BUBENDORFF MEMORIAL GRAMMAR SCHOOL, ADAZI-NNUKWU

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

CLASS: JSS ONE
TERM: 3RD TERM

METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

The following methods are often used by farmers to control or eradicate weeds from their farm:
1. Biological method
2. Cultural method
3. Chemical method
4. Mechanical method

1. Biological method: This method involves the use of living organisms such as plants or
animals to control the growth of the weeds. The control measures are as follows:
a. Controlled grazing: Here, animals/herds like cattle, sheep and goats are allowed to
graze inside the farm/plantation in order to eat up the weed seeds but must be done
under strict control of the herds especially where arable crops are involved.
b. Cover cropping; This involves planting crops which has wide leaves that can cover
the soil surface to prevent/control the stubborn growth of the weeds. Example of such
crop is Calopogonium mucunoids (Calopo).
c. Use of parasitic insects: Most insects are good parasites to the weeds. When
introduced in the farm, they eat up the weeds thereby eradicating them from the farm.
Examples Moth cactoblast eats up the prickly spear part of the weeds which leads to
their death.
2. Cultural method: This method of weed control involves the practice of using farm
operations to suppress weed growth and production while promoting the development of
the desired crop plants. Cultural methods are:
a. Crop Rotation: Some crops/land which are easily affected by weeds can be controlled
by means of crop rotation which involves change of a particular crop easily attacked
by weed with another in a season. This method affects the life span of the weed which
leads to its complete eradication.
b. Flooding: This is the release of excess water into the farmland. Weeds with
underground penetrating organs are killed by this means
c. Mulching: this method is the covering of the soil surface with organic materials such
as leaves to prevent germination and growth of weeds.
d. Weeding: This means uprooting of weeds with hands or cutting them at soil level using
hoes, cutlasses, harrows etc.
e. Burning: This involves setting the farm on fire which can remove stubborn grasses by
destroying their seeds and perenating organs.
f. Tillage: This involves deep burying of weeds and their seeds to prevent them from
germinating and growing.

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3. Chemical method: In this method, chemicals called herbicides are often used to eradicate
weeds. Herbicides can be selective or non-selective. Selective herbicides specifically kill
particular weeds without affecting other crops. Examples are: 2, 4-D and Dalapon which
affects only the broad leaves of the weeds. On the other hand, non-selective herbicides kill
all plants. They may also be harmful to man. Therefore, care must be taken while applying
them.
4. Mechanical method: This involves the use of mechanical tools to physically remove
weeds by slashing, hoeing, ploughing and hand pulling or hand picking.
WEEK FIVE
Effects of Weed Control Methods
The various methods of weed control poses some effects on the environment. These are:
a. Pollution: The use of chemicals to kill weeds leads to air, water, and land pollution. The
chemicals contaminate the source of drinking water when it enters it. Smokes from
ploughing machine and tractors exhaust pollutes the air.
b. Physical destruction of crop plants: During the mowing of the garden pasture or weeds, the
crop plants get crushed down.
c. Livestock pasture contamination: The use of chemicals to control weeds makes the
poisonous chemicals in the pasture to kill the animals that feed on them
d. Destruction of crop leaves: The use of biological method of introducing insect Pest affects
the crops because the insects starts eating up the crop leaves when the weeds have been
removed.
e. Clean weeding: This method makes the soil to loose excess water due to sun-baking. It can
also lead to soil erosion if the farm becomes too open.

WEEK SIX
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECT PESTS
What is a pest?
A pest is any animal that eats and destroys crops either in the farm or in a store. Examples of
pests are: grasshopper, beetles, termites, caterpillars, crickets, weevils, snails, lizards, rats,
squirrels, rabbits, birds etc. pests can be grouped as: insect pests and non-insect pests.
Insect pests: These group of pests cause a lot of damages to the crops from its growing stage
to the storage time and place. Based on the type of damage done to the crops, insect pests are
classified according to the nature of their mouth parts: These are:
a. Piercing and sucking insects
b. Biting and chewing insects
c. Boring insects

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a. Piercing and Sucking Insects/Pest:

These class of insect’s pests have their mouth parts modified/shaped into a piercing and
sucking tube called proboscis. This pointed mouth part of insects helps it to penetrate into
the crop/plants tissue which enable them suck out the liquid content/sap. Examples of these
class of insect pests are: mealy bug, scale insect, aphids, and white flies. Furthermore, the
mandibles and maxillae are formed into piercing style/pattern too and usually enclosed in
a groove on the surface of a long thin labium, partly closed by the labrum. The insertion of
the mouth parts into the tissue of the plants causes loss of liquid sap. However, the damages
often caused by piercing and sucking insects are as follows:
• Loss of cell sap
• Stunted growth of plants
• Poor seeds production
• Infections due to injection of poisons by the insects
• Harboring of potential vectors of many diseases

b. Biting and chewing insects’ pests:

