DOI: 10.15642/JIIS.2020.14.1.

163-186
A Model of Islamic Teacher Education for Social Justice

A MODEL OF ISLAMIC TEACHER EDUCATION

FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE IN INDONESIA
A Critical Pedagogy Perspective
Raihani | UIN Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau – Indonesia
[email protected]
Abstract: This paper proposes a model for teacher
preparation in the context of Islamic education using a
critical pedagogy perspective. The constantly increasing
social injustice combined with sectarian frictions has placed
Indonesian society in a fragile situation and, it, therefore,
needs a closer attention, and more so in the field of
education. This paper argues that reforms in education
should begin from the very vital component of education,
i.e. teacher since teacher contributes significantly to the
development of students in almost all aspects. Also, the
traditional approach of instruction does not seem able to
provide solutions for most of the social problems, even
though Islamic teachings strongly endorse equality, justice,
and respect for differences. This conceptual paper,
therefore, develops a model for reforms in teacher
education starting from philosophical foundation of
teaching to critical pedagogy practices. In this paper, this
critical pedagogy approach is argued to enable teachers to
become change agents for promoting education for social
justice.
Keywords: Critical pedagogy, teacher education, Islamic
university, social justice

Introduction
With more than 250 million populations, Indonesia is made the
largest archipelagic nation in the world. It consists of more than
13,000 islands – large and small. It is a richly diverse country in terms
of ethnicity, culture, and religion or faith. Muslims constitute the
majority among other religious believers including Christians, Hindus,
Buddhists and Confucians. For long, Indonesia has been described as a
country with a good record of diversity and tolerance. Yet, this does

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not negate events of which this reputation was somewhat undermined.

Ethnic and religious conflicts have sparked between groups and
attracted serious attention. In the post-reform era, i.e. after 1998, when
openness and democratization have been applied in both social and
political spheres, the situation has even been worse as the rise of
identity politics – segregating people of differences more – has been
intensifying. 1 In addition to this ethnic and religious diversity,
Indonesian people are also diverse in terms of socio-economic
backgrounds. The Gini Ratio remains high in 2016, which is 0.394
indicating a wide gap between the rich and the poor despite efforts by
government to improve people’s welfare.2
To some extent, such a diversity has now created or implied
problems. One of the problems, as this paper is concerned, is social
injustice in the education context. Raihani has conducted about this
issue in different school settings and found that not every student is
treated equally. 3 For example, students of minority religions
experience discrimination in the access to their religious teachings and
deprivation from their religious practices at schools. By minority here, I
do not mean the smaller number of religious population in the whole
context of Indonesia, but minority in particular places such as Muslims
in Central Kalimantan or even in a more micro school context.4 In a
public school in Batam, the principal with the approval of teachers
issued a policy to restrict the number of students from a particular
ethnic and religious background. Another example of social injustice
found in school is the created differentiating image of certain
academic streams. The Natural Sciences stream is considered more
prestigious with its students described as more diligent and smarter
ones. In contrast, the Social Sciences stream and its students are

1 Smith Claire, The Roots of Violence and Prospects for Reconciliation: A Case Study of Ethnic
Conflict in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2005), pp. 5-
10; Chris Wilson, Ethno-Religious Violence in Indonesia: From Soil to God (London:
Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2008), p. 25.
2 The World Bank, Indonesia’s Rising Divide (Jakarta: The World Bank, 2016), p. 3.

3 Raihani, Creating Multicultural Citizens: A Portrayal of Contemporary Indonesian Education

(New York: Routledge, 2014), pp. 85-107; Lyn Parker and Chang Yau Hoon,
“Secularity, Religion and the Possibilities for Religious Citizenship,” Asian Journal of
Social Science, 41 (2013), pp. 150-174.
4 Raihani, “Education for Multicultural Citizens in Indonesia: Policies and Practices,”

Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 48, 6 (2018), pp. 992-1009.

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regarded as a second class group. Students of this disadvantaged group

not only suffer from differentiation by teachers but also from parents.5
As a university teacher at an Islamic education faculty, I have also seen
anecdotal evidence of unjust attitudes of students towards differences
and their experiences of being discriminated. In one of my classes,
students were not only composited of Muslims, but also a couple of
Christians. In my observation, when discussing about religious
concepts and the non-Muslims were asked to speak of such concepts
of their faith, Muslims students always laughed and mocked them.
Another anecdotal evidence also suggests that discrimination not only
happens to students of religious minority, but also to those of ethnic
backgrounds which are different from that of people in power. The
question “where are you from” to students had become an indication
of discriminating practices in academic and administrative services.
In a macro context, namely the current Indonesian society, social
injustice and discrimination remain a chronical problem that can
constantly be seen in a day-to-day life. Both injustice and
discrimination can either be driven by structure or culture. Structural
injustice and discrimination represent an unfair treatment of groups
and individuals by the system of governance and administration such
as the partiality of law towards marginalized groups or individuals6
and the deprivation of religious minority access to religious facilities in
schools. 7 Cultural injustice, which is more like relational injustice,
refers to unfair treatments by people to other because of cultural
differences.8 This happens without supports from the structure, but
often becomes part of the culture of a society and, hence, forms a
hidden racism or ethnocentrism. Some example include the view of
parents, students and teachers towards school streams (Natural versus
Social Sciences),9 the erection of worshipping places of minorities,10

5 Raihani, Creating Multicultural Citizens, pp. 87-88.

6 Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1990), p. 26.
7 Raihani, “Minority Right to Attend Religious Education in Indonesia,” Al-Jami'ah:

Journal of Islamic Studies, 53, 1 (2015), pp. 1-26.

