets

With one element

{1} ; {2} ; {3}

With two elements

{1,2} ; {1,3} ; {2,3}

With three elements

{1,2,3}

With no elements
{}

D. Ordered Pair

Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of
a and b together with the specification that “a” is the first element of the pair and “b” is
the second element. Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if a = c and b = d.
Symbolically;

(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d

Illustration:

a) If (a, b) = (3, 2), what would be the value of a and b.

Here, by definition that two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff a = c
and b = d.
Hence, a = 3 and b = 2.

b) Find x and y if (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2).

Solution:

Since (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2), so

4x + 3 = 3x + 5
Solving for x, we got x = 2 and obviously y = – 2.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

E. OPERATION ON SETS

Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to produce another set. Here are
the basic operations on sets.

1. Union of Sets

The union of sets A and B, denoted by A  B , is the set defined as:

A  B = { x | x  A or x  B }

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then

A  B={1,2,3,4,5}.

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then

A  B={1,2,3,4,5}.

Note that elements are not repeated in a set.

2. Intersection of Sets

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A  B , is the set defined as :

A  B = { x | x  A and x  B }

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}

then A  B = {1, 2} .

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}

then A  B = 

3. Difference of Sets

The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A - B , is the set defined as

A - B = { x | x  A and x  B }

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}

then A - B = {3} .

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} ,

then A - B = {1, 2, 3} .

Example : 3 If A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {a, c, e } ,

then A - B = {b, d } .

Note that in general A – B  B - A

4. Compliment of Set

For a set A, the difference U - A , where U is the universe, is called the

c c
complement of A and it is denoted by A . Thus A is the set of everything that
is not in A.

Example: Let U = { a, e, i, o, u } and A = { a, e }

c
then A = { i, o u }

5. Cartesian Product

Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A x B and read as
“A cross B”, is the set of all ordered pair (a,b) where a is in A and b is in B.
Symbolically:
A x B = {(a, b) | a  A and b  B}

Note that A x B is not equal to B x A.

Illustration:

If A = { 1, 2} and B = {a, b}, what is A x B?

A x B = {(1,a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}. How many elements in a A x B?

Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then

A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} .

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MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,

B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)} .

Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of
objects that share something in common. Usually, Venn diagrams are used to depict set
intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter U). This type of diagram is used in scientific
and engineering presentations, in theoretical mathematics, in computer applications, and in
statistics.

Venn Diagram on Sets Operation

A. Union of Sets B. Intersection of Sets

C. Difference of Sets D. Complement

II. FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS

A. THE LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Sometimes, we asked ourselves that, “What is my relationship with other people,

with the environment and most of all, with the God?”

How strong is your relationship with your parents, brother, sister, friends and even
your teacher? Are we related by blood? Are we related through sharing a common ideas
and ideology? Also, we talked about relationship between student and teacher, a manager
and the subordinates or even people who share common religion, ethnic or culture.

How are we going to relate the word relation in Mathematics? The objects of
mathematics may be related in various ways. A set “A” may be said to be related to a set
“B” if A is a subset of B, or if A is not a subset of B, or if A and B have at least one
element in common. A number x may be said to be related to a number y if x < y, or if x
2 2
is a factor of y, or if x + y = 1.

To be able to understand better what a relation is all about more specifically if we

talked about relation in mathematics, let us have a simple illustration.

Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {2, 3, 4} and let us say that an element x in A is related to
an element y in B if and only if, x is less than y and let us use the notation x R y as
translated mathematical term for the sentence “x is related to y. Then, it follows that:

1 R 2 since 1 < 2
1 R 3 since 1 < 3
1 R 4 since 1 < 4
2 R 3 since 2 < 3
2 R 4 since 2 < 4
3 R 4 since 3 < 4.

Now, can we say that 1 R 1? Is 3 R 2?

Recall the Cartesian product. What are the elements of A x B? It is clearly stated
A x B = { (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}. Here, the elements of some
ordered pairs in A x B are related, whereas the element of other ordered pairs are not.

What are the elements (ordered pair) in A x B, based on the given conditions, that
are related? Perhaps your answer would be:

{ (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,4)}

Observe that knowing which ordered pairs lie in this set is equivalent to knowing
which elements are related to which. The relation can be therefore be thought of the
totality of ordered pairs whose elements are related by the given condition. The formal
mathematical definition of relation, based on this idea, was introduced by the American
mathematicians and logician C.S. Peirce in the nineteenth century.
What is a relation?

1. A relation from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y)
such that to each element x of the set X there corresponds at least one element
of the set Y.

2. Let A and B sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B. Given an

ordered pair (x, y) in A x B, x is related to y by R, written x R y, if and only if,
(x, y) is in R. The set A is called the domain of R and the set B is called its co-
domain.

Notation:

The notation for a relation R may be written symbolically as follows:

x R y meaning (x, y)  R.

The notation x ℟ y means that x is not related to y by R;

x ℟ y meaning (x, y) R.
Example:

1. Given a set of an ordered pairs:

{(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

The domain are x = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

The co-domain are y = {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0}

2. Let A = {1,2} and B = {1,2,3} and define a relation R from A to B as follows:

Given any (x,y)  A x B,
(x,y) R means that is an integer;

a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A x B and which are in R.

b. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
c. What are the domain and the co-domain of R?
Solution:

a. A x B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2),(2,3). To determine explicitly the

composition of R, examine each ordered pair in A x B to see whether its element
satisfy the defining condition for R.
b.
(1,1)  R because , which is an integer.
(1,2)  R because , which is not an integer.
(1,3)  R because , which is an integer.
(2,1)  R because , which is not an integer.
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

(2,2) R because , which is an integer.