The mouth parts of these insects are well developed and adapted for biting and chewing of
plants tissues such as: seeds, leaves, fruits and flowers in the field or in storage. Examples
of these insects are: Grasshoppers, weevils, beetles, termites, locusts, caterpillars and
crickets. Each of these insects has the following mouth parts:
• The labrum: This is the upper lip part of the insect’s mouth.
• Labium: It is the lower part below the mouth of the insect. It is formed by the
fusion of the second maxillae to form a sensory pulp.
• Mandibles: This part appears in pair on each side of their mouths with cutting edges.
• Maxillae: This is the pair of sensory pulp found beside the mouth.
c. Boring Insect pests:
These class of insect pests burrow or make holes into the plant parts such as the leaf ribs,
fruits or seeds. They eat up the tissues and in the process destroys and reduces them to
powdering residue. Examples are bean/yam beetle, weevils and stem borers.
Pest can also be classified based on where they attack the crops. These includes:
1. Field pests: These class of pests attack the crops while they are in the farm. They do
so in various stages of growth of the crop plants ant its seeds. Examples are:
Grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, stem borers, fruit flies, moths, goat, sheep, bats,
squirrel and rodents etc.
2. Storage pests: They attack the crops in stores, barns, silo and causes huge damage.
Sometimes their attacks start in the field by laying of eggs which mature and hatches
while in the storage place. Examples: weevils, mice and rats.

WEEK EIGHT

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DAMAGES DONE BY THE CROP PESTS

1. Biting and chewing insect pests eat up the leaves and succulent stems of crop plants. This
affect photosynthetic process.
2. Boring insect pests burrow through the stems and seeds in store. To this effect, the nutritive
value of the seeds are reduced to waste and unpleasant flavor.
3. The flowers and fruits are sometimes eaten up, thereby affecting good fruit production.
4. Red boll worms of cotton plants lay their eggs around the cotton boll. The larvae develop
within the bolls and eat them up causing shading off the plant leaves.
5. The quality of cotton fiber is reduced as a result of cotton strainer
6. Weevils bore holes into grains and reduce the viability of infected seeds

WEEK NINE
Effects of Crop pests to Crops in the Field
1. Invasion of the crops by pests causes heavy crop failure
2. Low market value of infected seeds and vegetables
3. Low viability, that is, poor germination capacity of infected seeds.
4. Attack of pests causes stunted growth and defoliation of the crop plants
5. Infection with crop pathogens as in aphids.
6. It causes reduction in quantity and quality of the crops

METHODS OF PESTS CONTROL

Pests can often be controlled by three major methods. These are:
a. Physical method: This method involves the physical steps used in removing/ or destroying
pests with the help of mechanical tools. In physical method, pests can be controlled by:
• Hand picking
• Use of traps
• Fencing and wire netting to prevent the entrance of the animal pests.
• Burning to destroy the adult pests or larvae
• Storing of grains in air-tight containers to suffocate pests. E.g. weevils
b. Chemical method: This is the use of chemical called pesticides/insecticides to kill or
reduce the population of the insect pests and protects the crops from invasion and
destruction by the pests. Examples of such chemicals are: Dichloro Diphenyl Triphosphate
(DDT), Gamalin-2o, Aldrin-dust, and vertox 25, Stan f-35,e.t.c
c. Biological method: This involves the use of some certain animals called (predators) to
feed on the pests which quickly reduces their population. Examples of such predators are:
• Lady birds: This is used to reduce aphids population.
• Cats: This can be used to pursue and reduce the rats’ population very rapidly where
the pests attack yam, beans or rice in the store/barns.

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• Wasps preys on mealy bugs and so, it is used to destroy them.

• Chicken can be used to eradicate grasshoppers from vegetable garden.
Other method of pest control is
d. Cultural method: This can also be called Agronomic control method. In this method, the
farm environments is prepared in such a way that it will be less favorable for the
development of the pests. Cultural methods include
• Crop rotation
• Ploughing to bury eggs, larvae, of the insect pests.
• Use of resistant variety of crops.
• Timely harvesting of crops before they are infested by the storage pests.
• Early planting
• Timely and regular weeding to remove alternative hosts of certain insect pests
WEEK TEN
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION AND ITS IMPORTANCE
What is Agricultural production?
Agricultural production refers to all the activities involved in cultivation of crops, rearing of
animals and distribution and marketing of agricultural produce. It is also a means of providing
services aimed at economic empowerment through different agricultural ventures.
The term “production” is the process and methods of creating wealth. Production involves all the
economic activities that usually give room for creation of new goods and services to satisfy human
needs and wants.
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
The resources that are efficiently combined for the creation of wealth, goods and services are called
Factors of Production. The basic factors of production in agriculture includes: Land, labor, capital,
money, water and management.
LAND
Land is defined as the parts of the earth’s surface that is not covered by water. It is a free gift from
nature/God. Land in agriculture is a portion of the earth’s surface where production activities such
as growing of crops, rearing of animals, establishments of farmsteads, marketing and Agricultural
education (Extension) are carried out. It also includes soil, minerals, vegetation and water, etc.
Special features of land include:
1. It is a natural resource, that is, free gift of nature.
2. Land is immobile, that is, it is fixed.
3. The reward for land is RENT.
4. It is limited in supply; even when land is reclaimed from water bodies, it is equally lost to
both erosion and ocean surge.