8 Sharon Gewirtz, “Rethinking Social Justice: A Conceptual Analysis,” J. Demaine

(ed.), Sociology of Education Today (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 49-64.

9 Raihani, Creating Multicultural Citizens, pp. 179-181.

10 Melissa Crouch, “Religious Regulations in Indonesia: Failing Vulnerable Groups,”

Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs, 43, 2 (2009), pp. 53-103.

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and the perspective and treatment towards Papuan people by other

Indonesian people. Often, cultural injustice is crystalized and
transformed into a more structural one. For instance, the case of Ahok
who was accused of blasphemy represents the transformation of the
negative perception of Chinese minority at the community level into
structural injustice and discrimination. 11 More examples of this
phenomenon in the context of Indonesian politics and society today
can be named. In essence, all the issues suggest that there social justice
in various kinds remain pervasive in our society. Not rarely, religion, or
interpretation of its teachings, is made as justification for unjust and
discriminative views and actions towards other human beings.
Based on the above worrying phenomena, I would like to propose
a model of critical approach to teaching practices at the teacher
education context. This approach is significantly important for the
Islamic education context in Indonesia because: first, teacher is a vital
component of the whole process of education as s/he contributes to
the development of students; second, traditional approach of
instruction is not able to provide solutions for most of the social
problems in which students will be faced; third, teacher education is a
vehicle for preparing teachers so that what happens at the school level
is very possibly as a result of the preparation process, and fourth,
Islamic teachings strongly endorse equality, justice, and respect for
differences which the proposed model is going to promote. The
objective of this paper is to invite readers to ponder upon the
proposed model, discuss it in academic contexts, and when necessary
refine it in order to help the efforts in minimizing social injustice in
educational practices. I will start with a brief discussion on the history
of Islamic university in Indonesia, a portrayal of teacher education
followed by reviews on theories of social reproduction and critical
pedagogy. I then propose a new model of critical pedagogy in teacher
education along with discussions and justifications.

11 Chang Yau Hoon, Chinese Identity in Post-Suharto Indonesia: Culture, Politics and Media
(Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2008), p. 8; Daniel Peterson, Islam, Blasphemy, and
Human Rights in Indonesia: The Trial of Ahok (New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 2020),
pp. 1-31.

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Islamic University in Indonesia12

The first Islamic higher educational institution established in
Indonesia was Sekolah Tinggi Islam (STI) or Islamic College in Jakarta
in July 1945.13 Since the focus of the nation at that time was on
defending its independence from the recapture by Dutch, STI activities
in Jakarta. The newly born institution was moved to Yogyakarta
following the move of the country’s capital city from Jakarta to
Yogyakarta. The re-inception of STI in Yogyakarta occurred on April,
10, 1946. The inauguration was marked by the speech by Mohammad
Hatta, the newly appointed first vice president of the republic in which
he conveyed a message about the characteristics of Islamic university
or Sifat Sekolah Tinggi Islam. Two years later, STI transformed into
Universitas Islam Indonesia (UII) or Indonesian Islamic University, a
university which still exists and flourishes today making it as one of the
best Islamic universities in Indonesia. UII until now remains a private
university.
The increasing number of pesantren/madrasah graduates had
resulted in a specific demand for the establishment of Islamic faculties.
This demand was then responded through the transformation of an
Islamic faculty within UII in 1950 into Perguruan Tinggi Islam Negeri
(PTAIN) or State Islamic University in Yogyakarta. This new university
consisted of three faculties, i.e. Tarbiyah (Islamic education), Peradilan
(Islamic court system), and Dakwah (Islamic mission). In 1960s,
following the popular acceptance of PTAIN marked by the constantly
increasing numbers of new students, the government expanded
PTAIN into Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) or State Institute for
Islamic Studies, which covered three faculties, i.e. Islamic theology,
Islamic law, and Islamic education. In Jakarta, another IAIN was
established which had the faculties of Islamic education and Arabic
Literature. Since then, many more IAINs were established in various
provinces across Indonesia. In 1970s, there were 14 IAINs established
in the country.
12 This section was adapted with changes from my paper published in Raihani,
“Teacher Education and Multiculturalism in a State Islamic University in Indonesia: A
Preliminary Analysis of Its Curriculum and Instruction of Multicultural Education,” Z.
Seyma Altin (ed.). Yüksek Din Öğretimi (Istanbul: Center for Values Education, 2018),
pp. 685-700.
13 Hasbullah, Sejarah Pendidikan Islam di Indonesia; History of Islamic Education in Indonesia

(Jakarta: Rajawali Press, 1995), pp. 127-140; Mahmud Yunus, Sejarah Pendidikan Islam di
Indonesia (Jakarta: Mutiara, 1979), pp. 205-265.