(2,3) R because , which is not an integer.

Thus, R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

b. Yes! 1 R 3 because (1,3)  R

No! 2 ℟ 3 because (2,3)  R.
Yes! 2 R 2 because (2,2)  R.

c. The domain of R is {1,2} and the co-domain is {1,2,3}

C. ARROW DIAGRAM OF A RELATION

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The arrow diagram for R is obtained as
follows:

1. Represent the elements of A as a points in one region and the elements of B as

points in another region.
2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow from x to y, and only if, x is related
to y by R. Symbolically:

Draw an arrow from x to y

If and only if, x R y
If and only if, (x, y)  R.
Example:
1. Given a relation {(1, 2),(0, 1),(3, 4),(2, 1),(0, −2)}. Illustrate the given relation
into an arrow diagram.

0 -2
1 1

2 2

3 4

2. What is the domain and co-domain of an example 1?

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

The domain are as follows: {0, 1, 2, 3}

The co-domain are as follows: {-2, 1, 2, 4}

3. Let A = {1,2,3} and b = {1,3,5} and define relations S and T from A to B as

follows:
For all (x, y)  A x B, (x,y)  S means that x < y, i.e., S is a “less than” relation.

T = {(2,1), (2,5)}
Draw arrow diagrams for S and T.

Solution:

A x B = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5)}. It is given by x < y
so S = {(1,3), (1,5), (2,3), (2,5), (3,5)}

1 1

2 3

3 5

1 1

2 3

3 5

D. PROPERTIES OF A RELATION

When a relation R is defined from a set A into the same set A, the three properties are very
useful such as reflexive, symmetric and the transitive.

64
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

A. Reflexive

A relation R on A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related to itself. In

notation, a R a for all a  A.

Examples of reflexive relations include:

_ "is equal to" (equality)

_ "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
_ "is less than or equal to" and "is greater than or equal to" (inequality)
_ "divides" (divisibility).

An example of a non reflexive relation is the relation "is the father of" on a set of people since
no person is the father of themself.
When looking at an arrow diagram, a relation is reflexive if every element of A has an arrow
pointing to itself. For example, the relation in a given figure below is a reflexive relation.

B. Symmetric

A relation R on A is symmetric if given a R b then b R a.

For example, "is married to" is a symmetric relation, while, "is less than" is not. The relation "is
the sister of" is not symmetric on a set that contains a brother and sister but would be symmetric
on a set of females. The arrow diagram of a symmetric relation has the property that whenever
there is a directed arrow from a to b, there is also a directed arrow from b to a.

65
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

C. Transitive

A relation R on A is transitive if given a R b and b R c then a R c.

Examples of reflexive relations include:

_ "is equal to" (equality)

_ "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
_ "is less than or equal to" and "is greater than or equal to" (inequality)
_ "divides" (divisibility).

On the other hand, "is the mother of" is not a transitive relation, because if Maria is the mother of
Josefa, and Josefa is the mother of Juana, then Maria is not the mother of Juana.

The arrow diagram of a transitive relation has the property that whenever there are directed arrows
from a to b and from b to c then there is also a directed arrow from a to c:

A relation that is refexive, symmetric, and transitive is called an equivalence relation on A.

Examples of equivalence relations include:

_ The equality ("=") relation between real numbers or sets.

_ The relation "is similar to" on the set of all triangles.
_ The relation "has the same birthday as" on the set of all human beings.

On the other hand, the relation " " is not an equivalence relation on the set of all subsets of a set
A since this relation is not symmetric.

E. WHAT IS A FUNCTION?

A function is a relation in which every input is paired with exactly one output.

A function from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) in which no two
distinct ordered pairs have the same first component. Similar to a relation,

66
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

the values of x is called the domain of the function and the set of all resulting value of y
is called the range or co-domain of the function.

A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with domain and co-domain

B that satisfies the following two properties:

1. For every element x in A, there is an element y in B such that (x,y)  F.

2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B,
If (x,y)  F and (x,z)  F, then y = z

These two properties; (1) and (2) can be stated less formally as follows:

1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F.

2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.

• Is a function a relation? Focus on the x-coordinates, when given a relation.

• If the set of ordered pairs have different x-coordinates, it is a function.
• If the set of ordered pairs have same x-coordinates, it is NOT a function but it
could be said a relation.

Note:
a) Y-coordinates have no bearing in determining functions
b) Function is a relation but relation could not be said as function.

Example 1: Determine if the following is a function or not a function.

1. {(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

2. {(-1, -7), (1, 0), (2, -3), (0, -8), (0, 5), (-2, -1)}

3. 2x + 3y – 1 = 0
2 2
4. x + y = 1
2
5. y = x + 1

Example 2. Which of the following mapping represent a function?

1.
3 1

0 2 67

1 3
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
2.

1 1

2 2
3 3

Function Notations:

The symbol f(x) means function of x and it is read as “f of x.” Thus, the equation
y = 2x + 1 could be written in a form of f(x) = 2x + 1 meaning y = f(x). It can be stated
that y is a function of x.

