CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL

When a soil mass is subjected to a compressive force there is a

decrease in volume of soil mass.

The reduction in volume of a saturated soil mass due to

expulsion of water from the voids under the action of steady
static pressure is called consolidation.

Types of Consolidation: 1. Primary consolidation

2. Secondary consolidation

2
1. Primary Consolidation:

It is the reduction in volume due to expulsion of water from

the voids. Expulsion of water from the voids depends on
permeability of soil and it is therefore time dependent.

2. Secondary Consolidation:

When all the water is squeezed out of the voids and primary
consolidation is completed, further reduction in volume of
soil is called secondary consolidation. It may be due to plastic
deformation of the soil particles or some other reasons. The
value is however very small and commonly neglected.
3
 The consolidation process

Pore water
Voids
(incompressible)

Skeletal Material
(incompressible) Solid

Initial State

4
 The consolidation process
∆σ
Pore water
Voids Voids
(incompressible)

Skeletal Material
(incompressible) Solid Solid

Initial State
+
Water
5
Deformed State
6
 The consolidation process

Deformation of saturated soil occurs by reduction of pore space

& the squeezing out of pore water. The water can only escape
through the pores which for fine-grained soils are very small

SPRING ANALOGY FOR PRIMARY CONSOLIDAITON

∆σ'
∆σ is applied to a saturated soil mass,
When a pressure '∆σ
the solid particles and water in the voids share the
pressure.

∆σ = ∆σ'
∆σ + U
7
 The consolidation process
Deformation of saturated soil occurs by reduction of pore space
& the squeezing out of pore water. The water can only escape
through the pores which for fine-grained soils are very small

water squeezed out

water
Effective soil
skeleton “spring”

8
 The consolidation process
∆σ

water

Instantaneously no water can flow, and hence there can be

no change in volume.

9
 The consolidation process

Instantaneously no water can flow, and hence there can be no

change in volume.
For 1-D conditions this means

10
 The consolidation process

Instantaneously no water can flow, and hence there can be no

change in volume.
For 1-D conditions this means
− ∆e C log (σ ′F / σ ′I )
Dezz = Dev = = = 0 (1)
1 + e 1 + e
11
and hence Ds´ = 0 instantaneously
 The consolidation process

From the principle of effective stress we have

∆σ = ∆σ´ + ∆u (2)
and thus instantaneously we must have
∆σ = ∆u
12
• ∆σ'=
∆σ The pressure shared by soil particles (Effective
stress)
• U = Pressure shared by water (Hydrostatic pressure/Pore
water pressure)
• Just after application of pressure the entire pressure is
carried by water.
• Pressure developed in water, known as excess hydrostatic
pressure (U) is equal to the applied pressure.
• Pressure taken by the solid particles (effective stress = ∆σ')
∆σ
is zero

∆σ = U ... at time t = 0

13

The excess hydrostatic pressure slowly decreases as water
escapes from the voids; the applied pressure is transferred
from the water to the solid particles.

∆σ= ∆σ'
∆σ U +∆σ
∆σ ... at any time t

Eventually all the pressure is transferred to the soil

particles as an effective stress, and the excess water
Pressure becomes zero. Thus

∆σ = ∆σ'
∆σ ... at time t = tf

As the effective stress increases due to dissipation of excess

hydrostatic pressure, the volume of the soil decreases. The
decrease in volume is generally expressed, as change is
14
void ratio.
• Decrease in volume of sandy soil (coarse grained) under the
loads of buildings and structures occurs as soon as these
loads are applied due to the greater permeability. The
resulting settlement is called immediate settlement, a major
portion of which is completed during the construction
period.

• Buildings founded on cohesive (fine-grained) soils due to

low permeability settles for a long time at a continuously
decreasing rate before becoming stationary. This long-term
compression of cohesive soils under a constant steady load
15
is called consolidation settlement.
Load ~ settlement
behaviour of fine and
coarse grained soils in
terms construction
stages and
corresponding
settlement

16
Consolidation Test

17
18
Consolidation or Oedometer test

• Apparatus is shown in the last figure.