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IAIN was one of the targeted universities for madrasah graduates

who particularly aspired to further their education in Islamic
disciplines such as Islamic education, Islamic law, Islamic missionary,
Islamic theology and so forth. IAIN graduates usually worked in the
relevant religious sectors. For instance, graduates of the Islamic
education faculty worked in madrasah as teachers, while those of the
Islamic law faculty worked in Islamic courts. On one hand, every year,
more graduates came and relevant job opportunities got smaller. On
the other hand, the increasing worries about the dichotomy of
knowledge – sacred (Islamic) and secular – had overwhelmed Muslim
thinkers around the globe including those in Indonesia, whilst IAIN
had so far indicated no but little efforts to overcome such problems.
Therefore, the early 2000s witnessed the transformation of several
IAINs into Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN)s or State Islamic
University in several areas including Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Malang, Riau
and Makassar. UINs are now allowed to open faculties other than
religious ones. Some of them established faculties of science and
technology, animal husbandry, medicine, psychology and so forth to
cater the needs of a larger society. What differentiates UINs from
general universities in Indonesia has been the claimed integration of
Islamic and secular/general knowledge in their curricula, and it has still
been an ongoing effort to develop and achieve a relatively fixed model
of the integration. Currently, there are 11 UINs in Indonesia.

Islamic Teacher Education

As described briefly above, Islamic education faculty is one of the
first established within the Islamic university, and in later development,
it has become one of the most intended faculties in it. It is not
surprising to see that this faculty is the biggest one in the context of
Islamic universities or institutes. The reason is that the number of both
applicants and students for this faculty has steadily increased over time
in almost all faculties of this kind nationally. Under the newly
transformed State Islamic Universities, the opening of new study
programs within this faculty, which is not limited to the traditional
Islamic Religion Education (Pendidikan Agama Islam) and Arabic
Language Teaching (Pendidikan Bahasa Arab), has attracted more
students to come. Students can study Mathematics Education,
Chemistry Education, Indonesian Language Education and so forth in
the faculty, which was due to this expansion named the faculty of

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Islamic Education and Teacher Training. The increasing number of

applicants for this faculty has also been influenced by the increasing
demand for Islamic teachers in schools and madrasah. In other words,
the faculty of Islamic Education promises employment in the school
and education contexts, perhaps, more convincingly than other
faculties under the banner of Islamic universities, institutes and
colleges, be they public or private.
The curriculum of the faculty of Islamic education (this term
should cover all “names” attributed to this faculty in many Islamic
universities, institutes and colleges across Indonesia), at least as it was
observed in one of the universities by Sukiman,14 has changed more
than five times over more than the last three decades. He analyzed that
after the year 2004 the curriculum of the faculty was developed by
both the central government through the Department of Religious
Affairs and the faculty itself. This means the faculty claimed a larger
authority to design and develop the curriculum, whilst having to follow
general guidelines and standards set by the central government.
Another note he made is that the number of course credits students to
complete in the post-2004 curriculum is fewer than before, namely
144-156 credits for the whole course. This significantly eased the
burden from students who wish to accomplish their study in four
years. This curriculum (after 2004 but before 2013) is named
“Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi” (KBK) or Competency Based
Curriculum.
One important dimension of the curriculum that Sukiman did not
elaborate further is the KBK curriculum orientation, which is to
emphasize more on certain competencies students to master. The
introduction of the KBK curriculum by the government in 2004 can
be seen as a massive curriculum change which had to be implemented
in all levels of schooling from primary to tertiary. This curriculum is a
correction to the previous one which was considered to have failed to
develop clearly standardized competencies for students to master.
Using a scientific approach, this 2004 curriculum defined competency
as an observable phenomenon in a form of smart and responsible

14 Sukiman, “Perkembangan Kurikulum Jurusan Pendidikan Agama Islam (PAI)

Fakultas Tarbiyah UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta Periode 1980-2005,” Jurnal
Pendidikan Agama Islam, 4, 2 (2009), pp. 99-119.

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actions.15 The curriculum was highly oriented for students to achieve

vocational skills based on knowledge and values. In teaching and
learning, it, therefore, puts a strong emphasis on classroom-based
assessment to evaluate how far students have mastered certain
competencies using the Audience, Behavior, Condition, and Degree
(ABCD) platform.
The above change in the curriculum paradigm had implications on
teacher education in Islamic education faculties, or at least one faculty
that I have been working in. First, there were socializations through
seminars and workshops by the faculty leaders as a result of their
learning in Jakarta that students of the faculty need to demonstrate
ability in mastering pedagogical competencies which were defined
narrowly as teaching skills. Second, as a consequence, subjects deemed
to have not facilitated to the achievement of such teaching skills were
omitted from the curriculum. This included traditional, but important,
subjects such as Logics, Sociology, Anthropology and so forth. Third,
pedagogical subjects were added to include those even often
overlapping each other. As a result, in my observation, student teachers
were adequately equipped with skills of how to teach a particular
content of curriculum in a mechanistic fashion, but often lack of
critical thinking of why, for example, a particular method used for a
specific content. Moreover, they often failed to bring social and
cultural realities in classroom. To them, what most important was how
to be pedagogically correct.
As a logical consequence, in my observation, students’ research
interest for their final assignment in this faculty was mostly focused on
how to examine a teacher’s use of a certain method of teaching in
classroom. They problematized low performance of students as a
gateway to put forward such a mechanistic pedagogical topic to study
in research. They used pedagogical tips explaining “A to Z” steps in
using the methods of teaching rather than a theoretical underpinning
behind such a method. After that, they used such tips as standards in a
form of their research operational concept to measure the investigated
teacher against them. They concluded whether or not this teacher
complied with their “theoretical standards” of teaching. With a few
exceptions, this is typical research conducted by student teachers at the
faculty, which reflects its curriculum orientation. The process of
15 Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional, Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi
(http://www.puskur.or.id/) (accessed on 24 December 2003).