Let us say we have a function in a form of f(x) = 3x – 1. If we replace x = 1, this could be

written as f(1) = 3(1) – 1. The notation f(1) only means that we substitute the value of x =
1 resulting the function value. Thus

f(x) = 3x – 1; let x = 1
f(1) = 3(1) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2.
2
Another illustration is given a function g(x) = x – 3 and let x = -2, then
2
g(-2) = (-2) – 3 = 1
Operations on Functions

The following are definitions on the operations on functions.

a. The sum or difference of f and g, denoted by f ± g is the function defined by

(f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x).

b. The product of f and g, denoted by f · g is the function defined by (f·g)(x) = f(x)·g(x).

c. The quotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the function defined by f(x)/g(x), where
g(x) is not equal to zero.

d. The composite function of f and g denoted by f ο g is the function defined by

(f ο g)(x) = f(g(x)). Similarly, the composite function of g by f, denoted by g ο f, is
the function defined by ( g ο f)(x) = g(f(x)).

Examples:
 1. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (f+g)(x)?
Solution:

(f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

= (2x + 1) + (3x + 2)
= 2x + 3x + 1 + 2
= 5x + 3

2. What is (f • g)(x) if f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2?

Solution:

(f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x)

= (2x + 1)(3x + 2)
2
= 6x + 7x + 2

3. What is ( ) if f(x) = 2a + 6b and g(x) = a + 3b?

Solution:

( )

4. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (g  f)(x)?

Solution:

(g  f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 1) = 3(2x + 1) + 2 = 6x + 3 + 2 = 6x + 5

𝐑 = {(𝐱, 𝐲)|𝐲 = 𝐱 + ; 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐱, 𝐲 ∈ 𝐍, 𝐱 < }

III. BINARY OPERATION

 A binary operation on a set G, then, is simply a method (or formula) by which the
members of an ordered pair from G combine to yield a new member of G. This condition
is called closure. The most familiar binary operations are ordinary addition,
subtraction, and multiplication of integers. Division of integers is not a binary
operation on the integers because an integer divided by an integer need not be an
integer.

In mathematics, a binary operation on a set is a

calculation that combines two elements of the set (called
operands) to produce another element of the set.

Definition of Binary Operations

Let G be a non-empty set. An operation * on G is said to be a binary operation on G if

for every pair of elements, a, b is in G that is a, b  G; the product a * b  G.

Note: For each (a,b) G, we assign an element a * b of G.

Illustrative examples:

Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

1) G  Z define a * b = a + b (usual addition on Z)

Solution:

Let a  Z and b  Z. If we add a and b, then the sum a + b  Z. Hence a * b = a + b is a

binary operation.

2) G  Z define a * b = ab (usual multiplication on Z)

Solution:

Let a, b  Z. Then the product of a and b, that is ab  Z. Hence a * b = ab is a binary

operation.
 +
3) G  R defined by a * b = a + 17b

Solution:
+ +
Let a, b  R . If we take the sum of a + 17b  R . Hence it is a binary operation.
+ +
4) G  Z , defined * by a * b = a – b for all set a, b  Z .

Solution:
+
If a > b = a – b > 0  Z
+
If a < b = a – b < 0  Z

Therefore, * is NOT a binary operation

b
5) G  R defined by a * b = a

To be able to determine if the above statement is a binary operation or not, we need

to have a counter example.

b
If a = 0 and b = 0, then a does not exist, hence it is not an element of R
b b
If a = -4 and b = ½, then a would be an element of a complex number C, so a  R.

6) G  Z \{-1} , defined * by a * b = a + b + ab for all set a, b  Z.

Solution

Let a, b  Z except -1, then a > -1 and b > -1 and a < -1 and b < -1.
If a * b = a + b + ab, it follows that a * b = a + b + ab Z since in both case such as a and
b > -1 and a and b < -1, the result would be Z, hence * is a binary operation.

CLOSED
Definition: A set is “closed” under operation if the operation assigns to every
ordered pair of elements from the set an element of the set.

Illustrative examples:
 1) Is S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is closed under usual addition?
Solution:

By giving a counter example, S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is NOT closed under
usual addition. Why? Let us say we are going to a 1 and 3. The sum of 1 and 3 is 4
where 4 is not an element of S. Hence, it is not closed.

2) Let + and • be usual binary operations of addition and multiplication of Z

2 +
and let H = {n | n Z }. Is H closed under addition? Under multiplication?
Solution:

a. To be able to determine if H is closed under addition, we need to have a

counter-example. Let us take two elements in Z, say 1 and 4. If we are going to
2
add this two numbers, the result would be 5 and obviously, 5 n or 5 is not a
perfect square. Hence, H is not closed under addition.
b. Let r  H and s  H. Using H x H  (r, s) = r • s. Since r  H and s  H, that
+ 2 2
means there must be an integers n and m  Z such that r = n and s = m . So;
2 2 2
(r, s) = r • s = n • m = (nm)
+ + 2
and n, m  Z . It follows that nm  Z , then (nm)  H. Hence, H is closed under
multiplication.

Example. Consider the binary operation ∗ on R given by

x ∗ y = x + y − 3. (x ∗ y) ∗ z = (x + y − 3) ∗ z = (x + y − 3) + z − 3 = x + y + z − 6,
x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (y + z − 3) = x + (y + z − 3) − 3 = x + y + z − 6.

Therefore, ∗ is associative. Since x ∗ y = x + y − 3 = y + x − 3 = y ∗ x, ∗ is

commutative.

Example. Consider the binary operation * on R given by a*b = ab/2. Show that
a*b = b*c.

Solution:

Let a*b = ab/2. We need to show that a*b = b*a. In b*a = ba/2. But by commutative
properties under multiplication, that is ab = ba, then it follows that b*a = ab/2. Hence
a*b = b*a
Definition:
Let * be a binary operation of a set S. Then;

(a) * is associative if for all a, b, c  S, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

(b) * is commutative if for all a, b  S, a * b = b * a

(c) An element e  S is called a left identity element if for all a  S, we have

e*a=a

(d) An element e  S is called a right identity element if for all a  S, we have

a*e=a

(e) An element e  S is called an identity element if for all a  S, we have

a * e = a and e * a = a.