• Soil sample confined in a ring is placed in the consolidation cell
between top and bottom porous stones.
• Internal diameter of the ring (or diameter of sample) ranges from 50
mm to 100 mm.
• Thickness of sample should be as small as possible to reduce side
friction, a minimum thickness of 20 mm is usually used.
• Cell is connected to a water reservoir so as to keep the sample fully
saturated through out the test.
• Dial gauge is used to measure the change in thickness as
consolidation takes place.
• Loads are applied to the sample in equal increments ranging from a
pressure of 0.5 kg/cm2 to 8 kg/cm2.
• Each load increment is applied for 24 hours, and the compression of
the sample is measured. The readings of dial gauge are taken at
intervals of 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes 2, 4 8 and 24 hours.
• After 24 hours next load increment is applied, the usual range of19load
increments are 0.5, 1,2,4,8 kg/cm2.
• After consolidation under the final load increment, the load is
reduced to one- fourth of the final load and allowed to stand for 24
hours. The sample takes water and swells. The load is finally
reduced to the initial setting load and kept for 24 hours and the
final dial gauge reading is taken to rebound.
• Immediately after complete unloading, the ring with the sample is
taken out. The excess water is dried with a blotting paper. The
weight of the ring and sample is taken. The sample is dried in an
oven for 24 hours and final moisture content is determined.
Important parameters determined from the consolidation test are
1. Determination of Void Ratio:

Determination of void ratio at various load increments is required to

plot curve between the void ratio and effective stress

Vs = HsA
γs Ws
Vs G= =
Hs = γw Vsγw
A Ws
Vs =
Ws Gγw
Hs =
GγwA 20
Hs = Height of solids
Vs = Volume of solids
Ws = Dry wt. Of sample (At the end of test by oven drying)
G = Specific gravity of solids
A = X-sectional area of specimen
γw = Unit weight of water

Now Vv V − Vs
e= =
Vs Vs
V=HxA H = total height of sample at any time.

HA − Hs A A( H − Hs )
e= =
Hs A A Hs
H − Hs
e=
Hs
Initial void ratio at the start of the test

Ho − Hs
eo =
Hs 21
Ho = Initial height of the sample
H = Ho - ∆H
Where ∆H = Change in thickness between any two loading stages,
and is determined from the difference in readings of the dial gauge.

Determination of mv:
mv = Coefficient of volume decrease or coefficient of compressibility

∆e
mv = −
∆p (1 + e1 )

∆e = Change in void ratio

∆p = Change in applied pressure
el = Initial void ratio
It is used to find total settlement

Compressibility (av):

∆e
av = −
∆p 22
 • It is the rate of change of void ratio with corresponding change in
pressure.
• - Ve sign indicate decrease in void ratio with increase of pressure.

Co-efficient of Consolidation Cv:

τv H 2
Cv = = cm2 / sec, ft2 /year
t
It is used to measure rate of settlement

Compression Index (Cc):

Slope of straight-line portion.
∆e
Cc =
∆ log 10 p
e1 − e 2
Cc =
log10 p 2 − log10 p1
e1 − e 2
Cc =
 p2 
log 10  
 p1  23
24
25
Imperical relationship for Cc
Cc = 0.009 (L.L -10)

Final Settlement:
 ∆e 
∆H =  H
1 + e1 
Vv V − Vs V
e= = = −1
Vs Vs Vs
V
1+ e =
Vs
Vs (l + e) =V
Vs (l + e) =AH (1)

Differentiating Eq. 1 w.r.t. e

dH
A = Vs (2)
de 26
 From Eq. 1 and 2

dH
A (l + e)=AH
de

H de ∆e
dH = or ∆H = H
1+ e 1+ e

Determination of Zero and 100% Consolidation:

In practice only the primary consolidation is taken into consideration.

The problem is to determine when and where in the time -
consolidation graph the points of zero and 100% consolidation are
located.

27
Taylor's Square Root of time fitting method:
In this method, all the dial readings are plotted on the ordinate axis and
the corresponding square root of time on the abscissa as shown:

28
Taylor observed, that on the theoretical √t ~ percent consolidation
curve a straight line exists to beyond 50% consolidation, while at
90% consolidation the abscissa is 1.15 times the abscissa of the
straight line produced. Using the Taylor's method, the straight-
line t-t is drawn which coincide best the early part of the
experimental curve. The intersection of the t-t line with the
ordinate axis yield, the 'corrected' point of zero percent
consolidation. Then a straight-line t1-t1 is drawn which at all the
points has abscissa 1.15 times as great as that of the 1st line (t-t).
This intersection of the 2nd line with the experimental curve is
taken as the 90% consolidation point. Its time value is t90. One
ninth of the vertical distance between the corrected zero point and
90% point is added below the 90% point to give the 100%
consolidation point of the primary consolidation.