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teaching and learning was considered as a standalone event separated

from the real life. Although the KBK curriculum considered highly life
skills, the translation of competencies in classroom was limited to such
a mechanistic way of thinking and action.
In fact, through the Presidential Regulation Number 8 Year 2012,
the government introduced new guidelines for curriculum
development called Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia (KKNI)
or the Indonesian National Qualification Framework. This curriculum
paradigm provides a larger authority for the university to develop
curriculum that corresponds to the needs of graduates in the current
context. Unfortunately, it has not helped significantly since the
practiced development of the curriculum, as I observed,16 did not
really follow the guidelines. Due to the complexities of the
recommended development process, the practices commonly started
upside down which is from the selection of subjects (mata kuliah) to
the design of study areas (bahan kajian) and graduate profiles, not the
way around. Therefore, the outcomes of this new approach to
curriculum development have not suggested an improvement in
classroom as it has become good on paper only.

Cultural Reproduction and Critical Pedagogy in Teacher

Education
The above observation of the curriculum and practices in Islamic
teacher education can predict that graduates of the faculty will hardly
possibly be able to bring social realities into their classroom teaching
practices. They may consider what happens in classroom as something
independent from society, and deliberately create classroom as a place
of the imparting of “heavenly” knowledge. Also, they may be
uncritical towards social inequalities and injustices that have
increasingly occurred nowadays in society as they are obsessed with
mechanistic pedagogies to accomplish teaching responsibilities. In
several classroom discussions with my students, I found that they were
insensitive to issues of, for example, social inequalities entailing the
phenomenon of the privatization of education. They praised highly
the mushrooming numbers of Islamic integrated schools and the
religious educational programs as a manifestation of Islamic

16 In 2014, I was assigned as the head of curriculum development unit in the faculty
who was responsible to develop the faculty’s curriculum guidelines. The curriculum of
each study program is the responsibility of every program leaders and lecturers.

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revivalism. They hardly think of the connection of school education

with social issues and problems.
In fact, in connecting education with society, there are several
theories of the sociology of education relevant to mention here. First,
the structural functionalist theory views education facilitates both
reservation and transmission of social values and norms through
schooling. School curriculum, therefore, provides students with a set
of learning experiences that enable them to function according to what
society requires. This implies that students are passive recipients in the
process of education who will accept social conformity and not be
able to make meaning for themselves.17 Second, Giddens et al.18 list
credentialism as one influential perspective in the sociology of
education where credentials in the form of diplomas or certificates are
more important than the content of an official curriculum. Such
diplomas are needed for securing jobs, even though they are often not
relevant to the work involved.
Third, a critical or Marxist theory uncovers another side of
education by exploring the role of teacher in reproducing social
inequalities. School is not viewed as a neutral place for teachers and
students to interact and produce knowledge functional in society, but
as a venue where teachers’ and students’ interaction represents power
and knowledge. Classroom portrays social classes and inequalities and
then reproduces them.19 The mentioned social reproduction works
through the hidden curriculum, which means that “students from
different social class backgrounds are provided different types of
education, both in terms of curricular materials and the kinds of
interactions in which they are engaged with teachers.”20 Fourth, as
explained in Giddens et al., Bourdieu’s view on the role of school in
social inequalities differs from the Marxist theory that strictly and
directly defines school as reproducing social inequalities. In his view,
social inequalities occur because of certain cultural capitals that each

17 Anthony Giddens, Mitchell Duneier, Richard P Appelbaum and Deborah Carr,

Introduction to Sociology (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2012), p. 21.
18 Ibid., p. 461.

19 Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society and

Culture (London: Sage, 1990), pp. 6-10.

20 Henry Giroux and Anthony N. Penna, “Social Education in the Classroom: The

Dynamics of the Hidden Curriculum,” Theory and Research in Social Education, 7, 1 (1979),
pp. 21-24.