(f) Let e be an identity element is S and a  S, then b is called an inverse of the

element “a” if a * b = e and b * a = e.

-1 -1
Note that a * b = b * a = e or a * a = a * a = e
-1
If a  S, then the inverse of “a” is denoted by a . Here -1 is not an exponent of a.

+
Example: Let S = Z as define * on S by a * b = a + b – ab. Show the associativity and
the commutativity of S in a binary operation. Find also its identity and inverse if any.

(a) Associativity
+
Let a, b, c  Z . Then; (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

For (a * b) * c

(a * b) * c = (a + b – ab) * c

= (a + b – ab) + c - (a + b – ab)c
= a + b + c – ab – ac – bc + abc
For a * (b * c)

a * (b * c) = a * (b + c – bc)

= a + (b + c – bc) – (a)(b + c – bc)

= a + b + c – bc – ab – ac + abc

+
Hence is associative on S  Z .

(a) Commutative

a*b=b*a
a + b – ab = b + a – ba
a + b – ab = a + b – ab
+
Hence * is commutative on S  Z .

(c) Identity

a*e=a e*a=a

a + e – ae = a e + a – ea = a

e – ae = a – a e – ea = a – a

e(1 – a) = 0 e(1 – a) = 0

e=0 e=0

hence, the identity exist except when a = 1.

(d) Inverse

-1 -1
a*a =e a *a=e
+ 2 2
Example: Let S = Z as define * on S by a * b = a + ab + b . Is the operation *
associative? Commutative? What is its identity? What is its inverse?
(a) Commutative
a *b=b*a

2 2 2 2
a + ab + b = b + ba + a
2 2 2 2
a + ab + b = a + ab + b
Hence, the operation * is commutative.

(b) Associative

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)

2 2 2 2
(a + ab + b ) * c = a * (b + bc + c )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(a + ab + b ) + (a + ab + b )(c) + c  a + (a)( b + bc + c ) + (b + bc + c )

Hence, the operation * is not associative.

Cayley Tables

A (binary) operation on a finite set can be represented by a table. This is a square grid
with one row and one column for each element in the set. The grid is filled in so that the
element in the row belonging to x and the column belonging to y is x*y.

A binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited number of elements) is often
displayed in a table that demonstrates how the operation is performed.

Example: The table below is a table for a binary operation on the set {a, b, c, d}

* a b C d
a a b C d
b b c D a
c c d A b
d d a B c

a. Is the * commutative?
b. Is the * associative?
c. What is its identity?
 Lesson
4.1 Modular Arithmetic

Specific Objective

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Define modular arithmetic.

2. Compare a clock arithmetic into modular arithmetic.
3. Explain comprehensively modular arithmetic.
4. Name different properties of modular arithmetic.
5. Tell whether the congruence is a congruence or not.
6. Solve and perform operations on clock and in modular
arithmetic.
7. Construct a clock and a modulo n addition table.

Introduction

Special type of arithmetic which involves only integer (Z) is what we called “modular
arithmetic”. Usually, this topic is being discussed in number theory studying the integers and its
properties and it is very essential for students like you who are taking up science and technology
as their program to learn the concept of modular arithmetic since one the applications of this
topic is on how to code and decode or encrypt and decrypt secret message for privacy and
security purposes. Basically, the modular arithmetic emphasized the concept of remainder
theorem when solving problems.
Discussion

Before we define modular arithmetic and study some of its application, let us use a 12-hour clock
as an illustration to get an idea what a modular arithmetic is.
Most of our clock has a 12-hour design. This design designated whether the time is before noon
or after noon with the use of an abbreviation A.M. and P.M. The abbreviation A.M. and P.M.
came from the Latin word ante meridiem means before midday and post meridiem means after
midday. Now, let us take a look the 12-hour clock. As what you have observed, after we reached
the 12 o’clock, we begin again with 1. Right?

To understand better the “modular arithmetic”, let us have a simple illustration with the use of
the 12-hour clock below. Here, we use the numbers 0-11 instead of the numbers 1-12 to deal
with modular arithmetic. The reason is that 0-11 are the remainders modulo 12. In general, when
we work modulo n we replace all the numbers by their remainders modulo n. So, 12 here is
replace by zero.

Figure 1
If we want to determine a time in the future or in the past, it is necessary to consider whether we
have passed 12 o’clock. To determine time 8 hours after 3 o’clock, we add 3 and 8. Because we
did not pass 12 o’clock, the time is 11 o’clock. See figure 1.

Figure 2

However, to determine the time 8 hours after 9 o’clock, we must take into consideration that
once we have passed 12 o’clock, we begin again with 1. Hence, 8 hours after 9 o’clock is 5
o’clock as shown in figure 2. We will use symbol + to denote addition on a 12-hour clock and -
to denote subtraction.

Now, let us use this notation for a 12-hour clock.

Let the clock would be:

Example1: Perform the + or - operator.

a) 8+3=11 d) 8 + 9 = 5
b) 8 - 5 = 3 e) 8 - 10 = 10
c) 8+16 = 0 f) 8 - 12 = 8

Example 2. If it is 11 o'clock and you have to finish your math homework in 18 hours, what hour
will it be at that time?

Answer: 11 + 18 = 5. Hence the time that the homework could it be finished is 5 o’clock.

Example 3. If it is 12:00 now, what time is it in 12 hours? What is the remainder when you
divide 12 by 12?