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5. The quality of land can be improved

6. Land can be pledged as collateral for loans.
How to Improve the Value of Land
1. Addition of fertilizers or organic manure
2. Practicing land fallowing, that is, allowing the farm land to rest and regain nutrients
3. Weeding
4. Good drainage system and supply of irrigation
5. Supply of water and good access to road where necessary
USES OF LAND
1. For cultivation of both food crops and cash crops.
2. Rearing of animals
3. Forest development
4. For establishment of fish ponds, wide life conservation and
5. As cultural security over agricultural loans.
LABOUR
Labour is man’s physical and mental exertions channeled towards production. It covers all forms
of human effort applied in production of goods and services
FEATURES OF LABOUR
1. The reward for labour is salary/wages.
2. It is mobile and cannot be used anyhow
3. It converts other natural resources into usable assets/products.
4. Labour can be skilled, unskilled or semi-skilled
TYPES OF LABOUR
a. Skilled labour: This is often acquired through education, training and experience. It
provides expertise through the above mentioned steps of training.
b. Semi-skilled labour: Acquired through fair education. The person must be literate enough
to understand simple farm operations.
c. Unskilled labour: They rely mainly on physical strength and fitness.
SOURCES OF LABOUR
1. Family labour
2. Commercial labour
3. Personal labour
4. Paid labour

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CAPITAL
This is a kind of wealth that is set aside for the creation of further wealth. It could be money,
pledges or commodities. It includes all assets made by man to aid him in the production of goods
and services. In agriculture, capital includes:
1. Tools and machineries such as cutlass, hoes, shovel, building, tractors and ploughs, etc.
2. Farm inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides/herbicides.
3. Money E.g. personal savings, borrowed funds and collateral items
4. Loans and subsidies
FEATURES OF CAPITALS
1. The reward for capital is INTEREST
2. Capital can appreciate or depreciate with time or usage
3. It can be used to acquire other capital like land and labour
4. It is a stock of assets used in production
TYPES OF CAPITAL
1. Fixed Capital: This kind of capital is often put to a continuous use in production. They are
not used up easily. They include machines such as tractors, vehicles, buildings etc.
2. Working or Variable Capital: It is a type of capital that can be used up. Examples are;
Feeds, drugs, agrochemicals, vaccines, fertilizers, seeds and cash. It facilitates the
expansion of the enterprise. Sources of capital includes: banks, cooperate societies,
government agencies and personal savings.
WATER
Note that no meaningful agricultural venture survives without the use of water in both crop
and animal production
1. Crop Production:
a. Water is used in soaking the soil for quick germination and proper growth of the crop
plants.
b. It is used for dissolution and absorption of nutrients
c. It provides suitable humidity and adequate temperature for good yield
d. Cultural control of weeds and pests
e. Application of liquid fertilizer and stabilization of forest.
2. Animal Production:
a. Water is needed for establishment of fish ponds
b. Feeding of live stocks
c. Application of drugs and vaccines
d. Sanitation in animal houses
e. Provision of hydro power

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MONEY
Money is anything that is generally accepted as a means of exchanging goods and services. It could
be a piece of precious metal, paper, or other commodities. It used to be portable, durable and easily
recognized by all. Money sometimes is regarded as parts of capital. Money can be used to acquire
land, pay for labour, purchase of seedlings and other farm inputs.
MANAGEMENT OR ENTRPRENEURSHIP
This is the function of combining the other factors of production; Land, labour and Capital to
achieve a desired objective. Management functions are performed by a person or group of persons
who coordinate, organize and control other resources in producing goods and services. Such a
person is called a MANAGER or an ENTREPRENEUR. The reward for management or
entrepreneurship is profit. A manager must possess good leadership qualities so as to influence
output and determine the quality of goods and services.
Management requires free flow of information concerning government policies, sources of capital
and change in demand of technology.
Functions of a manger include:
a. Organization
b. Administration
c. Production
d. Marketing and
e. Evaluation such as
• Securing suitable land for farming
• Organizing the farm enterprise (business)
• Coordinates and control the various activities in the farm units
• Plans the farm operations
• Makes short- and long-term decisions
• Handles all labour relations
• Evaluate and determines the progress of the farm
• Pays the wages of the workers, keeps farm records, handles all budgets and
controls other factors of production

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