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student brings from home to school. In his theory of cultural

reproduction, school does not support and teach equal opportunity
and social justice as it is a place where most of a culture’s dominant
discourses are passed on to pupils . The cultural capital – forms of
knowledge, education, competences, the advantages and disadvantages
that people have as a part of life experiences, peer relationships, and
family backgrounds21 – that school value is most of the time different
from that valued by people in their own communities. In a school
where pupils come from different backgrounds, the cultural capital of
the school is not equally available to them, and is usually the culture of
the economically and culturally advantaged or privileged groups in the
community. Thus, certain, mostly dominant, cultures are reproduced in
school, which then lead to social inequalities.
The above sociological perspectives reveal the close relationship
between education and society. Classroom can be described as a
miniature of society around the school, and divorcing it from the living
society is to miss the central point of education. School has to be
transformative in a way that it contributes to the betterment of society,
narrowing the gap of inequalities and minimizing social injustice and
its impacts. The current shape of Islamic teacher education as depicted
above unfortunately unlikely equip student teachers with this
awareness. The bold emphasis on mechanistic pedagogies, as both the
curriculum and my teaching experiences suggest, take them away from
developing critical thinking over social inequalities that happen in the
Indonesian multicultural society as indicated early in the introduction.
This situation resembles what Bartolomé22 says about the condition
of the United States’ teacher education as follows:
Gaining access to and actively creating methods and materials for
the classroom is certainly an important step towards effective
teaching. However, this practical focus far too often occurs
without examining teachers’ own assumptions, values, and beliefs
and how this ideological posture informs, often unconsciously,
their perceptions and actions when working with linguistic-
minority and other politically, socially, and economically
subordinated students.

21 Pierre Bourdieu, “The Forms of Capital,” J. Richardson, Handbook of Theory and

Research for the Sociology of Education (New York: Greenwood, 1986), pp. 47-51.
22 Lilia I Bartoleme, “Critical Pedagogy and Teacher Education: Radicalizing

Prospective Teachers,” Teacher Education Quarterly, Winter (2004), p. 97.

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Therefore, there should be change proposed to the existing

pedagogy in the Islamic teacher education by promoting critical
pedagogy approach. Through this approach, students would be invited
to ponder upon their future teaching assumptions, values, beliefs and
philosophies, and how these would influence their teaching practices.
Through this as well, they would develop critical thinking of society as
a whole and work on promoting social inequalities.

The Proposed Model

Critical pedagody is best defined by McKernan in which “Critical
pedagogy is a movement involving relationships of teaching and
learning so that students gain a critical selfconsciousness and social
awareness and take appropriate actionagainst oppressive forces.” 23
Critical pedagogy was first attributed to Paulo Friere,24 particularly in
his work “Pedagogy of the Oppressed”, in which he criticized teaching
approaches that maintain the status quo and fail to empower pupils to
have critical thinking and awareness of social issues and injustices.
Education in this way is like a banking process (“banking education”),
depositing knowledge into passive students. Critical pedagogy,
therefore, wants to challenge and change structural and cultural
inequalities in school, respects differences and promotes equalities,
incorporates a moral vision to un-oppress the oppressed, and to
question one-self and one’s society. By doing so, school eventually may
become a place for promoting social equality and justice in society
increasingly marked by diversity.
Critical pedagogues develop five steps of the critical praxis
employed in teaching practices which should engage both teachers and
students. The five stages include: identifying a problem, analyzing the
problem, creating a plan of action to address the problem, implement
the plan of action, and analyzing and evaluating the action. In
classroom, this critical praxis mandates that its instruction should be
developed on the existing knowledge of students and should utilize it
for benefit of current learning. In essence, students construct their
own knowledge and awareness through meaningfully challenging

23 James McKernan, “The Origins of Critical Theory in Education: Fabian Socialism

as Social Reconstructionism in Nineteenth-Century Britain,” British Journal of
Educational Studies, 61, 4 (2013), p. 425.
24 Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York and London: Continuum, 1970), p.

25.

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interactions with society in order to solve problems of inequalities.

This strongly indicates that classroom and society are closely
connected, teachers are critically aware of both dominating and
oppressed cultures in both places, and engage students in
corresponding activities.
Diagram 1. The Critical Pedagogy Model for Islamic Teacher Education

Changes in Pre- Changes in Teaching

Conditions Approaches

PD for
Philosophical Contextual Lecturers
Foundation Approach

Curricular Changes Cultural

Awareness
Structural Changes
Respectful to
Diversity and Supervision
Social Justice and
Evaluation
Challenge to
Domination and
Social Injustice

As Diagram 1 suggests, the model starts with a very fundamental

aspect of education, i.e. changes in teaching philosophical foundations.
Teaching philosophy of student teachers need to be oriented to
support critical pedagogy, which is not at all the process of knowledge
transfer like in the traditional mode of instruction. It is a process by
which students construct knowledge by utilizing resources and existing
knowledge. Student teachers should understand well the principle of
constructivism theory as a basis for their teaching practices in
combination with a critical way to develop consciousness of social
realities. Traditional teaching philosophy which puts emphasis on
teacher-centered approaches is no longer appropriate as it stifles
students’ critical thinking capacity and imposes obedience and loyalty
to what they are limited to reason. So, the philosophy of teaching in
supporting critical pedagogy considers education as a process of
humanizing human beings.