Answer: Using the 12-hour clock based on the given figure above, if it is now 12:00, the time
after another 12 hour is also 12 o’clock and it has an equivalent number as zero (0). If we are
going to divide 12 by 12, it is very obvious that the remainder is 0.

Example 4. If it is 12:00 now, what time is it in 18 hours? What is the remainder when you
divide 18 by 12?

Answer: Similar on what we do to example 3, if it is now 12:00, adding 18 hours starting from
12 (0) would give us 6 o’clock. Dividing 18 by 12, the remainder would be 6. Hence, the time
after 18 hours starting to 12 o’clock is 6 o’clock.

A similar example which involve the modular arithmetic is the day-of-the-week. If we assigned a
number for each day of the week as shown below, then 6 days after Friday is Thursday and 16
days after Monday is Wednesday. We could write this as;

4 + 6 = 3 (Thursday) and 0 + 16 = 2 (Wednesday)

Monday = 0
Tuesday = 1
Wednesday = 2
Thursday = 3
Friday = 4
Saturday = 5
Sunday = 6

Another way to determine the day of the week is to note that when the sum 4 + 6 = 10 is divided
by 7, the number of days in a week, the remainder is 3, which is assigned to Thursday. When 0 +
16 = 16 is divided by 7, the remainder 2 is the number assigned in Wednesday. This works
because the days of the week repeat every 7 days. This could be done also to 12-hour clock
arithmetic.

Example 5. Let us say today is Wednesday. What would be the day 11 days after Wednesday?
What would be the remainder if we are going to divide 11 by 7?

Answer: Based on our given days in a week above, the equivalent number for Wednesday is 2.
Adding 11 days after Wednesday, we got Sunday where this day has an equivalent number as 6.
Adding 2 by 11, the result is 13 and if we are going to divide 13 by 7, the result is 6. Hence, 2 +
11 = 6.

Self -Learning Activity

Directions: Do as indicated.

A. Calculate using the 12-hour clock.

a) 7+12 =? d) 11- 13 = ?

b) 6 + 18 = ? e) 5-10 =?

c) 9 +21 =? f) 8 -12 =?

B. Based on the assigned number for 7 days in a week, what would be the day on the
after each of the following days:
Monday = 0
Tuesday = 1
Wednesday = 2
 Thursday = 3
Friday = 4
Saturday = 5
Sunday = 6

a) 5 +11=? c) 6 – 12 = ? e) 7 + 10 = ?
b) 3+9=? d) 5 + 8 = ?

C. In exercises a to j, evaluate each expression, where + and – indicate addition and

subtraction, respectively, using the 26 letters of an English alphabet where a =0, b
=1, c = 2, …, y = 24 and z = 25. Determine the letter that corresponds to your
answer.
a) 15+ 7 = f) 8 – 16 =
b) 10+ 5 = g) 18 + 8 =
c) 18–30= h) 13 –16=
d) 20+ 9 = i) 12 + 12 =
e) 16+20= j) 20 – 26 =

As you can see, the situation like these that repeat in cycles are represented mathematically
by using modular arithmetic or known as the arithmetic modulo n (mod n).

But the question is “What is modular arithmetic?”

Definition: Modular Arithmetic

i. Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, where ,

if is an integer. In this case, we write a  b (mod n). The number n is called the
modulus. The statement a  b (mod n) is called a congruence.

This could be stated in this form.

+
ii. If a, b  Z and n  Z , then a  b (mod n) if and only if n | a – b.

So, looking back in our clock arithmetic, instead of 13 = 1, in modular arithmetic we

write 13 ≡ 1 (mod 12) and read it “13 is congruent to 1 modulo 12” or, to abbreviate, “13
is 1 modulo 12”.

Let us take a look a comparison between the 12-hour clock addition table and the modulo
12 addition table.
Clock Addition Table
 + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Modulo 12 Addition Table

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5
7 7 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 8 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 9 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 10 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
11 11 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Based on the given table 10 + 7 = 5 or we could say that 17  5 mod 12. Let us have
some illustrative example using modulo 12 addition table.

Example 1. Based on the given table above, each expression follows the modular
arithmetic under modulo 12.

a) 12 ≡ 0 (mod 12)
b) 21 ≡ 9 (mod 12)
c) 37 ≡ 1 (mod 12)
d ) 17≡ 5 (mod 12)

Example 2. Write in the form a  b(mod n) the statement 3 | 6.

Answer:

3 | 6 could be written as 3 | (18 – 12); here n = 3, a = 18 and b = 12. So, we could write
this as

18 12 (mod 3) or 12  18 (mod 3)

Note: There are more possible answers that you can give in our example 2. Can you think
another possible answer?

Example 3. Is 53  17 (mod 3)? How about 53  14 (mod 3)? What about 53  11(mod
3)?

Answer:
The 53  17 (mod 3) can be written in a form of . Now, let a = 53, b = 17 and
n = 3. . So the congruence is true. Now, let us take a look for
53  14 (mod 3). Let a = 53, b=14 and n = 3. It is seen that . So, it is
congruence and so as 53  11(mod 3).

Example 4. Another way to be able to write in a congruence modulo n is by dividing by n

and take the remainder. Let us say n = 3. Then;
 14(mod 3)  2; that is 14 = (3)(4) + 2. The remainder is 2.
9 (mod 3)  0; that is 9 = (3)(3) + 0. The remainder is 0.
2 (mod 3)  2; since 2 = (3)(0) + 2.
-1 (mod 3)  2; since -1 = (3)(-1) + 2
-5 (mod 3)  1; since -5 = (3)(-2) + 1. The remainder is 1.