29
Terzaghi's Theory of one Dimensional Consolidation:
Assumptions:
Terzaghi's theory for the determination of rate of consolidation of a
saturated soil mass subjected to a static steady load is based on the
following assumptions:
1. The soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The soil is fully saturated.
3. The soil particles and water in the voids are incompressible.
4. The consolidation occurs due to expulsion of water from the voids.
5. The co-efficient of permeability of the soil has the same value at all
the points and remains constant during the entire period of
consolidation.
6. Darcy's law is valid throughout the consolidation process.
7. Soil is laterally confined and the consolidation takes place only in the
axial direction.
8. Drainage of water occurs in the vertical direction only.
9. The time lag in consolidation is entirely due to the low permeability
of the soil.
10.There is a unique relationship between the void ratio and the
effective stress and this relationship remains constant during the
load increment. In other words, the co-efficient of compressibility
and the co-efficient of volume change are constant.
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Mathematical representation of Terzaghi's Theory:

 2 π Cvt 
∞ 2
8 1
∆H = mv∆pH 1 − 2 ∑ e − (2nH ) 2 
 π n =0 2 n + 1 4 H 

∆H = Reduction in thickness of compressible layer

(consolidation settlement) after any time "t".
my = Co-efficient of compressibility
or

Co-efficient of volume decrease == ∆e/∆

∆P (l/l +el)
∆e = Change in void ratio due to change in pressure ∆P
el = Initial void ratio
∆P = The change in applied pressure
H = Thickness of compressible layer.

k
Cv = Co-efficient of consolidation =
γ w mv 31
 K = Co-efficient of permeability of soil
γw = Density of water
t= Time for consolidation
n= Any whole number depending on the time encountered.

For long term consolidation t = ∞

Therefore final settlement or ultimate settlement

∆H = mv ∆P H

Degree 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
of
Consol
idation
(U)
Time .008 0.031 0.071 0.126 0.197 0.287 0.403 0.567 0.848 0.9313
factor
(τv)

Change in thickness at any time ' t'

Degree of consolidation “U” =
Final change in thickness
32
Calculation of Settlement Due to One-
Dimensional Primary Consolidation
Consider the system as shown in fig.

Thickness = H

Cross- sectional area = A

Existing average effective overburden pressure = Po

Increase of pressure = ∆p

Let the primary settlement be S.

Thus, the change in volume can be given by

∆V = Vo –V1 = H . A -(H -S) . A = S . A

where V0 and V1 are the initial and final volumes, respectively

33
However, the change in total volume is equal to the change
in the volume of voids, ∆Vv. Thus

∆V = S X A = Vv0 – Vv1 = ∆vv

34
 (Vv0 & Vv1 are initial & final volumes of voids)

∆Vv =∆e Vs ∆e is change in void ratio

V0 AH
Vs = = e0 is initial void ratio at volume V0
1 + e0 1 + e0

Thus from above Eqs.

AH
∆ V = S X A = ∆ e Vs = ∆e
1 + e0

∆e
S=H
1 + e0 35
For Normally Consolidated Clays Exhibiting a Linear E-Log P Curve

∆e = Cc[log (po + ∆p) -log po]

where Cc= slope of the e-log p plot and is defined as the

compression index Substitution of Eq. (7.24) in Eq. (7.23)
gives

Cc H  p 0 + ∆p 
S= log 
1 + e0  p0 

For a thicker clay layer, it is more accurate if the layer is

divided into sub-layers, and calculations for settlement are
made separately for each layer. Thus, the total settlement
for the entire layer can be given as

C H  p + ∆ p  
S = ∑  c i log 0 ( i ) ( i )

 1 + e0  p 
 o ( i )  36
 Where,

Hi = thickness of sub-layer (i)

PO(i)=Initial average effective overburden pressure for sub-layer (i)
∆P(i) = increase of vertical pressure for sub-layer (i)

In over consolidated clays (Figure), for po + ∆p ≤ pc field e~log p

variation will be along the line cb, the slope of which will be
approximately equal to that for the laboratory rebound curve.
The slope of the rebound curve, Cs is referred to as the swell
index. So
∆e = Cs [log (po + ∆p) -log po]

And we get the following Eqs.

Cc H  p 0 + ∆p 
S= log 
1 + e0  p0 
If p0 + ∆p > pc

Cc H pc Cc H  p0 + ∆p 
S= log + log 
1 + e0 p0 1 + e0
37
 pc 