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In the Islamic context, the change of teaching philosophy into a

more student-centered approach and critical pedagogy is not baseless.
The Qur‘a>n and the Sunnah have provided inspirations of how
education should liberate people from myths and other non-tawhidic
beliefs, how education enables people to independently think and
construct knowledge by pondering upon and researching nature and
realities, how education should develop awareness in people about
social justice, and so forth.25 Education in Islam is directed to create
an independent individual who will be responsible for his or her
actions not only in the world but also in hereafter. The relationship
between teacher and student in Islamic history which is often
described as refraining students from critical thinking because they are
instructed to obey whatever teachers command is not fully understood
correctly. In my view, such relationship does not prohibit students
from critically thinking or asking challenging questions, but is more
about respectful interactions from students to teachers. In the history
of Islamic learning, discussions and debates were used as part of the
constructive learning methods by Islamic scholars.26 Therefore, critical
pedagogy stands very strongly on the very basis of Islamic teachings
which suggest that education should lead to social transformation of
just and democratic society.
The change in philosophical foundations as indicated above should
lead to curricular changes. Curriculum of teacher education should be
developed and designed as a whole to promote independence, critical
thinking, respect for differences and social justice. In a simplistic way,
the curriculum should infuse several critical subjects such as social and
cultural theories, sociology and anthropology. As explained previously,
these subjects were actually part of the curriculum decades ago and
omitted for the sake of more behavioristic approaches the KBK27
curriculum adheres to. In its argument, the KBK curriculum should
outline students’ competencies that are empirically observable such as
teaching skills. Therefore, teaching of such critical subjects was not
recommended.

25 Syed Muhammad Naguib al-Attas, Aims and Objectives of Islamic Education (Jeddah:
King Abdulaziz University, 1979), pp. 2-10.
26 George Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West,

(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981), pp. 12-20.

27 KBK is the acronyme of Kurikulum Berbasis Kompetensi, Competences Based

Curriculum.

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In the Islamic education context, Quranic exegesis and the

prophet’s traditions should in a larger part include and explore that
Islam is a religion of justice, equality, and non-discrimination. Unlike
the current tendency of Indonesian Islam, 28 “positive and polite
faces” of Islam should color predominantly the content of the
curriculum, and minimize the use of historical excerpts that contains
violence. If stories of wars and battles are to be included, appropriate
contexts should be provided to enable students’ understanding that the
whole message of the Islamic religion is justice, peace and harmony.
Students need to be invited to ponder upon Islamic teachings through
prophetic stories about recognizing and respecting diversity, valuing
tolerance, and defending rights of people regardless of their majority
or minority status.
Organizational structure of teacher education should also reflect
the above changing teaching philosophy. Those who are in power
should develop vision and awareness of social justice education and
share this vision to others. Governance and management are to be
practiced with fully acknowledging equal opportunity of people of
different backgrounds. There should be discouragement from using
ethnocentrism in recruitments, evaluation and promotions.
Meritocracy is the norm of organization, but affirmative approaches to
empower powerless individuals or groups of people should also be
employed to ensure that there is no domination by those who feel to
have privileges because of group affiliations or numbers. Student
teachers should experience this just and fair context with full
comprehension that the structure is consciously designed for that
purpose. When appropriate, supporting policies should be issued to
redesign the desired structure.
The changes in the pre-conditions above should bring about
changes in teaching approaches in the teacher preparation program,
and thus, these approaches should be used first by lecturers in teaching
practices and second be practiced by student teachers. There are four
characteristics of teaching approaches that this model proposes. These
characteristics resemble the five stages of the critical praxis as
suggested in the critical pedagogy approach. First, teaching approaches

28Martin van Bruinessen (ed), Contemporary Developments in Indonesian Islam: Explaining

The ‘Conservative Turn’ (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2013); Greg
Fealy, A Conservative Turn www.insideindonesia.org/a-conservative-turn, p. 4.

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should be contextual. 29 This is commonly termed as a contextual

teaching and learning (CTL) approach which is defined as facilitating
students to make meaning of subjects being taught with the
connection with the real world, which does not always go without
problems including social injustices. Learning materials are not
designed in an ivory tower, but students need to construct knowledge
through experiencing learning processes that have useful relations with
real life applications. CTL will equip students with an ability to
critically analyze the contexts – identifying problems and finding
alternative solutions by utilizing contextually immediate resources.
CTL in many ways supports critical pedagogy.
Second, student teachers in this model are required to develop
awareness of cultural differences and their consequences on social
inequalities. They have to develop understanding and belief that no
one deserves different treatments that degrades their dignity as human
beings in the contexts of education and other because of coming from
different cultures. Teachers who have cultural awareness will
demonstrate eagerness to understand every student’s ethnic and
religious backgrounds, care about their cultural, emotional, and
intellectual needs.30 So, having cultural awareness does not only mean
to understand that there are differences in culture, but beyond that,
requires pro-active engagement by teachers to understand cultural
distinctiveness of every student and take actions correspondingly by
ensuring that one’s culture is equally respected and recognized
Third, pertinent to the cultural awareness, in teaching practices,
student teachers are trained to respect students’ diversity and to
promote social justice. Every pupil is unique and autonomous,31 and
therefore construct diversity. In the constructivism theory, every child
brings a set of potentials, capacity and information by which she or he
uses to understand lessons taught in school or to construct new
29 Robert G. Berns and Patricia M. Erickson, “Contextual Teaching and Learning:
Preparing Students for the New Economy,” The Highlight Zone: Research & Work, 5
(2001), pp. 2-9.
30 James A Banks, “Multicultural Education: Characteristics and Goals,” James A

Banks and Cherry A. McGee Banks (eds), Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives
(New Jersey: Wiley, 2010), pp. 5-10; James A Banks (ed.), The Routledge International
Companion to Multicultural Education (New York and London: Routledge Taylor &
Francis Group, 2011).
31 George E. Hein, “Constructivist Learning Theory,” The Museum and the Needs of

People (Jerussalem: CECA Conference, 1991), p. 3.