Example 5. Tell whether the congruence is true or not.

29  8 mod 3 This is a true congruence! Why?

7  12 mod 5 This is a true congruence! Why?

15  4 mod 6 This is not a true congruence. Why?

An alternative method to determine a true congruence in a  b(mod n), where a and b are
whole numbers, then when a and b is divided by n, they must have the same remainder.

Example 6. Let us say the given modulo is 53  17 (mod 3). Now, if we divide 53 to 3,
then;

53 = (3)(17) + 2. The remainder is 2

and if we divide 17 to 3, we get;

17 = (3)(5) + 2. The remainder is also 2.

Hence, 53  17 (mod 3) is a true congruence.

Or

So, the theorem states that:

For arbitrary integers a and b, a  b(mod n) if and only if a and b have the same
remainder when divided by n.
Proof:

() Assume that a  b(mod n). Let a = nq1 + r1 and b = nq2 + r2 where 0  r1 < n and
0  r2 < n. We need to show that r1 = r2. Since a  b(mod n), then a – b = nk for some
integer k. By substitution;

nq1 + r1 - nq2 + r2 = nk
n(q1 – q2) + r1 – r2 = nk
r1 – r2 = nk – n(q1 – q2)
r1 – r2 = n[k – (q1 – q2)] where [k – (q1 – q2)]  Z.

Now, n | r1 – r2. We claim that r1 – r2 = 0. Suppose r1 – r2 is not equal to zero, then

n < |r1 – r2 |. This is contradiction since 0  r1 < n and 0  r2 < n. Therefore, r1– r2 = 0
which implies that r1 = r2.

( ) Assume that a and b leaves the same remainder when divided by n. Then,
a = nq1 + r and b = nq2 + r. Now,

a – b = (nq1 + r) – (nq2 + r)
= nq1 + r – nq2 – r
= nq1 – nq2
= n(q1 – q2) where (q1 – q2) Z
Then, n | a – b.
Therefore , a b(mod n). 

Theorem: Properties on congruence

Let n > 0 be fixed and a, b, c and d are arbitrary integers. Then,

a) a  a(mod n)
b) if a  b(mod n) then b  a(mod n)
c) if a  b(mod n) and b  c(mod n), then a  c(mod n)
d) if a  b(mod n) and c  d(mod n), then a + c = b + d (mod n) and ac  bd (mod n)
e) if a  b(mod n), then a + c  b + c (mod n) and ac  bc (mod n)
k k
f) If a  b (mod n), then a  b (mod n)

Proof:
a) Let a Z. If a = a, then a – a = 0. It follows that n | 0 which implies that n | a – a.
Hence, a a(mod n). 

Illustration:
 1) 6  6 (mod 2) 2) (x + 1)  (x + 1) (mod 3)

b) Assume that a  b(mod n) if and only if n | a – b or a – b = nk for some integer k.

From a – b = nk, it follows that –[a – b] = -nk, i.e. multiplying both sides by -1.
Then b – a = -nk or b – a = n (-k) where –k  Z. It only shows that n | b – a.
Hence, b  a (mod n).

Illustration:

1) If 13  10 (mod 3), then 10  13 (mod 3)

2) 2  12(mod 5) is as the same as 12  2 (mod 5)

c) Assume that a  b (mod n) and b  c (mod n). In a  b (mod n), it follows that
a – b = nk1(eq.1) and for b  c (mod n) we have b – c = nk2 (eq. 2)for k1, k2  Z. In
eq. 1, b = a - nk1 and in eq.2 we have b = nk2 + c. Then a - nk1 = nk2 + c. It follows
that a – c = nk2 + nk1 = n (k2 + k1) for (k2 + k1)  Z. It only shows that n | a – c.
Hence, a  c (mod n). 

Illustration:

1) If 2  14(mod 3) and 14  5(mod 3), then 2  5(mod 3).

2) If 7  19(mod 2) and 19  15(mod 2), then 7  15(mod 2)

d) Assume that a  b(mod n) and c  d(mod n). Here, n | a – b and n | c – d

respectively. In n | a – b it follows that a – b = nk1 and for n | c – d we have
c – d = nk2 for k1, k2  Z. But a – b + c – d = nk1 + nk2. Using the commutative
property on the left side, we have (a + c) + ( - b – d) = nk1 + nk2. Now, (a + c) – (b
+ d) = nk1 + nk2. Then, (a + c) – (b + d) = n (k1 + k2) for k1, k2  Z. It is clearly
seen that n | (a + c) – (b + d). Hence (a + c)  (b + d) (mod n).

Similarly, let a = nq1 + b and c = nq2 + d for any q1, q2  Z. Multiplying a and c, we got
2
ac = (nq1 + b)(nq2 + d) = n q1q2 + dnq1 + bnq2 + bd = bd + n(nq1q2 + bq2 + dq1) for (nq1q2
+ bq2 + dq1)  Z. It follows that ac – bd = nq. It only shows that n | ac – bd. Hence
ac  bd(mod n). 

Illustration:

1) If 7  19(mod 2) and 27  11 (mod 2) then (7 + 27)  (19 + 11) (mod 2)

 2) If 7  19(mod 2) and 27  11 (mod 2) then (7• 27)  (19 • 11) (mod 2)

e) Assume that a  b(mod n). We know that c  c (mod n). By property

(d) a + c  (b + c ) (mod n) and ac  bc (mod n). .