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knowledge. Child’s uniqueness come from birth, culture, parents’

economics backgrounds, social networks and so forth. Teachers who
have developed this ability to respect to these embedded characteristics
of students will serve as facilitators to provide an ample opportunity to
develop their potentials. They will strive to appropriate teaching
strategies to such individual characteristics.
Therefore, student teachers who experience a learning process in
the teacher education context should be exposed to the importance of
social justice and different ways of promoting it. In the Indonesian
context, examples of how people struggle to receive just treatment by
the state are not a few. Both immediate and broader context of society
where student teachers live expose them to various events of social
injustice. Hartanto, Nadia & Septiati recorded several cases of how
poor people experienced injustice before the law.32 For example, a
grandmother in Banyumas was sentenced to 1.5 years because of
stealing cocoa fruits the value of which is no more than Rp. 10,000. In
their works on education and health services in Indonesia, Blunt,
Turner & Lindroth found that patronage in varying degrees
contributed to the enactment of corrupted service deliveries and,
hence, perpetuated social injustice.33 Just to mention an example of
their findings, staff promotion will not go smoothly without patronage
in one or more various forms such as having a good relationship with
superior or in some cases paying bribery for approaching someone
who can provide assistance for promotion. All of these examples
should be brought to classroom of teacher education to enable
students to ponder upon problems arising in their society and
alternative solutions.
Fourth, after being exposed to events of injustice, student teachers
are invited to identify the problems and their roots or factors, which in
the practices of injustice and discrimination lay in the domination of
one group over another.34 Domination sources from various types of
32 Naomi Jesica Hartanto, Meta Nadia and Lusi Septiani, “The Realization of Social
Justice for Underprivileged People in Legal Philosophy,” Legal Spirit, 2, 2 (2018), p. 5.
33 Peter Blunt, Mark Turner and Henrik Lindroth, “Patronage, Service Delivery, and

Social Justice in Indonesia,” International Journal of Public Administration, 35, 3 (2012), pp.
214-220.
34 Joan G. DeJaeghere, “Critical Citizenship Education for Multicultural Societies,”

Interamerican Journal of Education for Democracy, 2, 2 (2009), pp. 223-236; Mehdi Shokouhi
and Farnaz Pashaie, “Critical Pedagogy and Its Realization in Classroom Context,”
Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2, 3 (2015), pp. 204-210.

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privileges acquired by or given to the dominant group, and this may

come from the majority status, wealth, and traditional powers. In
practice, student teachers invite students to analyze social problems by
identifying factors contributing to the problems and developing action
plans for solving the problems. Many students are simply not aware of
social realities due to myopic attitudes as they are not aroused by the
lecturers about the realities and not given tools to see the phenomena
differently. However, challenging domination can be uneasy or
uncomfortable for many people particularly those who have enjoyed
the privileges. Therefore, the success really depends on the ways
teachers set strategies in order to minimize resistances and discomfort
by the traditionally dominant groups.
In many contexts, domination often manifests in the complex
majority-minority relationship. Majority tends to have more privileges
in terms of access to social justice than minority does. In a democratic
system, majority often has the power to decide on rules and regulations
that dictate and bind all members of society. If this power is not used
with care and respect towards minority, suppression and discrimination
may happen since minority does not have the power to balance the
majority’s aspiration. However, majority does not necessarily mean
numbers. Quantitative majority, in some contexts, may not have the
power even in self-determination. For instance, in one context, a
Catholic school whose Catholic students and teachers are minority
made the Catholic religion class as compulsory on all students, the
majority of which are Protestants and Muslims. Non-Catholic students
had to attend prayers in the school Church.35
Through the examples of events of both social justice and
injustice student teachers in the context of Islamic teacher education
learn how and why injustice occurs in society. They will identify which
groups potentially dominate others and what factors interplay in the
events of domination. Under the guidance of lecturers, they should
develop ways to challenge such domination and anticipate possible and
potential consequences. They should also learn to develop counter-
narrations to what regularly presented to them in social media by the
dominating groups. In short, student teachers should be enabled to
defend the rights of marginalized people against oppression in order
to promote social justice.

35 Raihani, Creating Multicultural Citizens, pp. 117-120.

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It is important for both lecturers and students at the Islamic

teacher education context to understand well that in Islam, justice is
one of the central themes mentioned in many verses of the Qur‘a>n
and the Prophet’s traditions. Among the verses is “Indeed, We sent
Our Messengers with clear proofs and revealed with them the
Scripture and the Balance (justice) that mankind may keep up.”36 The
Prophet Muhammad also included a just ruler as one of the seven
categories of people whom God will shelter under His shade on the
Day of Judgement. The concept of justice in Islam should be
understood in the context of the Muslim community Islam has aspired
for—a community in which the members submit themselves to the
will of Allah. John L. Esposito37 explains, “The Qur‘a>n envisions a
society based on the unity and equality of believers, a society in which
moral and social justice will counterbalance oppression of the weak
and economic exploitation”. The earth belongs ultimately to Allah,
who granted human beings a responsibility to take care of it. Islam
acknowledges individual rights and possessions, but all are restricted by
laws to ensure equal distribution to every member of its society.
Modern sociologists identify three types of justice—distributive,
cultural, and associational. Distributive justice will only be possible
only if the absence of exploitation, marginalization, and deprivation
can be ensured. Cultural justice occurs when every culture in society is
valued and recognized to the extent that there is no cultural
domination and no disrespect to any culture. Associational justice is
seen as: “the absence of patterns of association amongst individuals
and amongst groups which prevent some people from participating
fully in decisions which affect the conditions within which they live
and act.”38 These three types of justice cover issues that may arise
amongst those who are dissatisfied with a broad range of social
conditions, including economic, cultural, and political conditions, and
relations amongst individuals as well as between groups. Thus, these

36 Muhammad Tajuddin Al-Hilali and Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Interpretation of the

Meanings of the Noble Qur‘a>n in the English Language (Riyadh: Maktabah Dar-us Salam,
1994), p. 743; QS 57:25
37 John L. Esposito, Islam the Straight Path (New York and Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1998), p. 29.

38 S. Power and Sharon Gewirtz, “Reading Education Action Zones,” Journal of

Education Policy, 16, 1 (2001), p. 41.

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three types of social justice are concerned not only with individuals in
society but also with groups and their relations with others.
To support the changes to happen as expected above, this model
suggests two inseparable supporting programs to Islamic teacher
education, namely: professional development of the lecturers and
evaluation and supervision of their teaching practices. Not every
lecturer understands critical pedagogy. Therefore, seminars and
workshops on how to use critical pedagogy in their teaching practices
are of urgency. Also, efforts to enable lecturers to sharpen their social
analysis to provide solutions to problems should be done. Inseparably,
evaluation and supervision system should be in place to ensure that
lecturers’ teaching processes effectively use a critical pedagogy
approach, and if not, the system will be able to detect problems and
inform alternative solutions to improve teaching practices.

Conclusion
The above model is an impetus of a potential future model
proposed to equip student teachers with critical ability to later in their
workplaces become effective agents for social justice through teaching
processes in the context of Islamic education. The model resembles
the aspiration of moving out from traditional teaching practices which
tend to reproduce inequalities to critical pedagogy that promotes social
justice. It connects classroom with social realities and problems, and
mandates both teachers and students to critically think beyond
classroom and to be actively engaged with actions in minimizing
inequalities and injustice in their immediate and broader society. It
invites both of them to challenge domination of certain groups over
others. However, one limitation of this model is that it has not been
tested empirically through a proper research and development
approach, but it serves as a useful trigger for further development.
Keeping the limitation in mind, the proposed model can serve as
one of the strategies by the government particularly the Ministry of
Religious Affairs in mainstreaming Islamic moderation in education.
Islamic moderation is a way of thinking, attitude and behavior to place
the self in the middle of two extremes and hold justice. It rejects the
idea of domination of one to another as everyone is equal before God.
Islamic moderation commands respect and recognition of differences
since the Qur‘a>n informed that diversity is the will of Allah. So, the
model can help the moderation process in the context of education.

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Islamic moderation will not be fruitful if teaching practices in Islamic

education remain unchanged and supportive to the majority
domination. Therefore, the Ministry should consider adoption and
adaptation of a critical pedagogy approach in the curriculum of
institutions from lower to higher education.
It can be expected that two types of challenges can be a hindrance
to successful implementation, namely: ideological and technical. Some
lecturers and student teachers or even faculty leaders may challenge the
application of the model on the basis of Islamic ideology by accusing
that the model is a strategy to weaken Islam and Muslims. They believe
that Islam should be dominating as no other faith is above it. I have
often encountered this group of people in my classes, and they can be
many. The way to face with this group is to use the supports of Islamic
teaching to counter their arguments. In fact, Islam in its moderate
interpretation upholds very highly justice and commands its people to
do justice even to non-Muslims. As argued above, the critical pedagogy
is strongly based in Islam, and it is the lecturers or advocates to dig and
deepen understanding of its teachings and use them to convince
others.
With technical challenges, the way to overcome is to develop
workshops and trainings so that all relevant stakeholders get used to
and have the capacity to be actively engaged in the model application.
The process will follow through the logics of change, i.e. initiation,
implementation and institutionalization. In short, challenges are real
and it will take time to successfully implement the model and see it
fruitful. In a long run, through an appropriate pedagogical approach,
Indonesian Islamic education would be able to bring about changes to
advocate social justice in society, and become an excellent model in the
global context. []

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