Illustration:

1) Given that 31  13 (mod 2). Let c = 3, then (31 + 3)  (13 + 3)(mod 2) and
(31•3)  (13•3)(mod 2)

f) Assume that a  b(mod n). By the property of mathematical induction, if k = 1

then a  b(mod n) is true. Now, assume that it is true for k = n,
n n n + 1 n + 1
i.e. a  b (mod n). We need to show that a  b (mod n).
n n
But a  b (mod n) and a  b (mod n). With the use of property (d), we can see
n n
that (a)(a )  (b)(b )(mod n). It could be written in a form of
n+1 n+1 k k
a b (mod n) where n + 1 = k. Hence, a  b (mod n). 

Illustration:
2 2
1) Given that 25  7 (mod 3) and k = 2, then 25  7 (mod 3)
 Self -Learning Activity

Direction: Determine whether the following is congruence or not congruence. Write your
answer on the right side of each item.

a) 5  8 (mod 3) f) 11  15 (mod 4)
b) 5  20 (mod 4) g) 7  21 (mod 3)
c) 21  45 (mod 6) h) 18  60 (mod 7)
d) 88  5 (mod 9) i) 72  30 (mod 5)
e) 100  20 (mod 8) j) 25  85 (mod 12)

Direction: Answer the following questions. Write your answer after each item.

a) What is 13mod1?
b) What is -4mod9?
c) What is -13mod1?
d) What is -14mod2?
e) What is 14mod2?

Directions: Which of the following integers are valid for solutions for x? Encircle all
letters that could apply a correct answer.

1. Given x  17 mod 4

a) -43 b) -17 c) 15 d) 25

2. Given x  11 mod 8

a) -77 b) 77 c) 27 d) 25
Directions: Filled out the table of a modulo 4 addition table and transform each item in a
form of a  b mod n.

+ 0 1 2 3 a) 3+3=
0 b) 2+3=
1 c) 1+2=
2 d) 0+0=
3 e) 2+2=
 Lesson
4.2 Operations on Modular Arithmetic

Specific Objective

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Name and explain the different operations on modular arithmetic.

2. Perform and solve the operations on modulo n such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, the additive and multiplicative inverse.
3. Solve the congruence equation.

Introduction

During your senior high school, you have learned how to perform the four fundamental
operations in mathematics in a higher level compare your lesson during elementary days. You
encounter on how to deal with the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers
as well as the different properties of real numbers.

For this lesson, you will be encountering another operation but this time it will be dealing in
different operations in modulo n.

Discussion

In the previous theorem for a  b(mod n), property (d) and (e) is a part of arithmetic
operations modulo n. The different arithmetic operations modulo n are as follows: 1)
addition modulo n, 2) subtraction modulo n, 3) multiplication modulo n and 4) the
additive and multiplicative inverses.

In 29  8 (mod 3), we could verify that its congruence is true since both 29 and 8 have
remainder 2 when divided by 3 which is the modulus. There are many other numbers
congruent to 8 modulo 3, but of all these, only one is a whole number less than the
modulus. This number is the result when evaluating a modulo expression, and in this case
we use an equal sign. Because 2  8 mod 3 and 2 is less than the modulus, we can write 8
mod 3 = 2. In general, m mod n becomes the remainder when m is divided by n.

Arithmetic modulo n (where n is a natural number) requires us to evaluate a modular

expression after using the standard rules of arithmetic. Thus, we perform the arithmetic
operation and then divide by the modulus. The answer is the remainder. The result of an
arithmetic operation mod n is always whole number less than n.
Illustration:

Let n = 3, then

14 (mod 3)  2 since 14 = 3•4 + 2 ( 2 is the remainder)

9(mod 3)  0 since 9 = 3•3 + 0 (0 is the remainder)
2(mod 3)  2 since 2 = 3•0 + 2 ( 2 is the remainder)

A. Addition Modulo n

To do the addition modulo n, let us have some example.

Evaluate (23 + 38) mod 12.

Solution:

Add 23 + 38 to produce 61. To evaluate 61 mod 12, divide 61 by modulus, 12. The
answer is the remainder.

So (23 + 38) mod 12  1 since 61 = 12•5 + 1 where 1 is the remainder.

In modular arithmetic, adding the modulus to a number does not change the equivalent
value of the number.

For instance; 13  6 (mod 7)

20  6 (mod 7) add 7 to 13
27  6 (mod 7) add 7 to 20 and so on.

Another example is;

12  7 (mod 5)
17  7 (mod 5) add 5 to 12
22  7 (mod 5) add 5 to 17 and so on.

This property of modular arithmetic is sometimes used in subtraction. It is possible to use

negative numbers modulo n. For instance;

-2  5 mod 7 is a true congruence. Why? Applying the definition; a  b (mod n) where

n | a – b, then
B. Subtraction Modulo n

The following examples give you on how be able to perform subtraction.

1. Evaluate (33 – 16)mod 6.

Here, subtracting 16 from 33, we will be able to get a positive result, i.e. 17. Divide the
difference by the modulus, 6 we get:

17 =6•2+5.

So, (33 – 16) mod 6 = 5

2. Evaluate (14 – 21) mod 5.

If we subtract 21 from 14, we will get a negative answer, i.e., -13. On that case, we must
find x so that -13  x mod 5. Thus we must find x so that the value of is
an integer. Trying the whole number values of x less than 5, the modulus, i.e. x = 0, 1, 2,
3, and 4, then;
So, the only value for x is 2. Hence, (14 – 27) mod 5 = 2.

C. Multiplication Modulo n

Like in addition and subtraction, let us evaluate given example under multiplication
modulo n to perform the operation multiplication.

Evaluate (15•23)mod 11.

We need to find the product of 15 and 23. The product is 345. This product must be
divided by the modulus, 11 to be able to find its remainder.

345 = 11•31 + 4

Hence, (15•23)mod 11 = 4

D. Additive and Multiplicative Inverses in Modular Arithmetic

a. Recall that if the sum of two numbers is zero (0),i.e. a + (-a) = 0, then the
numbers are additive inverses of each other. For instance, 5 + (-5) = 0. So
5 is the additive invers of -5 and -5 is the additive inverse of 5.

The same concept applies in modular arithmetic. For example;

(3 + 5)  0 mod 8.

Thus, in mod 8 arithmetic, 3 is the additive inverse of 5, and 5 is the additive inverse of 3.
Here, we consider only those whole number smaller that the modulus. Note that
3 + 5 = 8; that is, the sum of a number and its additive inverse equals the modulus. Using
this fact, we can easily find the additive invers of a number for any modulus. For
instance, in mod 11 arithmetic, the additive inverse of 5 is 6 because 5 + 6 = 11.

Let us have additional example.

Find the additive inverse of 7 in mod 16 arithmetic.

Solution:

In mod 16 arithmetic, 7 + 9 = 16. So, the additive inverse of 7 is 9.

b. If the product of two number is 1, then the numbers are multiplicative inverses of each
other. This is one of the properties of real number, i.e., ( ) . So, the
multiplicative inverse of 2 is 1/2 and the multiplicative inverse of 1/2 is 2.

The same concept applies to modular arithmetic (although the multiplicative inverses will
always be natural number). For example in mod 7 arithmetic, 5 is the multiplicative
invers of 3 (and 3 is the multiplicative inverse of 5) because 5•3  1 mod 7. Here, we will
concern ourselves only with natural numbers less than the modulus. To find the
multiplicative inverse of a mod m, solve the modular equation ax = 1 mod m for x.

Example:
In mod 7 arithmetic, find the multiplicative inverse of 2.

Solution:

To find the multiplicative inverse of 2, solve the equation 2x  1 mod 7 by trying

different natural number values of x less than the modulus.

Here, x = 1,2,3,4,5, and 6.

2x  1 mod 7 2(1)  1 mod 7 (this is not a true congruence)

2(2)  1 mod 7 (this is not a true congruence)
2(3)  1 mod 7 (this is not a true congruence)
2(4)  1 mod 7 (this is a true congruence)
2(5)  1 mod 7 (this is not a true congruence)
2(6)  1 mod 7 (this is not a true congruence)
Hence, in mod 7 arithmetic, the multiplicative of 2 is 4.

SOLVING CONGRUENCE EQUATION

Solving a congruence equation means finding all whole numbers values of the
variable for which the congruence is true.

Let us have an example on how to solve the congruence equation.

Example: Solve 3x + 5  3 mod 4. Here, we need to search for whole number values
of x for which the congruence is true.

Solution:

3x + 5  3 mod 4
 If x = 0 3(0) + 5  3 mod 4 (this is not a true congruence)
If x = 1 3(1) + 5  3 mod 4 (this is not a true congruence)
If x = 2 3(2) + 5  3 mod 4 (this is a true congruence, so 2 is a solution)
If x = 3 3(3) + 5  3 mod 4 (this is not a true congruence)
If x = 4 3(4) + 5  3 mod 4 (this is not a true congruence)
If x = 5 3(5) + 5  3 mod 4 (this is not a true congruence)
If x = 6 3(6) + 5  3 mod 4 (this is a true congruence, so 6 is a solution).

Now, if we continue trying to find the other values to be a solution, we could find that 10
and 14 are also a solution. Note that 6, 10 and 14 are all congruent to 2 mod 4. Thus the
solutions of 3x + 5  3 mod 4 are 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, …

Example : Solve 3x + 4 = 2x + 8 (mod 9)

Solution:

3x + 4 = 2x + 8 (mod 9)
−4= − 4 (mod 9)

3x = 2x + 4 (mod 9)
− 2x = − 2x + (mod 9)

x = 4 (mod 9)

The solution is x = 4 (mod 9)

Or

3x + 4 = 2x + 8 (mod 9)
(3x – 2x) = (8 – 4)(mod 9)

x = 4(mod 9)

Hence, the solution is x = 4 (mod 9)

 Self- Learning Activity
A. Evaluate the following arithmetic operations modulo n. Note: a n and a is positive.

1) (46+ 53)mod 8 = 6) (46 – 87)mod 5 =

2) (43+ 29)mod 10 = 7) (8)(13)mod 4 =
3) (56– 24) mod 17 = 8) (16)(25) mod 18 =
4) (29– 18) mod 3 = 9) (-23)(35)mod 29 =
5) (67– 93) mod 9 = 10) (-24)(-32)mod 13 =

B. Find the additive and multiplicative inverse of the following if any. If there is no additive
nor multiplicative inverse, explain why there is no such as inverses.

1)(x + 15) = 0 mod 29 x= 6) 5x = 1mod 9 x=

2)(23 + x) = 0 mod 27 x= 7) 14x = 1mod 41 x=
3)(x – 45) = 0 mod 89 x= 8) 6x = 1mod 41 x=
4)(46 – x) = 0 mod 16 x= 9) 7x = 1 mod 13 x=
5)(2x – 16) = 0 mod 18 x= 10) 11x = 1 mod 7 x=

C. Find the value of x if any. Show your complete solution at the back of this paper.

1) (13+ x) = 3mod 16 x=
2) (3x+ 24) = (4 + x) mod 9 x=

D. Complete the following table.

Suppose that n = 7. Filled out the table on Z7 = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}

+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6